Project of electric circuit analysis(eca)

Air University Islamabad

Semester Project of Electric Circuit Analysis (ECA)
Class: BCE (ADDITIONAL COURSE)
Submitted To: Sir Akram Rashid
Submitted by: Muhammad Hamza amin (191862)
Student Name: Muhammad Hamza amin
(191862)

Topic: Summary of chapter Circuit Analysis Techniques.

“Circuit analysis is the process of finding specific voltages and currents in a circuit.”
Topics Discuss in this chapter:
1. Circuit solution by inspection 2. Nodal Analysis

3. Loop Analysis 3. Linearity and Superposition

4. Source Transformation

Nodal Analysis:

Nodal Analysis is generally best in case of several voltage sources.In nodal analysis, the variables (unknowns) are the “node
voltages”.

“In electric circuit analysis, Nodal analysis is the method of determining the voltage (potential difference) between
“nodes”(Point where two elements and branches connect).”

Nodal Analysis Procedure:

1. Label the N node voltages.Node voltages are defined positive with respect to common point (i.e. reference node) in
the circuit generally designed as ground (V=0)
2. Apply KCL at each node in term of node voltage.
a. use KCL to write a current balance at N-1 of the N nodes of the circuit using assumed current directions, as
necessary. This will create N-1 linearly independent equation.
b. There may be another source we solve this as “super node”.
“A super node is formed by enclosing a(dependent or independent) voltage source connected between two
non reference nodes and any element connected parallel with it.”
BY using super node technique we solve the circuit more easily it’s kind of advantage for us.
c. Compute the currents based on voltage differences between nodes. Each resistive element in the circuit is
connected between two nodes; the current in this branch is obtained via Ohm's Law.
d. At last find unknown voltages. And solve the circuit.

Nodal analysis Example 3.6 in book:

1. Label the nodal voltages and also select reference node .

2. Apply KCL.
3. KCl at top node give i1=i2+4.
4. Solve for unknown node which is v1.

Nodal analysis Example 3.8in book:

1. Label the nodal voltages and also select reference node.
2. Apply KCL at each node.
3. KCL at node 1 give i1=i2+i3 and KCL at node 2 give i3=i4+5.
4. Now solve for unknown nodes which are v1 and v2.

Loop Analysis:
Loop or mesh analysis is generally best in several current sources.In loop analysis unknowns are loop currents.
“A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it”
Loop Analysis procedure:
1. Lable each of the loop currents .
2. Apply KVL to meshes to form equations with current variables.
a. For N independent loops, we may write N total equations using KVL around each loop. Loop
currents are those currents flowing in a loop; they are used to define branch currents.
b. There we also have super mesh which is defined as :
A super mesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or independent) current source in
common.
3. Solve the equations to find unknown loop currents.

Loop Analysis Example 3.13 in book:

1. Label the mesh currents.

2. Apply KVL
a. Left loop KVL:
V1=i1R1+R2(i1-i2)
b. Right loop KVL:
0=V2+i2R2+R3(i2-i3)
3. Now solve for i1 and i2 and branch current of R3 is iR3=i1-i2.

Mesh analysis Example 3.14 in book

 1. Labe the mesh currents.
2. Apply KVL in first loop:
a. 0=4(i1-1)+1(i1-i2)+17
Apply KVL in 2nd loop:
b. 17=1(i2-i1)+3(i2-1)+2i2
3. Again solve for i1 and i2 and find meshes currents
4. Then by using ohm’s law find the branch voltages and find that circuit we is obey ohm’s law or not.

Super position principle:

In any linear circuit containing multiple independent sources, the current or voltage at any point in
the network may be calculated as the algebraic sum of the individual contributions of each source
acting alone.

“The Superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic
sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.”

Procedure:

1. For each independent voltage and current source (repeat the following)

2. Replace the other independent voltage sources with a short circuit (i.e., v = 0).

a. Replace the other independent current sources with an open circuit (i.e., i = 0).

Note: Dependent sources are not changed!

b. Calculate the contribution of this particular voltage or current source to the desired output parameter.

