Math AAHL - Rubric Based Assessment 1 Siddharth Singh

1: An Introduction to Sequences
Life is full of patterns with subtle connections and intricate interrelations present almost everywhere, even if
we notice them or not. Almost nothing which occurs happens randomly. There is almost always an order to
the madness, however small or insignificant it may be. Everything from the decay rate of radioactive atoms
to the growth rate of tumor cells has a fixed pattern associated with it, which an almost preset or defined
order to it. In the world of mathematics and numbers, these ordered patterns are calculable and are known as
sequences. Thus -
1.1: Definition 1
A sequence is a list of numbers that is written in a defined or special order, in an ascending or descending
pattern, following a specific rule. Each of the numbers making up a sequence is called a term of that
sequence. a sequence is formally defined as a function whose domain is an interval of integers. Sometimes a
sequence is also referred to as a progression.
Even among sequences various types of sequences exist 2-
• Arithmetic sequence: In an arithmetic (linear) sequence the difference between any two
consecutive terms is constant.
Example 1. 2,4,6,8,10…
• Quadratic Sequence: A quadratic sequence is a sequence of numbers in which the second
difference between any two consecutive terms is constant.
Example 2. 2,9,18,29,42…
• Geometric Sequence: A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers where each term after the
first is found by multiplying the previous one by a fixed, non-zero number called the common ratio.
Example 3. 2,4,8,16,32…
• Harmonic Sequence: A harmonic progression is a sequence of real numbers formed by taking the
reciprocals of an arithmetic progression. Equivalently, it is a sequence of real numbers such that any
term in the sequence is the harmonic mean of its two neighbours.
1 1 1 1
Example 4. 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 …

1.2: Representation of a sequence 3

Sequences are portrayed in multiple ways depending on the purpose they fill-
1. Listing of the terms: 1,3,5,7,9…
2. Using words: “The sequence starts at 3, and increases by 1 each time.”
3. Closed or Explicit Formula: A closed formula for a sequence (𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 )𝑛𝑛∈ℕ is a formula for 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 using a
fixed finite number of operations on 𝑛𝑛. This is what you normally think of as a formula in 𝑛𝑛, just as
if you were defining a function in terms of 𝑛𝑛 (because that is exactly what you are doing).
Examples-
• 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛2
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛+1)
• 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 =
2
Even under explicit definitions, there are arithmetic and geometric definitions for different
sequences-
• Arithmetic Sequences-

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Mathematics - Core Topics HL 1 - Haese 2019
2
https://www.toppr.com/guides/maths/sequences-and-Series/introduction-to-sequences-and-series/
3
http://discrete.openmathbooks.org/dmoi3/sec_seq_intro.html

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Math AAHL - Rubric Based Assessment 1 Siddharth Singh

In an arithmetic sequence, each term is equal to the previous term, plus (or minus) a constant.
The constant is called the common difference (d). The formula for finding any term of an
arithmetic sequence is 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎1 + (𝑛𝑛 − 1)𝑑𝑑 where 𝑎𝑎 is the first term of the sequence, d is the
common difference, and n is the number of the term to find.
• Geometric Sequences-
In a geometric sequence, each term is equal to the previous term, multiplied (or divided by) a
constant. The constant is called the common ratio (r).To find the common ratio, divide the
second term by the first term. To find any term of a geometric sequence, use 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−1
where 𝑎𝑎 is the first term of the sequence, r is the common ratio, and n is the number of the
term to find.
4. Recursive definition: A recursive definition (sometimes called an inductive definition) for a
sequence (𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 )𝑛𝑛∈ℕ consists of a recurrence relation: an equation relating a term of the sequence to
previous terms (terms with smaller index) and an initial condition: a list of a few terms of the
sequence (one less than the number of terms in the recurrence relation).
Examples-
• 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 + 3𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−2 with 𝑎𝑎0 = 1 and 𝑎𝑎1 = 3
• 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 + 5 with 𝑎𝑎0 = 27

