Lecture 10-14:

Crystal defects in metals: vacancy, interstitial, substitutional, free energy of mixing, dislocation
(elementary concepts only), edge / screw dislocation, partial dislocation, stacking fault, dislocation lock,
dislocation pile up, Hall Petch relation, grain boundary structure

Questions:

1. FCC crystals have more packing density than BCC crystal yet why solubility of carbon in FCC form
of iron is higher than in its BBC form?
2. What is the effect of temperature on concentration of vacancy?
3. If the ratio of iron ions to oxygen ions is 0.994 in FeO, what fraction of Fe sites are filled with
Fe3+ ions? What is the ratio of Fe3+ to O2- ions?
4. What are the major differences between an edge & screw dislocation? Which of these can cross
slip?
5. There is a dislocation lying along
101 in a fcc crystal. Its Burgers vector is
011. What type of


dislocation is it? Determine its slip plane.
6. Find out the ratio of elastic stored energy of an edge dislocation to that of a screw. Assume
energy of the core to be negligible.
7. What is the hydrostatic stress (or strain) field around a screw dislocation?
8. What is the hydrostatic stress field of an edge dislocation?
9. Assume that dislocations are arranged in an array in three dimensions described as a cubic
lattice. If average number of dislocations intersecting a plane is ρ /unit area show that the
average distance between two dislocations is proportional to √ (1/ρ).
10. Dislocation density of annealed metal is 1012 m-2. Find out elastic stored energy per unit volume.
 
11. Elastic stored energy / unit length of an edge dislocation is given by 
   . Does

this mean it can approach infinity as r becomes very large?
12. What is the difference between a kink and a jog? An edge dislocation crosses another
dislocation which is perpendicular to the slip plane. Show with neat diagram the effect of such
an interaction.
13. A perfect dislocation moving on plane 111interacts with another moving on111. What are
the different reactions possible? Which of these are Lomer locks?

14. On what planes can a screw dislocation having Burgers vector 
111could move in a BCC
crystal? What will be the slip plane if it were an edge dislocation?
15. An fcc crystal is pulled along [123]. What is the possible combination of glide plane & direction?
Estimate the force on the mobile dislocation if applied tensile stress is 100MPa & lattice
parameter = 0.36nm.
16. What is the force acting on a dislocation b [010] lying along [100] if the applied stress is given
0 0 0
by!0 " 0#? Will this help it to glide?
0 0 0
 17. An edge dislocation moving on a crystal plane stops at an obstacle. A second dislocation having
the same Burgers vector & lying on the same plane approaches the same on application of a
shear stress of magnitude 140MPa. Estimate the distance of separation if E = 210GPa, Poisson
ratio = 0.3 & lattice parameter = 0.362nm. What will be the distance between the two if they
were screw dislocation?

18. A dislocation is pinned between two obstacles spaced 1micron apart. What will be the
magnitude of stress to bow the dislocation into a semi circle? Hence estimate its yield strength.
Given G = 100 GPa, Burgers vector = 0.25nm

19. Nickel sheet is being rolled at room temperature in a rolling mill (diameter = 50cm, rpm = 200).
Initial thickness is 20mm and thickness after rolling 10mm. Estimate average strain rate, energy
that will be stored in material if final dislocation density is 1011/cm2 , total energy / unit volume
spent during rolling (assume flow stress = 300MPa), adiabatic temperature rise if specific heat =
0.49J/g/K

20. Iron (a = 0.286nm and G = 70GPa) is deformed to a shear strain of 0.3. What distance a
dislocation could move, if dislocation density remains constant at 1014 /m2? What will be the
average dislocation velocity if strain rate is 10-2 /s? Estimate its shear strength.

21. Polycrystalline aluminum with average grain size of 10micron is subjected to shear stress of
50MPa. If a dislocation source located at the centre of a grain emits dislocations which pile up
at the boundary what is the stress it would experience? (G=70GPa, b=0.3nm)

22. Estimate the distance between dislocations in a tilt boundary of alumunium if the
misorientation angle is 5⁰. Given lattice parameter of Al = 0.405nm. Crystal structure is fcc.


23. A more precise expression for low energy grain biundary is given by 
 $% &
$  where A is an constant. This is valid over the range 0 < θ < 10⁰. Find a reasonable estimate
of A. Given lattice parameter of Ni (fcc) = 0.35nm, G = 76MPa Poisson ratio = 0.3 (Hint: assume
dislocation core radius as 5b & the minimum distance between dislocation to be twice this. The

doslocation core energy
'
)

24. Estimate the dislocation spacing and energy of a low angle boundary in copper crystal (fcc b =
0.25nm) if tilt angle = 1⁰. Given G = 48MPa & ν = 0.3

25. Use the expression given in problem 2 to find our the tilt angle (θmax)at which enegry of the low
( , ,
angle boundary is maximum. Hence show that ()*+

, 1 &  , 
)*+ )*+

26. Estimate the energy of the free surface of polycrystalline copper from its heat of sublimation.
Does this vary from grain to grain? Given Ls = 338 kJ/mole; a = 0.36 nm

Answer:
1. FCC has the maximum packing density (74%). However the interstitial sites where the carbon
atoms are located are larger than those in BCC structure. Packing density in BCC is relatively low
(68%). However there is more number of interstitial sites for every Fe atom. The gaps are
distributed amongst more number of sites. Therefore these are too small to accommodate
carbon atoms. This is why solubility is low.

