MODULE II.

The Philippines Society in Transition

After having gone through the chapter, the students will be able to:

a. Discuss the socio-political, and religious aspect of the Filipino people under different
historical timeline,
b. Evaluate and Analyze the historical impacts of colonialism in the development of the
Filipino culture and system of governance.

PRE- SPANISH PERIOD

Prior to the arrivals of the Spaniards, the early Filipinos had already developed their own
unique culture, beliefs, practices and civilization. Today, some of these beliefs and practices are
still being observed by some Filipinos.

SOCIAL CLASSES

The rest of Philippine society was divided into three classes:

The nobles, the freemen, and the dependents. Stratification of these social classes
was not absolute, for there existed no caste system. A noble could fall to the level of
slavery, while a slave could rise to freedom. In other words, there was a high level of
social mobility in early Philippine society.

a. The Noble- consisting of chief and their families, enjoyed great political and social
rights in the barangays. In the tagalog region, they usually carried the title of gat or
lakan.

b. The Freemen- they were next to the nobles, fondly called maharlika by the tagalog
and timawa by the Bisayans.

c. Dependents- they occupied the lowest strata. They were called Alipin by the Tagalog’s,
olipon by the Ilocanos.

Among the ancient Tagalogs, two kinds of dependents existed.

a. The aliping namamahay, who were essentially serfs rather than slaves because
they had theirr own property live in their houses, could marry without their masters
consent, and could not be sold.
 b. The aliping sagigilid, the real dependents or slaves who owned no property, lived
in their master’s houses, could not marry without their masters consent, and could be
sold anytime.
A dependent could emancipate himself/herself and become free through. By purchase,
marriage, and voluntary action of the master to liberate his slave

WOMEN’S POSITION IN EARLY SOCIETY

Women occupied a high position in early Philippine society, early laws and customs
recognized them as the equal of men. They could own and inherit property. They could engage in
trade and industry. They could inherit the chieftaincy and rule barangays if there were daughters
of datus with no sons. The prestigious position of the babaylan was often occupied by women.
There is a preponderance of priestesses based on the existence of local terms in various parts of
the country. They can demand that their husbands use penis pins or penis rings. The mother in
the family enjoyed the exclusive privilege of naming the children. As a sign of deep respect, the
men, when accompanying women, walked behind them.

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS

Generally a man belonging to one class married a woman of the same class. Nevertheless,
this custom was not rigid and it was possible for a noble to marry a dependent and a dependent to
marry outside his rank.

Except for muslims, the early Filipinos generally practiced monogamy. In certain cases,
however, men were allowed to have as many wives as they could support, but the first wife as
always considered the legitimate spouse.

Only the children of the wife were regarded legitimate and legal heirs, whereas the
children of other women were not considered as such and therefore, were barred from inheriting
any property.

Marriage was usually arranged by parents even during the young age of the boy and the
girl.

There were two prerequisites to marriage: the lover’s servitude to the girls family, and
second, the dowry, which was a sum of money, gold, property or anything of value given by the
man to the girls parents.

Divorce was resorted to in case of marital troubles. The grounds for divorce were.

a. Adultery on the part of the wife

b. Desertion on the part of the husband
 c. Loss of affection
d. Cruelty
e. Insanity
f. Childishness
g. Lack of sexual satisfactory
Any couple who divorced each other could remarry if they so decided.

7. If the married couple belonged to different classes, say a freeman and a

dependent, their children were equally divided among the parents in so far as social
status was concerned.

GOVERNMENT
1. The government of the pre-Spanish Filipinos was patriarchal in form. There are
two models here, namely, the
a. Barangay which was a socio-quasi political/ administrative unit, and the
b. Sultanate which was more elaborate with a central authority.
The unit of administration was the barangay which was a settlement consisting of 30 to 100
families. The early barangays were independent from each other. Each was ruled by a datu or
taba who obtained his position by

a. Inheritance, being the son of the datu

b. Wisdom
c. Physical prowess and courage
d. Wealth
The datu had wide powers, for he exercised all the functions of government, but he was not an
absolute leader nor a ruler. He was assisted by elders who advised him on important matters.

The causes of conflicts between barangays, according to Loarca (in Jocano,1975)

were:
a. When one goes to another village and he is put to death without cause.
b. When their wives are stolen from them; and
c. When they go in friendly manner to any village and there under the guise of
friendship are wronged or maltreated.
 LAWS OF THE EARLY FILIPINOS

1. Laws were either customary or written

a. The customary or oral laws were customs and traditions handed down orally from
generation to generation.
b. The written laws were promulgated by the datus, particularly in Islamic
communities.
2. Among the subjects covered in ancient Filipino laws were family relationships,
property rights, inheritance, contracts, partnerships, loans, usury, crimes, and their
punishment, adoption, and divorce.
3. Those considered as major crimes were rape, incest, murder, witchcraft, insult,
trespassing, sacrilegious acts, and larceny. A person guilty of any of these crimes was
punished by death or by a heavy fine.
4. Minor crimes on the other hand, consisted of such misdemeanors as adultery,
cheating, petty theft, perjury, disturbance of peace at night by singing, and destroying
documents owned by a chief. These misdemeanors were punished by exposure to ants
by a small fine, by flogging, by cutting the fingers of one hand, or by swimming for a
number of hours.