2: The Fibonacci Sequence 4

The Fibonacci sequence is one of the most famous formulas in mathematics.
Each number in the sequence is the sum of the two numbers that precede it. So, the sequence goes: 0, 1, 1, 2,
3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so on. The mathematical equation describing it is 𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛 = 𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛−2 .
A mainstay of high-school and undergraduate classes, it's been called "nature's secret code," and "nature's
universal rule." It is said to govern the dimensions of everything from the Great Pyramid at Giza, to the
nautilus seashell.
2.1: Recursion Relations 5
A recursive definition is actually a definition when there is one and only one object satisfying it, i.e., when
the equations involved in that definition have a unique solution. Also, the solution to those equations may
provide a closed-form (explicit) formula for the object defined.
The recursive step in a recursive definition is also called a recurrence relation. We will focus on kth-order
linear recurrence relations, which are of the form,
𝐶𝐶0 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 + 𝐶𝐶0 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝐶𝐶0 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−2 +. . . +𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−𝑘𝑘 = 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛
,where 𝐶𝐶0 ≠ 0. If 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 = 0 the recurrence relation is called homogeneous. Otherwise it is called non-
homogeneous. The basis of the recursive definition is also called initial conditions of the recurrence. So, for
instance, we have had a lot of snow this season. In the spring, this snow melts, and we have a lot of water.
Let's say the amount of water today is un gallons.
Also, let's say un depends on un-1. The n - 1 means at an earlier time, like the day before. For example,
un = 2un-1 means the amount of water today is twice the amount of water yesterday. This may or not be
realistic. But if it were, and if the amount of water at the start was 1 gallon, we could write the following:

𝑢𝑢1 = 2𝑢𝑢0
=2×1
=2
This is a recurrence relation. We predict or estimate the present value of something based on the value at
an earlier time. For this to work, we need the value at the start. The start value is the value uo.

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https://www.livescience.com/37470-fibonacci-sequence.html
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http://math.northwestern.edu/~mlerma/courses/cs310-04w/notes/dm-recurrences.pdf

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Math AAHL - Rubric Based Assessment 1 Siddharth Singh

Let's continue with this idea of recurrence. In this example, for day 2 we can write

𝑢𝑢2 = 2𝑢𝑢1
= 2×2
=4
Thus we get a sequence of numbers: 1, 2, 4, 8, …
One way to solve some recurrence relations is by iteration, i.e., by using the recurrence repeatedly until
obtaining a explicit close-form formula. For instance consider the following recurrence relation: 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 =
𝑟𝑟𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 (𝑛𝑛 > 0); 𝑥𝑥0 = 𝐴𝐴. By using the recurrence repeatedly we get: 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 = 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−2 = 𝑟𝑟 3 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−3 =
. . . = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥0 = 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 , hence the solution is 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 . In the following we assume that the coefficients C0, C1, .
. . , Ck are constant.
First-Order Recurrence Relation:
In general, if xn = rxn - 1 + c, we call this a first-order recurrence relation. By first-order, we mean that we
are looking back only one unit in time to xn-1. The coefficients r and c are constants. The example stated
above is a first order recurrence relation. The Tower of Hanoi problem is another example of a first order
relation.
The homogeneous case can be written in the following way: 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 (𝑛𝑛 > 0); 𝑥𝑥0 = 𝐴𝐴. Its general
solution is 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 , which is a geometric sequence with ratio r.
The non-homogeneous case can be written in the following way: 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 + c𝑛𝑛 (𝑛𝑛 > 0); 𝑥𝑥0 = 𝐴𝐴.
Second-Order Recurrence Relation:
A second-order linear homogeneous recurrence relation with constant coefficients is a recurrence relation of
the form xn = Axn - 1 + Bxn - 2 for all integers n ≥ some fixed integer, where A and B are fixed real numbers
with B≠0. The Fibonacci sequence is a classic example of a second order recurrence relation. 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 =
2𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 + 3𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−2 with 𝑎𝑎0 = 1 and 𝑎𝑎1 = 3 is another such example.

