Chapter-8

• Role of Tyres in Vehicle Performance

Tire Anatomy
Cross section of a tire on a rim
 Tire Construction

• The radial tire casing is made up of a series of layers or plies,

the material of which may consist of polyester, rayon, or
fiberglass. The top layer consists of steel belts constructed of
woven strands of steel cord. Radial steel belts provide better
traction and protect against punctures.
 Tire Construction
• Bead or bead bundle is loop of high
strength steel cable coated with rubber
Gives the tire the strength to stay seated on the
wheel rim and to transfer the tire forces to the
rim
• Inner layers are made of different
fabrics, called plies common ply fabric is
polyester cord top layers are also called
cap plies
• Cap plies are polyesteric fabric help hold everything in place

• Belts or belt buffers are one or more rubber-coated layers of steel,

polyester, nylon, Kevlar or other materials running circumferentially around
the tire under the tread (reinforcement)
• Carcass or body plies are the main part in supporting the tension
forces generated by tire air pressure (rubber-coated steel or other high
strength cords tied to bead bundles)
 Tire Construction

• Sidewall provides lateral stability for the tire, protects the body plies

• Tread portion of the tire comes in contact with road

Tread designs vary widely depending on the specific purpose of the tire

• Tread groove is space or area between two tread rows or blocks

tread groove gives tire traction and especially useful during rain or snow
 Bias / Radial Ply Tire
• In the past, tires where
constructed with the cords at a 60
degree angle to the direction of
travel. They were called bias-ply
tires. In use, the bias-plys rubbed
against each other, resulting in
internal stress and heat

The radial tire, developed in 1946, is constructed

with the cords at a 90 degree angle to the direction
of travel. This reduces internal stress and allows the
tire tread to lay flat on the road, which provides
more traction and improved fuel efficiency
 Bias / Radial Ply Tire
A radial tire allows the sidewall and the
tread to function as two independent
features of the tire.
Sidewall flex is not transmitted to the
tread. The footprint only lengthens.
There is little transversal slip (What?).
The radial tire allows the machine to
transfer more power to the ground.
A bias tire consists of multiple rubber
plies over lapping each other. The crown
and sidewalls are interdependent.
The overlapped plies form a thick layer
that is less flexible and more sensitive to
overheating.
All sidewall flex is transmitted to the
tread. The footprint deforms and there is
an increase in tire slip.
The tire does not contact as much
ground as a radial tire, leading to a loss
of engine power transmission and
greater ground damage.
 Bias / Radial Ply Tire
Thanks to the flexibility and strength of Due to the stiffness of the tire, it does not
the tire, the tire absorbs shocks, impact absorb bumps on the ground. All impact
and bumps. The result is a better ride and shaking is felt by the driver and
and better operator comfort. machine.

Difference in the dynamics of radial and non-radial tires is their different ground
sticking behaviour when a lateral force is applied on the wheel
Tire Construction

Bias Play Tire

 Tire Construction

Tire Tread Design

• Tire tread pattern of block-groove configurations affect the tire’s traction
and noise level
• Asymmetrical and directional tread design

• Directional tire is designed to rotate in only one

direction for maximum performance

• Hydroplaning
 Tire Construction
Tire Tread Design
• The tire's tread design determines whether the tire will
provide a comfortable ride, good traction, and long tread
life. An all-season tread design provides a comfortable
ride, and good traction on wet or dry pavement. All-
season steel belted radial tires offer a good value.
• Computer design and laboratory testing results in a tread
design that provides a comfortable ride along with
superior handling and a better grip on the road. But these
high-performance tires cost much more.