JUDICIAL PROCESS

All trials in pre-Spanish Philippines were held in public. The litigant- plaintiff and defendant
pleaded their own case and had to present their own witness. Before testifying the witness took
an oath to tell the truth and nothing but the truth. The barangay court decided the case in favor of
the litigant who had presented more proofs than the other. Disputes between datus, or between
residents of different barangays were sometimes settled by arbitration, with some datus, or elders
from other barangay.

Whenever a case cannot be readily decided upon by the barangay court, a trial by
ordeal was resorted to. This was especially true in criminal cases. It was believed that
the gods protected the innocent and punished the guilty. Thus, an accused person who
was innocent was believed to succeed in the ordeals because the gods made it so.

According to Loarca (in Jocano, 1975 ), three ordeals were utilized by the court to
find out the guilty person, namely:
a. The river ordeal where suspected persons were made to plunge into the river
with their spears and he who rose to the surface first was adjudged guilty.
 b. The boiling water ordeal where all suspected person were ordered to pick a
stone placed in pot of boiling water, and he whose arm or hand was burned the most
was believed to be guilty.
c. The candle ordeal where each of suspected person was given a lighted candle of
the same size, and he whose candlelight died out first was considered guilty.

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICE

Pre Spanish Filipinos, with the exception of muslim, were animistic. They worshipped a
supreme god, called bathala by Tagalogs. The early Filipinos believed in spirits called anitos or
diwatas who were either good or bad. The religious leaders were called babaylan, babaylana, or
katalonan. In muslim areas, they were called imam or pandina. They served as herbalists,
psychologists and psychiatrists, fortune tellers and advisers of the datu.

Early Filipinos were worshipers of nature and ancestors. It is here that concept of mariit
comes into play. Certain places, landmarks, and trees have to be respected or have become
restricted (taboo) because are inhabited by spirits. Ancient Filipinos believed in an after life and
subscribed to the idea of heaven and hell. The panayanons, for example, believed that souls
travel in a river, thus they used coffin shaped like boats.

Disease or illness was attributed to the environment spirits and the soul-spirits of dead
relatives.

DIVINATION AND MAGIC CHARMS

Early Filipinos were fond of interpreting signs in nature as good or bad omens depending
upon circumstances. Among these are sounds of insects and animals, flight of the birds, and
barking of the dogs. They believed in black magic and sorcerers who could victimize people.

They believed in aswang and manogbiwit and many more who could destroy or harm them.

They also believed in the efficacy of anting anting or amulets as well as lumay or gayuma (love
potion).

The Islamization of the Philippines

The Islamization of Southeast Asia was generally accomplished by peaceful means through
Muslim traders, missionaries, and teachers. Serif Kabungsuan was responsible for the spread of
Islam in Mindanao. He led a force of Muslim Samals from Jahore that conquered the natives of
what is now Cotabato and converted them to Islam. He also married a lady from an influential
family and founded the first sultanate in Mindanao, with himself as head.
When the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines during the first half of the 16th century, many parts
of Luzon, including the large native kingdoms of Manila and Tondo, had already been Islamized.
However, the further spread and influence of Islam were stopped by Spanish colonization of the
Philippines.

SPANISH PERIOD

Spain’s title over the Philippines was based on Magellan’s discovery of the Islands in
1521 and its conquest by Miguel Lopez de Legaspi 45 years later. The first Spanish
settlement was established in the Philippines in 1565, marking the onset of Spanish
colonial rule.

We were ruled by Spain for almost 400 years until Spanish Rule was terminated in
1898 when the Treaty of Paris was signed, the agreement which stipulates that Spain
would cede the Philippines to the United States.
Looking into the reasons why the Spaniards came to the Philippines it all points out to
the search for a new trade route and the desire for spices. Making the food more
palatable to the most discriminating medieval tastes triggered the search for spices of
all sorts: pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, and ginger which were indigenous to the
East. Spices accented the bland taste of meat and fish, while preserving them, in the
absence of refrigeration. So expensive were spices like black pepper that it could
even buy land, pay taxes, liberate a city, even pay dowries.

When the Spaniards came to the Philippines, the natives were disunited. To put the
natives under their control, the Spaniards used a method of divide and conquer where
they befriended certain groups of Filipinos and used them in subjugating other
natives. Through the policy of attraction, Spaniards have obtained the support of
local chiefs by giving them gifts and exempting them from tributes and polo. They
concluded blood compact with native rules. The first blood compact was between
Magellan and Kulambo in Limasawa in 1521.

The colonization of the Philippines was viewed as the conquest of sword and the
cross. Catholic missionaries converted the native chiefs and family members to the
catholic faith. The converted natives became fanatic and began to follow blindly the
dictates of the friars because of their value to the salvation of the soul. The friars
 allowed the natives to go on with some folk beliefs and practices like sacrificial
offerings, etc. which resulted to “folk christianism”.

The church and the plaza became the center of all significant activities of the natives
from birth to death. The plaza became witness to the injustices, oppression, and
exploitation suffered by Filipinos in the hands of colonial masters.

Impact of Spanish Colonization to Philippine Governance and Development:

Doctrine of Discovery and Regalian Doctine.