Now we look at the recurrence 𝐶𝐶0 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 + 𝐶𝐶1 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝐶𝐶2 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−2 = 0. First we will look for solutions of the form
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 . By plugging in the equation we get: 𝐶𝐶0 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 + 𝐶𝐶1 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝐶𝐶2 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−2 = 0 , hence r must be a
solution of the following equation, called the characteristic equation of the recurrence: 𝐶𝐶0 𝑟𝑟2 + 𝐶𝐶1 𝑟𝑟 + 𝐶𝐶2 = 0.
Let r1, r2 be the two (in general complex) roots of the above equation. They are called characteristic roots.
We distinguish three cases:
1. Distinct Real Roots. In this case the general solution of the recurrence relation is 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑐𝑐1 𝑟𝑟1 𝑛𝑛 +
𝑐𝑐2 𝑟𝑟2 𝑛𝑛 , where c1, c2 are arbitrary constants.
2. Double Real Root. If r1 = r2 = r, the general solution of the recurrence relation is 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑐𝑐1 r 𝑛𝑛 +
𝑐𝑐2 𝑛𝑛r 𝑛𝑛 , where c1, c2 are arbitrary constants.
3. Complex Roots. In this case the solution could be expressed in the same way as in the case of distinct
real roots, but in order to avoid the use of complex numbers we write 𝑟𝑟1 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 α𝑖𝑖 , 𝑟𝑟2 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 −α𝑖𝑖 , 𝑘𝑘1 =
𝑐𝑐1 + 𝑐𝑐2 , 𝑘𝑘2 = (𝑐𝑐1 − 𝑐𝑐2 )𝑖𝑖, which yields: 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘1 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑛α + 𝑘𝑘2 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑛α. (Since 𝑒𝑒 α𝑖𝑖 = cosα +
𝑖𝑖sinα)

2.2: Pattern of the Fibonacci Sequence 6

The famous Fibonacci sequence is a recursive sequence because each term after the second term is the sum
of the previous two terms. Our first two terms are 0 and 1. The third term is the previous two terms added
together, or 0+1=1. The next term is the addition of the two prior terms, or 1+1=2. And this pattern
continues indefinitely. While some forms of the Fibonacci sequence begin with 1, it can very well also begin

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https://study.com/academy/lesson/recursive-sequence-formula-lesson-
quiz.html#targetText=Recursive%20sequences%20are%20sequences%20or,of%20the%20two%20previous%20terms

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Math AAHL - Rubric Based Assessment 1 Siddharth Singh

with 0 and it is just a matter of convenience to decide between the two forms. We will consider the form
where F0 = 0 and F1 = 1. Thus the sequence looks something like this-
0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,35…
If the Fibonacci sequence was to be expressed in the form of a recursive sequence formula we would get
something like this-
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−2 + 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1
Where 𝑥𝑥0 = 0 and 𝑥𝑥1 = 1
Each term is labelled as the lower case letter x with a subscript denoting which number in the sequence the
term is. Lower case 𝑥𝑥0 is the first number in the sequence. Lower case 𝑥𝑥1 is the second number in the
sequence and so on.
2.3: First 50 terms of the Fibonacci Sequence
Taking the recursive definition we explained in section 2.2 we can generate the first 50 terms of the
Fibonacci sequence by plugging the formula in the formula bar of Microsoft Excel®-
Serial Number Fibonacci Sequence
0 0
1 1
2 1
3 2
4 3
5 5
6 8
7 13
8 21
9 34
10 55
11 89
12 144
13 233
14 377
15 610
16 987
17 1597
18 2584
19 4181
20 6765
21 10946
22 17711
23 28657
24 46368
25 75025
26 121393
27 196418
28 317811
29 514229
30 832040
31 1346269
32 2178309
33 3524578
34 5702887
35 9227465
36 14930352
37 24157817

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Math AAHL - Rubric Based Assessment 1 Siddharth Singh
38 39088169
39 63245986
40 102334155
41 165580141
42 267914296
43 433494437
44 701408733
45 1134903170
46 1836311903
47 2971215073
48 4807526976
49 7778742049
50 12586269025
Table 1: The first 50 terms of the Fibonacci Sequence