• A snow tire tread design provides maximum traction

on snow. But you should use them only during the
winter months. If you run them on dry pavement
you'll experience a rougher ride, rapid tread wear, and
lower traction than all-season tires.
 Tire Construction
• Light truck tires provide a rougher ride but are designed
to support a higher load carrying capacity than passenger
car tires.
 Uniform Tire Quality Grade Labeling

• The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), which is

part of the Department of Transportation (DOT) requires that tire
manufacturers perform tests, and provide Uniform Tire Quality Grade
(UTQG) labeling on all tires sold in the United States.
• The UTQG labeling, which appears on the side of every tire, helps
consumers compare the specifications of tires. However, all testing is done
by the tire manufacturer, and independent testing by consumer organizations
has found that the label information is often inaccurate.
Uniform Tire Quality Grade Labeling
1. Size number.
2 .Maximum allowed inflation pressure.
3.Type of tire construction.
4. M&S denotes a tire for mud and snow.
5. E-Mark is the Europe type approval
mark and number.
6. US Department of Transport (DOT)
identification numbers.
7. Country of manufacture.
8. Manufacturers, brand name, or
commercial name.
 Tread-Wear Rating

• The UTQG tread wear rating compares a tire's tread life

with a reference tire that has a rating of 100. A tire with a
higher treadwear number should last longer. The ratings
are relative. For example, the tread on a tire with a tread
wear rating of 400 should last twice as long as the tread on
a tire with a rating of 200.
• The tread wear rating should help consumers compare the
tread life expectancy of tires. However, the ratings do not
guarantee tread life. Proper tire inflation, vehicle use,
driving habits, weather conditions, and road conditions all
affect tread wear.
 Traction Rating

• The UTQG traction rating is a measurement of a tire's ability to

stop on wet surfaces. Government guidelines specify the test
conditions, which is straight line braking on wet asphalt and
concrete. The tests don't involve cornering traction or traction
on ice, snow, or on dry road.
• Rating Meaning
• A-The tire performed well on wet asphalt and concrete.
• B-The tire performed well on either wet asphalt or wet
concrete, but not both.
• C-The tire performed poorly on both wet asphalt and wet
concrete.
 Speed Rating
• The speed rating specifies the maximum safe sustainable speed
that the tire can handle. You may not intend to drive at speeds
over 99 mph, but a high speed rating indicates that the tire has
solid construction and won't fly apart while you're driving at
express way speeds.
 Load index
The tire's load index number indicates its load carrying capacity,
the maximum weight each tire can safely handle. The higher the
number the greater the load carrying capacity.
 Temperature Resistance
• UTQG Temperature Resistance rating is a tire's resistance to
high temperature. When you're driving at high speed, perhaps
on a hot desert highway, a tire's temperature can rise to
unsafe levels.
• Rating Meaning
• A-The tire ran at 115 mph for 30 minutes without failing.
• B-The tire ran at 100 mph without failing, but not at 115
mph.
• C-The tire failed at 100 mph before running for 30
minutes.
• Excessive speed, underinflation and overloading can all cause
tire temperatures to rise to unsafe levels.
 Maximum Pressure

• The highest pressure in PSI (Pounds Per Square Inch) that

a tire should be inflated to. A lower pressure reduces the
load that the tire can safely carry. Too low a pressure
could cause the tire to separate from the rim, causing rapid
and catastrophic decompression.
• A higher pressure produces a rougher ride. Too high a
pressure could cause the tread to separate from the tire,
causing rapid and catastrophic decompression.
 Age of the Tire

• From the Serial Number or Identification Code stamped

on a tire, you can determine the year and the week of the
year that it was manufactured. Look for a designation
beginning with DOT. The week and year the tire was
manufactured is contained in the last four digits of the
number. Two digits identify the week a tire was
manufactured followed by two digits to identify the year.
• For example: DOT XXXXXXXX3307 XX was
manufactured during the 33rd week of the year 2007
 Brake Force Vs Slip
Slip due to Application of brakes
 Tire Friction Characteristics

• Slip Velocity
• The difference between the angular velocity of the
driven (braked) wheel and the angular velocity of the
free rolling wheel.
s    o
• Slip Ratio
• Slip ratio is defined as the slip velocity as a percentage
of the free rolling velocity.