The Regalian Doctrine is a legacy of Spanish colonialism to the Philippines that has
very broad impact to governance and development. It is anchored to another colonial doctrine,
the doctrine of discovery. These two doctrines have a lot of similarities, one being the root (
doctrine of discovery ) and other being the fruit ( Regalian doctrine). The doctrine of discovery is
a clear remnant of the conservative or orthodox view of Roman Catholicism, which traces its
origin from a papal document issued forty years before Columbus' historic voyage.
In 1452, wherein Pope Nicholas V issued to King Alfonso V of Portugal the bull
Romanus Pontifex, declaring war against all non-Christians throughout the world, and
specifically sanctioning and promoting the conquest, colonization, and exploitation of non-
Christian nations and their territories, to "put them into perpetual slavery," and "to take all
their possessions and property." The two rival countries in annexing territories that time were
Spain and Portugal, so as to avoid conflict between the two states Pope Alexander stipulated in
a subsequent bull - issued May 4, 1493 - that Spain must not attempt to establish its dominion
over lands which had already "come into the possession of any Christian lords." Then, to
placate the two rival monarchs, the pope drew a line of demarcation between the two poles,
giving Spain rights of conquest and dominion over one side of the globe, and Portugal over
the other, which is founded on the Treaty of Tordesillas.

The other doctrine which is the Regalian doctrine is a national fruit of conquest, a
manifestation of the colonialist governments to own, use, the natural resources of their colonies.
The Regalian Doctrine dictates that all lands of the public domain belong to the State, that the
State is the source of any asserted right to ownership of land and charged with the
conservation of such patrimony. The doctrine has been consistently adopted under the 1935,
1973, and 1987 Constitutions.

As to the impact of these doctrines to us Filipinos, first and foremost, we become the first
Christian nation in Asia, with close to 400 years of Spanish domination, many of the Spanish
influences can be seen in our culture, language, laws, customs and mores. Spain was among the
first country to adopt a first democratic constitution in 1812 to include freedom of speech and
of expression, but denying religious freedom. However such democratic principle was never
extended to the Filipinos. Also to include the abuses of the Spaniards to our natives, and the
slow growth and backward economy that the Filipinos experienced that time, like for instance
many of the countries in Europe had experienced revolution in technology as early as of 16th to
19th century brought about by industrial revolution, but the Filipinos were still living backwardly,
like for instance, many of our natives could not even afford to have slippers and would walk
barefooted during that time.
Spain also introduced a system of government called Frailocracy- where the two
important institutions- the government and the church united, having the Friars as being more
powerful than the Governor- General. Early in the late nineteenth century, the friars of the
Agustinian, Dominican and Franciscan orders conducted many of the executiveand control
functions of government on the local level. The friars were responsible of the following:

a. Education and health measures – they have dominant position in the monopoly of
education at all levels, hence, religion was the main subject in school. Fear of God
was emphasized and obedience to the friars was instilled in the minds of the people.
The Indios were constantly reminded that they had inferior intelligence and that they
were fit for manual labor.
b. Supervised the selection of local police and town officers
c. Maintaining public morals and reporting incidences of sedition to authorities-
the friars can send a man to jail and be penalized.
d. Collection of taxes, or tributes.

The Philippines become the source of raw materials for them, and the country served as
the extended territory for their fellow Spaniards who became homeless after when most of the
countries in Latin America in the late part of 19th century gained their independence from Mother
Spain.
The adoption of the Regalian doctrine in the Philippines can be cited to have
provided historical roots to poverty. The Regalian doctrine created the culture of poverty
especially during the Spanish time, when there was massive land grabbing, many Filipinos were
displaced from their own farmlands, especially the indigenous peoples who were not educated on
the Land titling that was introduced to them by the Spaniards, plus the strict colonial policies
implemented by Spain among the natives, saying that they were not allowed to carry fire arms, or
any weapon that could protect from them against the abusive guardia civil in the Philippines. In
the essay of Dr. Jose P. Rizal entitled “ The Indolence of the Filipino People” he tried to
know the cause of the little love for work of the Filipinos, what causes our laziness? The
reasons provided was not only because of the hot climate that we have in the country, but also
due to abuse and discrimination, government inaction, rampant corruption and red tape,
misplaced church doctrines. As quoted, many Filipinos become indolent because of the
teaching in the church, where the friar would say during his sermons that “the rich man
cannot go to heaven, the rich man is always subject to troubles and vexation”, thereby
indirectly encouraging the natives to donate their riches in the church, and would not desire to
work hard anymore, that is the reason why also our national hero believed that education is the
cure to all ignorance.

Significant Events which led to the Founding of Revolutionary Movements in

Spanish-Philippines

Many notable figures launched movements which aimed for Philippine independence from
Spain. The most common causes of the revolts were:

a. Racial discrimination
b. Abuses of the Friars and the Authorities in the implementation of policies
c. Exploitation of manpower through forced labor
d. Land grabbing, unjust eviction of farmers from their lands, arbitrary increases in land
rents
e. Collection of taxes or tributes
f. Desire of the Filipino priests to run Filipino churches

The rise of Filipino nationalism was awakened when the three priests GOMBURZA ( Fathers’
Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora) were executed in 1872, being accused as
leaders of the Cavite mutiny. It was when Governor General Isquirdo, a ruthless Governor
General who replaced a liberal-minded Gov. Gen. de la Torre, repealed the exemption from
rendering the Polo and the payment of the tribute that the soldiers in the shipyard and arsenal in
Cavite had been enjoying under the Governor- General dela Torre. As a result of their
discontentment two hundred soldiers mutinied against the Spanish authority.