The above Table 1 was generated by simply defining the first two numbers of the sequence which are 0 and
1, contained in cells B2 and B3 and then using our recurrence relation in the
formula bar for the third value, contained in cell B4, which is simply the addition
of the previous two cells, which is known as relative referencing. This formula
was then applied to all successive cells all the way up to Serial Number 50 thus generating our table.
2.3: Binet’s Formula 78
The explicit formula to find the nth form of the equation is usually called Binet’s formula, although Binet
probably was not the first to figure out the formula. The first person to discover the relation may have been
Euler, but it’s hard to know for sure. Both Euler and Binet are famous mathematicians, and while the
formula looks extremely complicated, in reality its derivation is actually quite understandable.
As discussed earlier the Fibonacci sequence which is the sequence 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13… follows a recurrence
relation of the form-
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−2

Similarly as discussed, such iterative relations can be

explicitly solved in the form 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 . This explicit Fibonacci Sequence
60 First 10 values
formula can also be guessed at as when plotted, the
Fibonacci sequence follows a more or less 50
exponential path. Thus it further strengthens the
40
cause for the use of the explicit form 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛
which is exponential in nature. 30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Thus by plugging it into the relational equation we derived, we get-

𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 = 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−2
This always simplifies to an equation that has the same coefficients as the relational equation. Thus in this
case we get the characteristic equation of recurrence which is-
𝑟𝑟 2 = 𝑟𝑟 + 1
To use this quadratic formula, we move the terms to the left side, and get 𝑟𝑟 2 − 𝑟𝑟 − 1 = 0. This makes a = 1,
b = −1, and c = −1, so the quadratic formula gives us two solutions-

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZiGW6PbB8wA
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https://www.quora.com/How-do-you-derive-the-formula-for-the-nth-Fibonacci-number/answer/Trevor-
Cheung?ch=3&share=983da24a&srid=Su8D

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Math AAHL - Rubric Based Assessment 1 Siddharth Singh
2 2
−𝑏𝑏 ± √𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 −(−1) ± �(−1)2 − 4(1)(− 1) 1 ± √1 + 4 1 ± √5
𝑟𝑟 = = = =
2𝑎𝑎 2(1) 2 2
1 + √5 1 − √5
Thus let’s assume r1 as and r2 as which are the characteristic roots of the equation. Since we get 2
2 2
distinct real roots for our equation, the general form of the sequence becomes-
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑐𝑐1 𝑟𝑟1 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑟𝑟2 𝑛𝑛
Where 𝑐𝑐1 and 𝑐𝑐2 are arbitrary constants, according to the relation we found in section 2.1. By replacing the
values for 𝑟𝑟1 and 𝑟𝑟2 we get the equation-
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
1 + √5 1 − √5
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑐𝑐1 � � + 𝑐𝑐2 � �
2 2

The classic definition of the Fibonacci sequence has the first to values as 0 and 1, at n = 0 and n = 1. Thus
we get two equations-
0 0 1 1
1+√5 1−√5 1+√5 1−√5
① 𝑥𝑥0 = 𝑐𝑐1 � � + 𝑐𝑐2 � � and ② 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑐𝑐1 � � + 𝑐𝑐2 � �
2 2 2 2

1+�5 1−�5
Which simplifies to ① 0 = 𝑐𝑐1 + 𝑐𝑐2 and ② 1 = 𝑐𝑐1 � 2 � + 𝑐𝑐2 � 2 �

From the equation ① we can see that 𝑐𝑐2 = −𝑐𝑐1 which when plugged into equation ② we get-

1 + √5 1 − √5
1 = 𝑐𝑐1 �� �−� ��
2 2

1 + √5 − �1 − √5�
1 = 𝑐𝑐1 � �
2

2√5
1 = 𝑐𝑐1 � �
2
1
𝑐𝑐1 =
√5
1
Thus by using 𝑐𝑐1we can easily find 𝑐𝑐2 which is − . This when plugged into our original general form of the
√5
equation gives us the formula-
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
11 + √5 1 1 − √5
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = � � − � �
√5 2 √5 2