3. Algebraically sum the individual contributions (current and/or voltage) from each independent source.

Superposition principle Example 3.18 in book:

1. Replace V2 with short circuit and solve the circuit by any method let’s use voltage divider rule and the contribution
from v1 give vx=[R2/R1+R2]v1
 2. Likewise suppressing V2 we are going to suppress V1 and the contribution of V2 give vy=[R1/R1+R2]v2
3. Now letting v=vx+vy and solve the circuit.

Superposition principle Example 3.18 in book:

1. First we need to suppress one source from circuit .i.e. we open the current source
Then we solve the circuit by any method.
2. 2nd ly we short the voltage source and again then solve the circuit by any method.
3. After that we have two values add them or subtract them select this option by seeing the direction of sources.

Source Transformation:
“A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source vs in series with a resistor R by a current source is
in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.”

Source Transformation Example 3.23 in book:

1. Start from left and work the way toward left one step at a time. The series combination at left node 1 can be
converted to a parallel combination .
2. This process is proceeding till the shoter the circuit.
3. And then by using ohm’s law find the value.

Source Transformation Example 3.24 in book:

1. Start at the far side of the circuit and work the way toward 10ohm resistance one step at time.
2. Solve this circuit for v and by using source transformation technique at last we left three resistance by series
combination into parallel combination.
3. And again by using ohm’s law we find the values.

Circuit solution by inspection:

This method is for solving some sort of circuits examples through the repeated use of ohm’s law and
Kirchhoff’s law .
 Example 3.1 of book:

1. Label the nodes.

2. Select the reference node and ground it.
3. Label the current directions.
4. Start from where maximum information are available(From 2ohm).
5. Consider node b and apply kcl on that node i1+1=3 and then apply ohm’s law .
6. Then apply KCL on node A i3=i1+i2.
7. Then Apply ohm;s law at resistance 1 ohm’s

Example 3.2 of book:

1. Current source is releasing power and it’s source must flow in the direction of increasing
voltage.Thus vb in this circuit must be lower than ground potential,or negative. So we must have
vb=-(p/i).
2. By ohm’s law i1 must flow upward and by that we find the value of i1.
3. By KCL at node Vb is i2+i1=2 and by ohm’s law we are able to find values.
4. By KCL at node Va is i3=i4+i2.

Topic: Summary of chapter circuit theorem and power

calculation.
Topics discuss in this chapter:
1. One Port 2. Circuit Theorems
3. Non linear circuit elements 4. Power Calculations.
One Port:
“One port network is two terminal electrical networks, in which one current enter through one
terminal and leave through another terminal.”
Since these terminals are connected to internal nodes of the circuit, they must be loaded. Failure
to labor them may cause confusion in the reference polarities and directions of the port signal.

The i-v characteristics of linear one port:

The i-v characteristic of liner one port is a straight line with intercepts at v= voc and i= isc with the
slop -1/Req where voc is open circuit voltage ,isc is short circuit current and Req is equivalent
resistance of one-port.
Method 1:
voc and isc are due to the internal sources of the circuit and they allow us to find the equivalent
resistance as Req=voc/isc. we call this method1 to find Req. So to find equivalent resistance of
circuit we need to find voc and isc first.
Method2:
Example 4.1:

1. First we need to find voc (open circuit voltage).For that leaving the port circuit open as shown
is first figure the apply voltage divider formula to find voc.
Voc=R2/R1+R2
2. Then to find isc leaving the port circuit short and then we see that R2=0 so to find isc
Isc =vs/R1
3. Then by using method 1 formula Req=Voc/Isc we find the value of Req.

Method 2:
An alternate method to suppress all independent sources so as to drive voc or isc zero apply a
test voltage v or a test current i Find the resultant current i or resultant voltage v and finally
Req=v/i. we call this method 2 for finding Req.
There voltage source-------> short or current source---------->open

Example 4.5
 Clearly this is method where isc or voc is zero so we find Req by using test voltage source
1. Suppressing the sources yield circuit ©
2. To find i we apply KCL on node A
3. Solve for i apply nodal analysis and get the value of i
4. At last apply formula Req=v/i. and get the value of Req.