The Campaign for Reforms

The unjust execution of Gomburza was a turning point in the Philippines history because it
ushered a new –era the reform movement. These movements are the following:

a. The Propaganda Movement was a period of time when native Filipinos were calling for
reforms, lasting approximately from 1880 to 1886 with the most activity between 1880
and 1895.
Prominent members included José Rizal, author of Noli Me Tángere and El
filibusterismo, Graciano López Jaena, publisher of La Solidaridad, the movement's principal
organ, Mariano Ponce, the organization's secretary and Marcelo H. del Pilar.

Specifically, the Propagandists aims were the following:

 Representation in the Philippines in the Spanish Cortes, the Spanish parliament

 Secularization of the clergy (i.e. usage of secular or diocesan priest rather from a
religious order)

 Legalization of Spanish and Filipino equality

 Provision of Spanish citizenship to Filipinos

 Recognition of the Philippines as a province of Spain

 Abolition of polo y servicios (labor service) and the bandala (forced sale of local
products to the government)

 Guarantee of basic freedoms

 Equal opportunity for Filipinos and Spanish to enter government service

La Liga Filipina (lit. 'The Philippine League') was a secret organization. It was founded by José
Rizal in the house of Doroteo Ongjunco at Ilaya Street, Tondo, Manila on July 3, 1892.

The organization derived from La Solidaridad and the Propaganda movement. The purpose of La
Liga Filipina is to build a new group sought to involve the people directly in the reform
movement.

The league was to be a sort of mutual aid and self-help society dispensing scholarship funds and
legal aid, loaning capital and setting up cooperatives, the league became a threat to Spanish
authorities that they arrested Rizal on July 6, 1892 on Dapitan

During the exile of Rizal, The organization became inactive.

The Failure of the Reform Movement

The intensive campaign of La Solidaridad for reforms did not yield any tangible result in the
form of changes in the administration of the Philippines, due to the following reasons:

a. Spain was too pre occupied with its own internal problems to give a moment’s thought to
colonial problem.
 b. The Friars were too powerful even in Spain to be sidetracked by the Spanish authorities
so that whatever good impressions the La Solidaridad had created in the minds of the
Spanish officials in Spain were counteracted by the influential and powerful newspaper
of the friars, La Politica de Espana en Filipinas.
c. Lack of funds of the propagandists to carry its aims,
d. The propagandists were divided against themselves by petty jealousies. The result was
the weakening of the ties that bound them together.

The Katipunan or KKK( Kataastaasan Kagalang galang na Katipunan nang mga Anak ng
Bayan)

Katipunan was the secret organization which led the revolution on August 26, 1896. It was
organized by Andres Bonifacio on the night of July 7, 1892, after they knew that Rizal was
arrested and deported to Dapitan, the remote town in Zamboanga, upon the public order signed
by Governor-General Eulogio. Rizal lived in exile in far-away Dapitan from 1892 to 1896.

The Katipunan formed a government structure through which the country would be governed,
composed of:
Supreme Council Kataastaasang Sanggunian, Central Government
Provincial Government (Sangguniang Balangay)
Judicial Council (Sangguniang Hukuman

Kalayaan is the official newspaper of KKK.

Under the leadership of Bonifacio, the Katipunan laid down three fundamental objectives
or aims: political, moral and civic.

a. Political objective- consisted of working for the separation of the Philippines from
Spain.
b. Moral objective- revolved around the teaching of good manners, hygiene, good morals,
and attacking obscurantism, religious fanaticism, and weakness of character,
c. Civic Aim- revolved around the principle of self-help and the defense of the poor and
the oppressed.

However, the discovery of KKK due to misunderstanding between Teodoro Patino and
Apolinario de la Cruz, which the former revealed the secrets of Katipunan to father Mariano Gil,
was followed by mass arrest of Filipino suspects known as “ reign of terror”. On the afternoon of
August 22, in the yard of Juan Ponce, the son of Melchora Aquino, called as the “ Mother of the
Katipunan” Bonifacio and his men brought out their cedulas and tore them into pieces shouting
Long Live Philippines known as the Cry of Pugadlawin.
The Tejeros Convention

The Tejeros Convention (alternate names include Tejeros Assembly and Tejeros Congress) was
the meeting held on March 22, 1897 between the Magdiwang and Magdalo factions of
the Katipunan . These are the first presidential and vice presidential elections in Philippine
history, although only the Katipuneros (members of the Katipunan) were able to take part, and
not the general populace.

The convention was called to discuss the defense of Cavite against the Spaniards during
the Philippine Revolution. The revolutionary leaders held an important meeting in a friar estate
residence in Tejeros to resume their discussions regarding the escalating tension between
the Magdalo and Magdiwang forces; And also to settle once and for all the issue of governance
within the Katipunan through an election. Amidst implications on whether the Katipunan, which
operated as an alternative revolutionary government, should be established as a monarchy or as
a republic, Bonifacio defended that it should be maintained as a republic. According to him, all
of its members of any given rank shall serve under the principle of liberty, equality and
fraternity, upon which republicanism was founded. Despite Bonifacio's concern on the lack of
officials and representatives from other provinces, The Magdalo was obliged to proceed with the
election.