  o 
SR   1
o o
 Tire Friction Characteristics
• Slip Ratio
• Slip ratio is defined as the slip velocity as a percentage
of the free rolling velocity.
rr  V   o 
SR    1
V o o
• Since
V
o  rr  tire rolling radius
rr
• then  rr
SR  1 @   0
V
 Tire Friction Characteristics

• Slip Ratio
• If spinning is arbitrarily assigned a slip ratio of 1 then at
spinning
 rr
SRsp  1 then, 2
V
• This implies the peripheral speed is twice that of the
free rolling tire and twice the forward velocity.

• The onset of spinning is usually much earlier

usually  0.10-0.15
 Tire Friction Characteristics

• Slip Ratio definitions re = effective rolling

– SAE J670 radius for free rolling
@=0
  re 
SR     1
 V Cos   = slip angle
Tire Slip Ratio (acceleration)
Tire Slip Ratio (braking)
 Slip Angle
• Slip angle is defined as the angle between the rotational plane
of the tire and the tire heading direction.

• Lateral loads on a tire introduce a slip angle.

Tire Heading
Direction

Tire Rotation
Plane

Slip Angle 
Lateral Force
 Tire Rolling Deformation

• If a side force operates on the tire, a lateral deformation appears

in the tire belt and its tread. Points on the running surface
experience the belt deformation before they make contact with the
road at which point the tire first attempts to maintain contact with
the road surface.
 Tire Rolling Deformation
1. This corresponds to a gradually increasing shear stress in lateral
direction. Once the adhesion limits are reached, the rubber will start
to slide relative to the road with a lateral motion, perpendicular to
the wheel plane. The asymmetry in the distribution of shear stress
causes the resulting force not to grip exactly in the middle of the
contact area just under the wheel centre. Rather there is a pneumatic
trail which, in combination with the side force, produces an
aligning torque which tries to push the tire in the direction of the
wheel speed.

2. The tangent of the slip angle between wheelplane and wheel speed,
denoted as side slip -sy :
sy = tan()
in conjunction with the wheel load and the camber angle, are decisive
for the side force and the aligning torque
 Tire Characteristics
• Analysis of the Slip Ratio and Lateral Force behavior at
given slip angles.

• At a given slip angle as the slip ratio increases the tires

capacity to support a lateral load diminishes.

• Peak tractive forces are present at slip ratios that differ

slightly between braking and forward traction.

• At any given slip ratio, the lateral force capacity

increases with increasing slip angles.
 Tire Characteristics

Braking and Tractive forces @ given Slip Angles vs. Slip Ratio
 Tire Characteristics

Slip Ratio vs. Lateral Force @ given Slip Angles

Lateral Force Capacity

Lateral Force vs. Slip Ratio

@ range of Slip Angles
(400 kg Normal Load)
Slip Angle vs Lateral Load

Goodyear
Eagle GT-S
Fz=1800 lb

Fig.2.7
p.25
Milliken
 Tire Cornering Stiffness

• Cornering stiffness is the change in lateral force per

unit slip angle change at a specified normal load in
the linear range of the tire.

d Fy
C 
d
Slip Angle vs Lateral Load

Fig.2.8 p.26
Milliken
Cornering Stiffness Comparison
Tire Lateral Force Plot
Tire Carpet Plot

Typical Tire @
Normal Inflation
Pressure
Slip Angle vs Lateral Force Coefficient
 Lateral Force Coefficient

• Lateral Force Coefficient is a normalized Tire Cornering

Stiffness (dimensionless) obtained by dividing the lateral
cornering force by the vertical load in the tire