This simplified gives us the final equation which is-

𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
1 1 + √5 1 − √5
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = �� � −� � �
√5 2 2

This equation we derived for the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence is none other than Binet’s formula.
To prove this explicit equation works, we can generate the first 10 values of the Fibonacci sequence using
the formula.
Serial Number Fibonacci Sequence
0 0
1 1
2 1

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Math AAHL - Rubric Based Assessment 1 Siddharth Singh
3 2
4 3
5 5
6 8
7 13
8 21
9 34
10 55
Table 2: First 10 values of Fibonacci sequence generated using Binet's formula

The above Table 2 was generated by using the explicit formula (Binet’s formula) we derived and by
plugging it into the formula bar of Microsoft Excel®, which used the serial numbers in the left column to
substitute the index numbers of the sequence formula. This formula was then applied to all successive cells
all the way up to Serial Number 10 thus generating our table. The example formula below used shows the
explicit formula as an excel formula using the first cell in the serial numbers column which is A2 containing
0 to find the first value in the
Fibonacci sequence.

3: The Fibonacci Sequence and The Golden Ratio

3.1: The relation between The Fibonacci Sequence and The Golden Ratio 9
When looking at the ratio between any two consecutive
numbers of the Fibonacci sequence, a peculiar phenomena
is observed. As the index number of the sequence
increases, the ratio between the Fibonacci number at that
index and the number directly before it, slowly stabilises at
a constant value, give or take an extremely small number
which is insignificant. This can be better seen in a
graphical form which when plotted gives us the following
graph-

The number at which the ratio stabilises is none other than the golden ration with an approximate value of
1.61803. Thus it can be seen that as x approaches infinity, y approaches the modal golden ratio.
This relation can be further proved algebraically. As we have concluded, once the Fibonacci sequence grows
large enough, the ratio between two successive numbers stabilises. Hence once approaching the limit, it
should not matter which two terms are taken. It can be thus concluded-
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1
= =Δ
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−2
Where Δ is the constant at which the ratio stabilises. We also know that in the Fibonacci sequence
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−2. Hence by plugging this in we get-

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dTWKKvlZB08
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Math AAHL - Rubric Based Assessment 1 Siddharth Singh
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−2 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1
= =Δ
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−2
On simplifying this we get-
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−2 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1
1+ = =Δ
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−2
𝑥𝑥
Since 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 = Δ, we get a new equation which is-
𝑛𝑛−2

1
=Δ 1+
Δ
Which when simplified by multiplying by Δ on both sides gives us a quadratic equation of the form-
Δ2 − Δ − 1 = 0

This makes a = 1, b = −1, and c = −1, so the quadratic formula gives us two solutions-
2
−𝑏𝑏 ± �𝑏𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 −(−1) ± �(−1)2 − 4(1)(− 1) 1 ± √1 + 4 1 ± √5
2

Δ= = = =
2𝑎𝑎 2(1) 2 2
1 + √5 1 − √5
Thus the roots of the equation are , which is none other than phi (Φ) or the golden ratio, and ,
2 2
which is none other than the negative inverse of phi. Thus in this manner we can see a direct correlation
between the golden ratio and the Fibonacci sequence.
3.2: The Golden Ratio in real life and nature 1011
The human face is based on Phi and Golden Ratio proportions.
The human face abounds with examples of the Golden Ratio, also known
as the Golden Section or Divine Proportion. We’ll use a succession of
golden ratios to create a golden ruler to understand design in the face:
When viewed from the side, the human head illustrates the Divine Proportion.
The first golden section (blue) from the front of the head defines the position
of the ear opening. The successive golden sections define the neck (yellow),
the back of the eye (green) and the front of the eye and back of the nose and
mouth (magenta). The dimensions of the face from top to bottom also exhibit
the Divine Proportion, in the positions of the eye brow (blue), nose (yellow)
and mouth (green and magenta).