Andrés Bonifacio, the contemporary Supremo (supreme leader) of the Katipunan, presided over
the election. He secured the unanimous approval that the decision would not be questioned.

Summary of the March 22, 1897 Tejeros Convention

Results
Candidate Faction
Votes %

Emilio Aguinaldo Magdalo 146 57.03%

Andrés Bonifacio Magdiwang 80 31.25%

Mariano Trías Magdiwang 30 11.72%

Valid votes 256 100.00%

Votes cast 256 100.00%

Registered voters 256 100.00%

The results of the election:

Position Name Faction

President Emilio Aguinaldo Magdalo

Vice-President Mariano Trías Magdiwang

Captain-General Artemio Ricarte Magdiwang

Director of War Emiliano Riego de Dios Magdiwang

Director of the Interior Andrés Bonifacio Magdiwang

Bonifacio accepted the decision, but not before insisting on a recount of the votes. Supporters
such as Severino de las Alas made abortive efforts to help make Bonifacio vice
president. However, Daniel Tirona, a member of the Magdalo party, objected that the post should
not be occupied by a person without a lawyer's diploma, he insisted that Bonifacio was mal
educated, ignorant, and did not deserve the post being the secretary of the interior. He suggested
a lawyer like Jose del Rosario is qualified for the suitable position. Bonifacio was insulted, and
demanded that Tirona retract the remark. When Tirona made to leave instead, Bonifacio drew a
pistol and was about to fire at Tirona, but stopped when Ricarte tried to disarm him. Bonifacio
then voided the convention as Supremo of the Katipunan.

Some Magdiwang leaders, led by Pio del Pilar and Mariano Llanera, recanted their previous
insistence that the result of the convention is null and void, thereby recognizing the validity of
the elected leaders, and later occupying the five vacant positions upon appointment from
Aguinaldo. The newly appointed officials took their oath of office on April 24, 1897. Aguinaldo,
on the same day, convened the first session of the cabinet and issued an official circular
informing the town presidents of all municipalities that he was duly elected by the convention
and was assuming his position as president.

Trial and Execution of Bonifacio

It was clear then that Bonifacio was a threat to the leadership of Aguinaldo. Together with his
brother he was arrested on charges of sedition and treason against Aguinaldo's government and
conspiracy to murder Aguinaldo. The Bonifacio brothers were executed on May 10, 1897, in the
mountains of Maragondon, Cavite.
The Biak-na-Bato Republic established on November 1, 1897 in Bulacan.

The Dictatorial Government was established on April 25, 1898 in view of chaotic
situations in the country following the outbreak of the Spanish-American War. This
government declared independence on June 12, 1898.

Revolutionary Government replaced the Dictatorial government. Its aims were “to
struggle for the independence of the Philippines until all nations including Spain will
expressly recognize it and to “prepare the country for the establishment of a real
republic.”

First Philippine Republic.

On September 15, 1898 A Revolutionary Congress met in Malolos, Bulacan under the
Malolos Constitution. The Constitution established a “free and independent
Philippine Republic.” It was inaugurated on January 23, 1899 and existed until March
23, 1901. It was never recognized by the international community.

AMERICAN PERIOD

The US annexed the Philippines in February 1899 as a result of the Spanish-

American War. General Aguinaldo was captured in April 1899. The Malolos
Constitution had no opportunity to operate.

The American Military rule began on April 14, 1898, one day after the capture of
Manila. The Military Government was established and a military governor exercised
executive, legislative and judicial powers. General Wesley Merritt was the First
American Military Commander. Gen. Elwell Otis was the second and Gen. Arthur
MacArthur was the last Military Governor.

The Civil Government was inaugurated in Manila on July 4, 1901 following the
passage of the Spooner Amendment (on the army appropriation act) which ended the
Military Government. It was headed by a Civil Governor who was president of the
Philippine Commission, the law-making body from 1901-1907. The Philippine
Commission acted as the upper house of the legislature ad the Philippine Assembly
was the lower house. With the passage of the Spooner Law, the two bodies gave way
to the Philippine Legislature.
The Philippines was represented in the US by two resident commissioners who were
elected by the Philippine Legislature. These commissioners had seat in the US Lower
House but had no voting rights.

William Howard Taft was the first Civil Governor. He was succeeded by Luke F.
Wright who was the first to use the title Governor General. The last Governor
General was Frank Murphy. He was also US High Commissioner to the Philippines
upon the inauguration of the Commonwealth Government.

The Commonwealth Government was established pursuant to the Tydings-McDuffie

Act which called for a ten-year transition period after which independence would be
proclaimed on July 4, 1946. It was inaugurated on November 15, 1935 following the
first election under the 1935 Constitution.
The Japanese Military Administration was established on January 3, 1942, a day after
the fall of Manila. Under the proclamation of the Japanese High Command, US
sovereignty over the Philippines was terminated. The Philippine Executive
Commission, with Jorge Vargas as chairperson was organized by the occupying
forces.
It had executive and legislative powers. On October 14, 1943, the Japanese-sponsored
Philippine Republic was established with Jose P. Laurel as president. The ultimate
source of authority was the Japanese military authority and the Japanese government.
On August 17, 1945, President Laurel proclaimed the dissolution of the republic.