Circuit Theorem:

Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem:

Thévenin's Theorem states that we can replace entire network, exclusive of the load, by an
equivalent circuit that contains only an independent voltage source in series with an impedance
(resistance) such that the current-voltage relationship at the load is unchanged.

Norton's Thereom is identical to Thévenin's Theorem except that the equivalent circuit is an
independent current source in parallel with an impedance (resistor). Hence, the Norton equivalent
circuit is a source transformation of the Thévenin equivalent circuit.

Thévenin Equivalent Circuit Norton Equivalent Circuit

Procedure:

1. Pick a good breaking point in the circuit (cannot split a dependent source and its control
variable).
2. Thevenin: Compute the open circuit voltage, VOC.
Norton: Compute the short circuit current, ISC.
3. Compute the Thevenin equivalent resistance, RTh (or impedance, ZTh).
a. If there are only independent sources, then short circuit all the voltage sources and
open circuit the current sources (just like superposition).
b. If there are only dependent sources, then must use a test voltage or current source in
order to calculate RTh= vTest/iTest (or ZTh=VTest/ITest).
c. If there are both independent and dependent sources, then compute RTh (or ZTh)
from RTh= vOC/iSC (or ZTh=VOC/ISC).
4. Replace circuit with Thevenin/Norton equivalent.
Thevenin: VOC in series with RTh (or ZTh).
Norton: ISC in parallel with RTh (or ZTh).

Note: for 3(b) the equivalent network is merely RTh (or ZTh), that is, no current or voltage
sources.

Example 4.7 for thevenin’s theorem:

1. Replace the bridge circuit with its thevenin’s equivalent as depicted in 2 nd figure.
a. The elementary values of this equivalent is derived here
2. Then apply Thevenin’s theorem .
3. Now we find load voltage or load current.

Example 4.9:
So we have to find power by Norton theorem

1. So Norton theorem must be applied external to RL.

2. To find isc we short load resistance as shown in 2 nd figure.
3. By KCL isc=i2+i3 and by ohm’s law find the value of i2 and by current divider rule find the
value of i3 so by that we are able to find isc .
4. Then To find Req suppress all sources and get the value of Req as in figure d.
5. Then by replacing the one port circuit with norton equivalent circuit yield figure b.
6. After that we are able to find load current and power.

Power Calculation:
Power calculations are an important part of circuit analysis.
It’s formulas are

Example 4.15:
1. The wave form is shown in figure .letting t1=-T/2 and t2=T/2.
2. It is readily seen that over the time interval the waveform can be expressed as v(t)=2Vm/T.t
3. Then by using the equation

4. By simplify it yield

Maximum power Transfer:

“The maximum power transfer theorem states that the maximum power is delivered by a source to the
load RL when is RL equal to the Thevenin resistance Rth at the terminals of the load.”
Example 4.20:

So we have to find maximum power transfer by using Norton Theorem.

1. First we find thevenin equivalent by removing RL of the circuit.
2. Then by superposition method we are able to find voc.
3. Then by suppressing all sources to find Req Then by using formula of power we get
maximum power.
Non linear circuit elements:
The i-v characteristic of non linear circuit is not straight line.

Example 4.11:
1. With v=4v we find the current through nonlinear circuit by usin ohm’s law
2. Then we find Vr1 and then by KVL we find the value vs.

Example 4.12:
1. Through the circuit element is non linear so the circuit surrounding it is linear
2. Indicating that we can use a thevenin’s reduction to find our task.
3. After that we find voc and Req and then we get the value of v.
Topic: Summary of Chapter Transistors and Amplifiers.
Both Transformer and Amplifier belong to the family of two port network. One port is called input
port and other port is called output port.

Topics Discuss in this chapter:

1. Dependent source 2. Circuit Analysis with dependent source
Dependent Source:

“A dependent source is one whose value depends on some other variable in the circuit. “

Also its value depends upon some of controlling voltage vx or some controlling current ix
somewhere else in the circuit. A dependent source function must like a independent one,
Providing the designated voltage or the designated current regardless of the load.
Moreover dependent source will either release or absorbed power, depend on whether
the current enter or leave the positive terminal.