Fy
Lateral Force Coefficient =
Fz
 Self-Aligning Torque
• Self-Aligning Torque is derived
from a combination of caster trail
and the tires own pneumatic trail.
• If the mechanical (caster) trail is
small the tires aligning torque
(Pneumatic Trail) will dominate
the steering effect.
• If Pneumatic trail effects
dominate the limits of traction
are more obvious to the driver
of the vehicle.
• Pneumatic trail is derived from the
shear force distribution in the tire
footprint.
Self-Aligning Torque

Pt A is
leading edge
Pt D is
trailing edge
of tire patch

t => trail
Self-Aligning Torque
Tire Self Aligning Torque
Tire Self Aligning Torque Carpet Plot

Typical Tire
Self-Aligning Torque
Tire Carpet Plot
 Camber Thrust

• Camber force is directed towards the direction the tire is inclined

• Camber stiffness
 Roll Steer

Taking a turn
 Friction Circle

Fig. 10.23 p. 364 Gillespie

Friction Circle
g-g Diagram
• Acceleration, Braking,
Cornering all 0.9 g
• It is not possible to achieve
0.9g in acceleration, at
lower gears higher
acceleration possible, at
higher gears engine power
becomes limiting factor,
Dotted circle is what we
want but what we can
achieve is solid line circle
• gg diagram represents
performance envelope of a
car
g-g Diagram

• Figure shows a
dramatic example of the
effect tires can have on
a car's overall
performance. It shows
how the grip of the tires
is a crucial factor in
performance, and what
you may be getting
when you pay that little
bit extra for high
performance tires.
g-g Diagram
• Figure presents a gg
Diagram displaying 8
minutes of recorded
accelerometer data
around Sandown Motor
Raceway. Data was
recorded at 10 samples
per second to generate the
trace shown. The car's
performance envelope is
also overlaid. Although
initially appearing as a
meaningless tangle of
lines, a number of
interesting things can be
read from this chart.
 g-g Diagram

• Point A is a small spike of forward acceleration above

what appears to be a fairly consistent horizontal
boundary. The recording of the acceleration data
commenced before the car began moving. This spike
represents the acceleration of the car away from rest.
Once moving, particularly around a high speed circuit
like Sandown, the car has less acceleration capability. It is
operating in a region where it cannot attain as high a
forward acceleration. This is the reason for the apparent
boundary of forward acceleration shown on the diagram.
 g-g Diagram
• Point B highlights that there is far more data displayed on the left
side of the GG Diagram than the right. This is not surprising as
Sandown is made up primarily of left hand corners, so a car will
spend much more time turning left than right. It is also apparent
that data occasionally appears beyond the curve defining the
performance envelope. The performance envelope indicates the
sustained capabilities of a vehicle. Dynamic manoevres can
exceed these capabilities, though only briefly
 g-g Diagram

• Point C indicates a spike arising from a dedicated maximum

braking maneuver, executed specifically to obtain an extreme
value on the GG Diagram for later analysis. It's interesting to
contemplate whether this is a point arising from a dynamic
maneuver, or a sustained deceleration point, or some combination
of both. The point itself peaked at a deceleration value of 1.25 G,
which is quite an impressive figure for a road car.
g-g diagram

Figure shows another gg

Diagram recorded at Sandown.
This shows a number of
similarities to previous Figure
and also a number of
interesting differences. This
diagram clearly indicates a very
useful aspect of the gg
Diagram; how it can display
where a driver or car can be
improved to better utilize the
capabilities available. Two
hatched area, labeled A,
indicate areas of the diagram
where very little of the
recorded data appears.
g-g diagram

So, what are these areas ? These represent a

region where the car would be braking into
a corner. One of the classic rules of high
performance driving is that one should
never brake and turn at the same time, yet
the GG Diagram is telling us to do just that.
This is one of the more fascinating features
of the gg Diagram. It leads us to re-evaluate
how to approach the task of driving rapidly.
It has resulted in two fundamentally
different approaches to driving being
proposed, which some have termed "The
European Method" and "The American
Method".
Application of g-g diagram
Application of g-g diagram
“g-g” Diagram