Under the Joint Resolution 93, the US Congress authorized the US President to
proclaim Philippine independence prior to the set date. It was inaugurated on July 4,
1946 with Manuel Roxas and Elpidio Quirino as President and Vice-President.

The Commonwealth government was presidential in form. The National Assembly

later became the bicameral Congress. During World War II, it functioned in exile in
Washington from May 13, 1942 to October 3, 1944. It was re-established in Manila
on February 27, 1945 in a ceremony where Gen. Douglas MacArthur turned over the
powers of government to President Sergio Osmena .
 8 Dark Chapters of Filipino-American History We Rarely Talk About
( Adopted from: https://filipiknow.net/philippine-american-history/

There is no other country in the world has had so pervasive an influence on the Philippines
than America. In fact, the effects of the decades-long American rule of the country can still be
clearly seen in our society, from the way we eat, dress, speak, etc.
While it cannot be denied that America has helped out our country a great deal, let us also not
forget the times that the USA wrecked, backstabbed and bamboozled the Philippines. Aside from
the acts of benevolence so often highlighted, we should get to know the dark chapters of
Filipino-American history.

1. America Lied About Giving Independence to the Philippines.

This wartime cartoon from Puck magazine shows the American image of erstwhile
ally Emilio Aguinaldo once he began his rebellion against American occupation of
the Philippines. (c) Bettmann/Corbis
As history would tell us, America essentially deceived and lied its way into
occupying the Philippines. With promises of independence and sovereignty, the
Americans gained the cooperation of the Filipinos who were yearning to be free from
Spain.
Emilio Aguinaldo himself fell prey to the flowery words being thrown at him by the
Americans, with Admiral George Dewey assuring him that “the United States is rich
and needs no colonies” and Consul Spencer Pratt telling him no formal written
agreement as to American recognition of Philippine independence was necessary
because Americans kept their word.
As a result, he and the other revolutionaries gladly helped the Americans defeat the
Spanish here in the country.

Unknowingly, however, America was already negotiating with Spain behind the
scenes to acquire the archipelago. To later rub it in Aguinaldo’s face, Dewey and
Spencer denied ever having assured him of Philippine independence.
After the battle of Manila on May 1, 1898, Aguinaldo’s June 12 Declaration of
Philippine independence had not been recognized by either the United States or
Spain, and the Spanish government ceded the Philippines to the United States in the
1898 Treaty of Paris, which was signed on December 10 1898, in consideration for an
indemnity for Spanish expenses and assets lost. American Commodore Dewey and
Consul Spencer denied ever having assured Aguinaldo of Philippine independence.
The Malolos Congress declared war on the United States on the June 2, 1898, with
Pedro Paterno, President of Congress, issuing a Proclamation of War. The Philippine-
American war ensured between 1899 and 1902 ( New World Encyclopedia).

2. Its Occupation of the Philippines was Primarily Self-Serving.

Coined by US President William McKinley, “benevolent assimilation” refers to the

American policy of absorbing the Filipinos into their culture out of their
magnanimous desire to “civilize” them. As the policy would have it, Filipinos are too
uneducated and uncivilized to govern themselves, hence the need for American
intervention.
In truth, America valued the Philippines mainly because of economic and strategic
reasons. Located in such a vital area and blessed with many natural resources and
natural harbors, the Philippines was a tempting target for any country seeking to
expand its power and influence in Asia.
 American businessmen pushed for the colonization of the Philippines because it
was “good for business,” being rich in natural resources and near the prime trading
country of China. In the guise of “benevolent assimilation,” the Americans annexed
and exploited the Philippines for their own ends.

As a compromised agreement after World War II, the United States Congress offered
$800 million rebuilding funds if the Bell Trade Act was ratified by the Philippine
Congress. The specifics of the act required the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines be
amended. The Philippine Congress approved the measure on July 2, two days before
independence from the United States of America, and on September 18, 1946
approved a plebiscite to amend the Constitution of the Philippines.
One of the foremost oppressive act enacted by Congress was authored
by Missouri Congressman C. Jasper Bell, was the Bell Trade Act, in effect it
required:
 Preferential tariffs on US products imported into the Philippines;
 fixed exchange rate between the Philippine peso and the United States dollar;
 No restrictions on currency transfers from the Philippines to the United States;
 "Parity rights" granting U.S. citizens and corporations rights to Philippine natural
resources equal to (in parity with) those of Philippine citizens, to develop and exploit the
natural resources and operation of public utilities.
President Manuel Roxas believed that Philippines needed assistance from the Americans to be
able to rehabilitate its economy. He wanted from them financial assistance (aid and investments)
immediately in order to carry out his plans of lessening the radicals in the country. In exchange
of the financial assistance, Roxas promised that the Philippines will remain loyal to the U.S.
Along with this, he even assured of sacrificing the country’s sovereignty to accommodate the
demands of the Americans.