Example 5.1

1. The presence of + sign inside diamond indicates that the controlling source is voltage
source and the presence of symbol ix indicates that the controlling signal is a current
so it is current control voltage source(ccvs).
2. To find ix we apply ohm’s law.
3. So the value of kr and ix is initializing so find ccvs easily.
4. After that we have to prove law of power conservation which is power absorbed
=power released.
5. So after find power in independent source and in dependent source and in
resistance .we write absorbed power value one side and released power value on
other side.

Example 4.2:
 1. The presence of arrow sign inside diamond indicate that the controlling source is current
source and the presence of symbol vx indicate that the controlling signal is voltage source so it
is voltage control current source(vccs).
2. To find vx we apply KCL in the circuit.
3. So we have the value of kg and vx so we find vccs.
4. Again for proving law of conservation of power find power in independent source in
dependent source and n resistance .

Circuit Analysis with dependent source:

Firstly we classified types of dependent sources which are:

 Voltage controlled voltage source (vcvs): A voltage across input terminals controls a
dependent voltage source at the input port.
 Current controlled voltage source (ccvs): A current flowing through input terminal controls a
dependent voltage source.
 Voltage controlled current source (vccs): Now account for a dependent current source at the
output terminals. With a voltage across the input, you can control the amount of current
output.
 Current controlled current source (cccs): With a current flowing through the input port we can
control the dependent current source at the output port.

As we discuses nodal analysis mesh analysis or thevenin theorem etc earlier with independent
source we can use these techniques with dependent sources.

Important note: Dependent source cannot be suppressed to facilitate our analysis be-cause this
will cause invalidate the constraint between controlled source or controlled signal. To find equivalent
resistance we still suppress the independent sources because its value do not depend on the circuit.

Nodal and Loop analysis:

In the circuit with dependent source we solve nodal and loop analysis as follow:

Example 5.5
1. We see that dependent source is current controlled voltage source (ccvs) and the voltage it
produces is Vccvs=4ix .
2. Then apply KCL at node 1 then substitute equation of ix in equation obtained after applying
KCL in node v1.
3. By that we get value of ix and v1.
4. So we also find krix (ccvs)after that.

Example 5.7:

1. First we apply KVL in loop 1 and then loop 2 and then we get two equations.
2. Then we get i3=15ix by inspection . so we need an addition equation to eliminate ix that
ix=i1+i2.
3. So by that we get the value of i3.
4. So substitute in first two equation and get the value of i1 and i2.
5. The current out of the positive terminal of the voltage source I6v=i2-i1.
6. So by getting the value of current we are able to find power in 6v voltage source by
formula p=vi.

Thevenin or Norton equivalent:

Nodal and loop analysis are also used to find the Thevenin or Norton equivalent of one
port with dependent source.

Example :5.10
 1. Apply KCL at super- node yield an equation.
2. After we must need a additional equation to eliminate vx.So by apply KCL yield an
equation vx+5vx=voc.so vx=voc/6.
3. So we get value of voc from equation 1 by substituting equation.
4. To find we short the circuit and we see that current through 4 kilo -ohm resistance is
zero now. So we easily get the value of ix by applying ohm’s law.

Find Req with dependent source:

To Find Req: To find equivalent resistance of a linear one port sup-press all independent sources
while leaving the dependent sources in place .Then apply test source to find Req.

Example 5.11

1. First suppress the independent source which is 6-v. But leave the dependent source in place.
2. Then place the test voltage and find the current i.
3. Apply KCL at super-node surrounding the dependent source.
4. To eliminate vx apply KVL clockwise around the loop which yield vx=v/6.
5. By substituting this equation in equation of I and get the value of i.
6. So we have i and v by which are able to find Req by ohm’s law.
Maximum Power transfer in dependent source:

Example 5.12:

Part(a):

1. Power transferred is maximized when Req=RL. Let find Req by Method 2.

2. With Resistance in ohm the current of the vccs ca be written as KgVx=(1/5)Vx.
3. So after that we need to express Vx and V1 in term of v applying KCL at node labeled v1 yield
a equation which can be yield v1=-vx .
4. And by KVL we also have v=vx.
5. Finally i=v/7.5 so by ohm law we get Req easily now.