In the photo below, note the following golden ratio proportions that appear throughout the human face using
the golden ruler above.
• The blue line defines a perfect square of the pupils and outside corners of the mouth.
• The golden section of these four blue lines defines the nose, the tip of the nose, the inside of the
nostrils, the two rises of the upper lip and the inner points of the ear.
• The blue line also defines the distance from the upper lip to the bottom of the chin.

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https://www.goldennumber.net/face/
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https://www.goldennumber.net/solar-system/
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Math AAHL - Rubric Based Assessment 1 Siddharth Singh
• The yellow line, a golden section of the blue line, defines the
width of the nose, the distance between the eyes and eye brows
and the distance from the pupils to the tip of the nose.
• The green line, a golden section of the yellow line defines the
width of the eye, the distance at the pupil from the eye lash to the
eye brow and the distance between the nostrils.
• The magenta line, a golden section of the green line, defines the
distance from the upper lip to the bottom of the nose and several
dimensions of the eye.
The dimensions of the Earth and Moon are in Phi relationship, forming a
Triangle based on 1.618.
The illustration shows the relative sizes of the Earth and the Moon to
scale.
• Draw a radius of the Earth (1).
• Draw a line from the center point of the Earth to the center point of the
Moon (square root of Phi).
• Draw a line to connect the two lines to form a Golden Triangle (Phi).

Using dimensions from Wikipedia and geometry’s classic Pythagorean

Theorem, this is expressed mathematically as follows:
Dimension Proportion Mathematical
(km) (Earth=1) Expression

Radius of Earth 6,378.10 1.000 A

Radius of Moon 1,735.97 0.272
Earth + Moon 8,114.07 1.272 B
Hypotenuse 10,320.77 1.618 (Φ) C
Hypotenuse / 1.618 (Φ) A²+B²=C²
(Earth Radius +
Moon Radius)

Another way of looking at the relationship is to take 10320.77² / 8114.07², which is 106,518,293.39 /
65,838,131.96, which is 1.618.
This triangle is known as a Kepler triangle. This geometric construction is the same as that which appears to
have been used in the construction of the Great Pyramid of Egypt.

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Math AAHL - Rubric Based Assessment 1 Siddharth Singh
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3.3: The Fibonacci Sequence in real life and nature
The hidden Fibonacci spiral in sunflowers
The sunflower seed pattern contains many spirals. If you count the spirals in
a consistent manner, you will always find a Fibonacci number (0, 1, 1, 2, 3,
5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, …). Below are the three most natural ways to find spiral
in this pattern. Note that the black pattern is identical. Only the coloured lines
indicating the selected spirals are different

The red lines show 34 spirals of seeds. Choosing another slope, the green lines show 55 spirals of seeds.
And choosing a very shallow slope, the blue lines show 21 spirals of seeds. All these values are numbers
within the Fibonacci sequence. An explanation for this phenomena is the most efficient use of space for
maximum seeds in a sunflower.
The Human Body and its relation to Fibonacci numbers
The human body: Take a good look at yourself in the mirror. You'll notice that most of your body parts
follow the numbers one, two, three and five. You have one nose, two eyes, three segments to each limb and
five fingers on each hand. The proportions and measurements of the human body can also be divided up in
terms of the golden ratio. DNA molecules follow this sequence, measuring 34 angstroms long and 21
angstroms wide for each full cycle of the double helix.
The Fibonacci sequence in plants and branches
Some plants express the Fibonacci sequence in their growth points, the places where tree branches form or
split. One trunk grows until it produces a branch, resulting in two growth points. The main trunk then
produces another branch, resulting in three growth points. Then the trunk and the first branch produce two
more growth points, bringing the total to five. This pattern continues, following the Fibonacci numbers.
Additionally, if you count the number of petals on a flower, you'll often find the total to be one of the
numbers in the Fibonacci sequence. For example, lilies and irises have three petals, buttercups and wild
roses have five, delphiniums have eight petals and so on.

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https://momath.org/home/fibonacci-numbers-of-sunflower-seed-spirals/
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https://science.howstuffworks.com/math-concepts/fibonacci-nature1.htm
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