3. The Americans Committed Numerous War Crimes Against Filipinos.

Perhaps the darkest chapter of the country’s history with the US concerns the
devastatingly bloody Philippine-American War. Also known as America’s “Forgotten
War” or “First Vietnam,” the conflict saw the outgunned and outmanned Filipinos
fight against a better-armed and better-trained American force. And as what usually
happens in wars, atrocities are bound to happen.
For the Americans—frustrated by the Filipinos’ guerrilla tactics—it involved burning
down villages, herding the locals into concentration camps, and inflicting torture
such as the infamous “water cure” on captured combatants.
Massacres also occurred, as what happened during the infamous Balangiga and Moro
Crater Massacre. The first one happened after General Jacob Smith ordered his men
to turn Samar into a “howling wilderness” and kill all the male children ten years and
over as retaliation for Filipino guerrillas wiping out the American garrison in
Balangiga.
The second involved American and Philippine Constabulary forces massacring more
than 600 Moros (mostly women and children) in their village located inside the
volcano of Bud Dajo, Jolo.
It is estimated that 20,000 – 35,000 Filipino combatants died in the conflict, with the
civilian population suffering anywhere from 200,000 – 1,000,000 deaths (a cholera
outbreak also led to high casualty rates). The Americans, on the other hand, suffered
approximately 4,000 deaths.

FAST FACTS: Balangiga Massacre

SEPTEMBER 28, 2018
ALEX EVANGELISTA

INFO
The Balangiga Massacre of September 28, 1901, is considered as one of the bloodiest
events during the Philippine-American war.

MANILA, Philippines – The Balangiga Massacre was one of the bloodiest events
during the Philippine-American War.
To this day, the United States considers this as their “worst single defeat” in the
history of the 3-year war from 1899 to 1902. The Philippines has also not forgotten.
Republic Act 6692 enacted on February 10, 1989, declared September 28 of every
year as "Balangiga Encounter Day," a special non-working holiday in Eastern Samar
to commemorate the uprising of fellow Filipinos and to honor the gallantry of those
killed.

Why it started?
In the beginning, residents of Balangiga town and Company C, the 9th US infantry
regiment, had a good relationship. According to historians, relations went downhill
after two American soldiers allegedly tried to molest a Filipino woman tending a
store.
When locals came to the woman's defense, the soldiers wanted revenge. Since then,
people in Balingaga were subjected to forced labor and detention with only little food
and water.
The locals also protested the move of the US garrison to cut food and other supplies
in the town.
Balangiga police chief Valeriano Abanador, along with guerilla officers Captain
Eugenio Daza and Sergeant Pedro Duran Sr, plotted the uprising against the
Americans.
According to historian Stuart Miller in his book Benevolent Assimilation, Balangiga
men disguised as women hid weapons inside small caskets which were brought to the
church under the pretext that a cholera epidemic had killed many children.
Reinforcements from neighboring towns also entered Balangiga several days before
the attack under the guise of preparations for a fiesta.

How it happened
The plan was executed on September 28, 1901, during the supposed funeral
procession for children killed by cholera. Abanador initiated the first strike by
shooting an American sentry after chatting with him.
The church of Balangiga rang its bells, signaling the start of the attack. The men
dressed as women pulled out their weapons – mainly machetes – and attacked the US
troops. Locals also headed to the barracks to attack unsuspecting American soldiers.
At least 48 out of the 78 American soldiers were killed during the surprise attack.
The following day, American forces decided to retaliate. General Jacob H. Smith
vowed that he would turn the town into a "howling wilderness," earning him the
nickname "Howling Jake."
"I want no prisoners. I wish you to kill and burn. The more you kill and burn the
better it will please me. I want all persons killed who are capable of bearing arms in
actual hostilities against the United States," Smith said.
Smith's remark became even more infamous when he instructed his men to "kill
everyone over 10." Soldiers also burned and looted the villages in Balangiga.
The killings did not end there, as the US continued to enforce a "scorched-earth
policy" until 1902, which meant the total destruction of the town and its people.
There is no exact estimate on the number of Filipinos killed, despite what some
resources have previously said that about 2,500 were killed during the duration of the
massacre.
Recent study by the Balangiga Research group found that most soldiers "counter-
manded" the kill-and-burn order, which meant that some soldiers refused to claim
innocent lives and resorted only to destruction of homes and livelihood.

'STOLEN'. The Balangiga church bells that signaled the Filipino uprising against
Company C. Photo from Wikipedia.ORG

The Americans brought home the church bells of Balangiga as "trophies of war."
Two are under the custody of US troops in the "Trophy Park" of the Francis E.
Warren Air Force Base in Wyoming, while the other is with the US military unit in
South Korea.

Moves to return the bells

The Philippines has been asking for the return of the bells as early as 1958, when
Jesuit priest Horacio dela Costa wrote a letter to American military historian Chip
Wards seeking help for this purpose.
President Fidel Ramos was the first Philippine president to negotiate the return of the
bells with a US President, Bill Clinton, who agreed to the request. However, the
return was stalled due to an apparent conflict in US military laws.
In his 2017 State of the Nation Address, President Rodrigo Duterte asked the US to
return the bells as they are “reminders of the gallantry and heroism of our forebears
who resisted the American colonizers and sacrificed their lives in the process.”

Return of the Balangiga Bells

https://rappler.com/nation/balangiga-bells-return-philippines-december-11-2018
The bells arrived in the Philippines at Villamor Air base on December 11, 2018, and
were returned to the Balangiga Church on December 15, 2018. While in Manila, the
bells were put on display at the Philippine Air Force Aerospace Museum until
December 14.