Part(b):

1. Since PL (max)=Voc^2/(4Req) we need to find voc referring to the circuit (d).

2. We observed that voc=vx for that apply KCL at node v1.
3. Then for finding v1 apply voltage divider rule which yield v1=(5/3)vx substitute this equation
into equation getting by applying KCL .
4. By that we get value of vx=3v or voc =3v .
5. Now put these values in power formula and get the maximum power.

Topic: Summary of chapter operational Amplifier

 Topic Discusses in this chapter:
1. The operational Amplifier 2. Basic Op Amp configuration

3. Ideal op amp circuit analysis 4. Summing and Difference Amplifier

5. Transresistance and Transconductance and Current Amplifier.

The operational Amplifier:

The operational amplifier is a high gain voltage amplifier .An op-amp has different input. That It has
two inputs of opposite polarity. An Op-Amp has a single gain and a very high gain which means that
output signal is much higher than single output. An operational amplifier usually represented by
following circuit.

These devices are called operational amplifier.

Op-Amp terminology:

The Op-Amp senses the difference between voltage signals and then multiply it by gain a=almost
200000 such that output voltage Vout=a(V+-V-).

Vo=a(Vp-VN)=aVD. Where VD=(Vp -VN)

So VD=Vo/a
The important limitation of operational amplifier is that it cannot amplify its voltage more than its
biasing voltage.

Example 6.1:

1. In example statement we know that op amp has 741 gain approximately a=200000 so
VD=vo/a in statement vo is also given so by that we can find Vd easily.
2. And VN=Vp – VD by that can easily find VN.
3. Example revealed that to sustain 5V output a 741 needs only Vd=25 microvolt.

Basic Op-Amp configuration:

In this section we investigate the two basic circuit topologies.

1. Non- inverting configurations

2. Inverting configurations

Non inverting configuration:

A non-inverting amplifier is an op-amp circuit configuration which produces an amplified output

signal. This output signal of non-inverting op amp is in-phase with the input signal applied. In
other words a non-inverting amplifier behaves like a voltage follower circuit. 

Voltage follower circuit is one of the simplest uses of an operational amplifier, where the output
voltage is exactly same as the input voltage applied to the circuit. In other words, the gain of a
voltage follower circuit is unity.

1. A non-inverting amplifier uses a voltage-divider-bias negative feedback connection.

2. The voltage gain is always greater than one.
3. The voltage gain of non-inverting op-amp depends only on the resistor values, and is
independent of the open-loop gain of the op-amp.

So the equation find out by calculation is:

Example 6.2:
 According to above equation R2=(A-1)R1
(a) Let R1 value is 10kilo – ohm and we have value of A is 2v/v so we can easily get R2.
(b) Again let R2 value is 30kilo – ohm and we have value of A is 5v/v.
(c) Let R2 be 180kilo-ohm pot with the wiper tied to one of its extremes as in figure .Then
verifying the wiper from end to end will var R2 from 0kilo – ohm to 180kilo - ohm .Since
we want A to vary from 1v/v to 10v/v.

The inverting configuration:

The inverting amplifier is an important circuit configuration using op-amps and it uses a negative
feedback connection. An inverting amplifier, like the name suggests, inverts the input signal as wells
as amplifies .

The voltage gain of inverting amplifier is independent of the op-amp open-loop gain, which is very
large.

No current flow into or out to the input pin of the circuit.

And its closed loop gain is negative.

Example 6.5:
1. The circuit is shown above .To find Vo we us the above equation but with the series Rs+R1 in
place of R1.
2. By that we can easily find vo.
3. Then to find the input loading we observe that Rs and R1 to form a voltage divider rule.
4. By that we find v1 easily which indicate that 25% signal loss due to loading.