4. They Exploited And Vilified Real Filipino Heroes.

With organized Filipino resistance effectively waning in the late stages of the
Philippine-American War, the Americans looked to pacify the Filipinos and ensure
their cooperation—and what better way to do so than to sponsor and vilify some
famous Filipinos.
For one, they heavily promoted Jose Rizal as a “model hero” since he was a patriot
who disavowed violent revolutions in favor of reforms—music to the new colonizer’s
ears. Aside from that, the Americans designated the few remaining revolutionaries
who continued to fight them as bandits and conducted a massive smear campaign
against them. The foremost recipient of this would be none other than Macario Sakay,
the leader of the Republika ng Katagalugan.
As a result of effective American propaganda, it would take many decades for
Filipinos to realize that Sakay was no bandit at all. On the contrary, he was a real
revolutionary and patriot who took up the cudgels for his compatriots, fighting for
independence up until he was nefariously double-crossed by the Americans and
executed on the gallows.

5. Filipinos Faced Discrimination Here and in the States.

“Positively No Filipinos Allowed” warning sign at a hotel in Stockton, California in
1930 (Courtesy of Little Manila Foundation) .
The Americans, in their bid to colonize the Philippines, generally looked down on
Filipinos as a group of uncivilized brown savages in need of higher education. That
discriminatory attitude, unfortunately, did not recede even after the Philippine-
American War ended.
On the contrary, Filipinos were subject to even more bigotry especially when they
immigrated to the United States to work and study. At stateside, many Filipinos—
especially the laborers—suffered discrimination at the hands of the locals who
believed their jobs were being stolen from them due to the Filipinos’ willingness to
work longer hours for less pay.

6. The US Abandoned Filipinos—and Americans—During World War II.

American and Filipino troops surrender to the Japanese at Bataan. Via Wikimedia
Commons
One may call it a “strategic retreat,” but to the thousands of Filipino and American
forces holed up in Bataan and other parts of the country when Japan invaded the
archipelago during World War II, the move essentially constituted abandonment.
As part of its overall strategy, the US opted to focus on helping Britain and the Soviet
Union defeat Nazi Germany first, leading President Manuel Quezon to make his
famous comment about America caring more for a distant cousin (Britain) than its
own daughter (Philippines).

What’s more, the beleaguered combined Filipino-American forces had been made to
believe that reinforcements from America were coming to help them, a cruel lie
propagated all the more by Douglas MacArthur. No wonder some of his own men
wrote scathing remarks about him when he fled to Australia.
The most derisive of all came from his subordinate General William Brougher who
commented on his commander’s order for them to fight to the death while the latter
was comfortably stationed in Australia: “A foul trick of deception has been played on
a large group of Americans by a Commander-in-Chief and a small staff who are now
eating steak and eggs in Australia.”
The abandoned troops summed up their feelings best with this fatalistic poem:
“We’re the battling bastards of Bataan:
No mama, no papa, no Uncle Sam,
No aunts, no uncles, no nephews, no nieces,
No rifles, no planes, or artillery pieces,
And nobody gives a damn.”

The Bataan Death March

The American and Filipino defenders of Luzon were forced to retreat to Bataan.
For the next three months, combined U.S – Filipino army fought hard despite lack
of food, medical supplies, ammunition, naval and air support. On April 9, with his
forces crippled by starvation and disease, U.S General Edward King Jr. (1884-
1958), surrendered his approximately 75,000 troops at Bataan. The approximately
75,000 Filipino and American troops on Bataan were forced to march some 65
miles from Mariveles, on the southern end of the Bataan Peninsula, to San
Fernando, the prison camps. The marchers made the trek in intense heat and were
subjected to harsh treatment, by Japanese guards. Thousands perished in what
became known as the Bataan Death March.
The Japanese did not give the prisoners food or water for three days. As the soldiers
became weaker and weaker many of them started to fall behind the group. Those
that fell behind were beaten and killed by the Japanese.

7. It Broke its Promise to Filipino War Veterans.

After the war, many Filipino soldiers were expecting to receive the same benefits as
their American counterparts as promised by the US. After all, they had just fought—
and suffered—side-by-side with the Americans against the Japanese.
Unfortunately, President Harry Truman signed into law the infamous Rescission Act
of 1946 which denied all benefits to Filipino veterans due to a reason by Congress
that the US had already provided $200 million in aid to the Philippines. Essentially,
the Filipinos were designated as “second-class veterans” by the very same country
they fought for.
As a result of the snub, the Filipinos and their advocates campaigned for several
decades for the right to be recognized and compensated. Their efforts bore fruit in
2009 when President Barack Obama appropriated a one-time payment of $15,000 for
Filipino vets who are US citizens and $9,000 for those who are not.
However, critics say the move came “too little, too late.”
8. The Establishment of Neo-colonialism in the Philippines.

It’s quite obvious that traces of colonialism left by both the Spanish and the
Americans can still be seen in modern Philippine culture. One look at our society says
it all: the preference for American products, the promotion of materialism and
hedonism, and a general obsession for all things American have pervaded our society
up until now.
Neo-Colonialism is the use of economic, political, cultural, or other pressures to
control or influence other countries, especially former dependencies.

Although the US does not actually control the Philippines anymore, the latter’s socio-
economic policies and over-reliance on the former as far as military matters are
concerned would suggest otherwise.
No matter how Filipinos try to deny it, the Americans have succeeded in molding us
into their ideal “little brown brothers.” America never really left our shores, and it’s
doubtful if the Philippines can truly shake off its neo-colonial mentality and finally
move forward.