- 2
2. The fraction of vacant lattice sites in a crystal is given by -.
/01 & 34.  where k is Boltzmann
constant, qv is the energy needed to create a vacancy and T is the temperature in degree
-
Absolute. As the T increases . too increases.
-

3. Ionic crystals must maintain charge neutrality. In this iron oxide fraction of vacant Fe2+ sites = 1-
0.994 = 0.006. The reason that stoichiometry is not maintained indicates that for every O2-
vacancy there are 2 Fe3+ ions. Thus fraction of vacant O2- sites = 0.003. Note that to maintain
charge neutrality there could have been 0.006 vacant O2- sites. In that event stoichiometry
would have been FeO.

4.
Nature Edge Screw
Burgers vector Perpendicular to dislocation Parallel to dislocation
Slip plane The plane containing both Any plane containing the
Burgers vector & the dislocation
dislocation
Cross slip Not possible Possible
Climb Can climb Cannot climb
Atomic arrangements There is an extra plane of Atoms along the dislocation are
around dislocation atoms above slip plane arranged in a helix like a screw

5. Dislocation: [t1 t2 t3] =
101 & Burgers vector [b1 b2 b3] = 
011. Since b does not lie along t


it is not a screw dislocation. The angle between the two is given by

89 9 :8  :8; ; ':':
567$

= ½. Since θ = 60˚ it a mixed dislocation. It can move only
<89 :8 :8; <9 : :;
 √ √

in a plane containing both t & b. If the indices of the plane is (hkl) then: > ? @ > A @ >B 

0 & D ? @ D A @ DB 
0. Therefore –h+l = 0 & -k+l = 0; or h = k= l Therefore slip plane is (111)

 
6. Energy of an edge dislocation of unit length: 
    & that of a screw

  (F 
dislocation: 
E
  
Most metal ν = 1/3. Therefore energy of an
 (G 
Therefore

edge dislocation is 3/2 time that of a screw dislocation.

H99 :H :H;;
7. Hydrostatic stress: "
Each of three terms is zero for a screw dislocation. "
0
B
 H99 :H :H;; :
8. Hydrostatic stress: "
B
Since "BB
I" @ " , "
B
" @ "  for an edge
 J KBJ9 :J L

 J KJ9 J L : J
dislocation: "
& & "
Thus: "
&
 KJ9 :J L  KJ9 :J L B KJ9 :J L

The nature of stress is compressive above the slip plane. This is why the atoms are more closely
placed above the slip plane.

9. Let L represents edge of a cube and each of these represent a dislocation line of length L.
Repeated array of such a cube would represent a net work of dislocation. This is schematically
shown as follows:

Volume of cube = L3 Since each edge denotes

dislocation of length L the total length of
dislocation within the cube = 12 L / 4. This is
because each edge belongs to 4 adjacent cubes.
Therefore dislocation density ρ = total length of
B
dislocation / volume of cube =3L/L3. Or; b
< .
O

Therefore the distance between two dislocation

is inversely proportional to the square root of
dislocation density.

10. Previous problem shows that the average distance between two dislocation = L. The stress field
N B
of a dislocation can be assumed to extend over a distance = L/2. Or;M

<O
0.86R'.S

which is approximately: T
UO
Energy of a dislocation consists of two parts. U = Ucore + Ustrain
  K WXE YL Z
& VWX
'
The strain energy = 
  where α represents angle between


dislocation and Burgers vector. For edge dislocation α = π/2 whereas for screw α=0. To estimate
energy of a dislocation let us assume b=0.25nm and r0 = 5b and R = ρ-0.05 = 10-6 Therefore V

  '[\  
'
@ 
 S]'.S]'[^
_D  ' @  800
0.63_D  T 0.5_D  . Assume G=50GPa Energy
/ unit length of dislocation = 0.5 ] 50 ] 10` ] 0.0625 ] 10a J/m2 = 1.56 x 10-9 J/m Therefore
elastic stored energy / unit volume = Uρ = 1.56 x 10-9 x 1012 = 1.56 kJ/m3

11. No. Because dislocations do not occur in isolation. If the average distance between dislocations
is L average value of r = 0.5L. Therefore energy of dislocations is always finite. Approximately
this is equal to 0.5 Gb2.

12. Both kink & jog represent a step on the dislocation. The kink can glide on the slip plane of the
parent dislocation. However its direction of motion is different. Glide plane of a jog is different
from that of the parent dislocation.
 Kink on an edge Note the jog is also an edge dislocation.
Jog on an edge
dislocation Its slip plane is perpendicular to the glide
dislocation
plane of parent dislocation. The kink is a
screw dislocation. Its direction of motion
is along the length of the dislocation.

Here kinks are created on both.

These have screw character.

13. The Burgers vectors of dislocations on these planes are given in the following table:

Note: if Burgers vector D
-
?A >?/ |D|

111 111
c c 
? @ A  @  

101
101
2 2 -
c c

110
110
2 2
Lomer lock: The two planes intersect along [101]
c c

011
011 Favorable reactions producing edge dislocation
2 2 are Lomer locks. It is immobile because the plane
on which it lies is not a close packed plane on
which it could glide.
c c
No. Reactions Energy Remark

101 @
101
c
101 c c
@ d 2c
1 Unfavorable
2 2 2 2
c c c c c 3 
2
101 @
110

211 @ d c
Unfavorable
2 2 2 2 2 2
c c c c c c
3
101 @
110

011 @ e
Favorable
2 2 2 2 2 2
c c c c c c
4
101 @
011

110 @ e
Favorable
2 2 2 2 2 2
c c c c c 3 
5
101 @
011

112 @ d c
Unfavorable
2 2 2 2 2 2
c c c c c c
6
110 @
101

011 @ e
Favorable
2 2 2 2 2 2
c c c c c 3 
7
110 @
101

211 @ d c
Unfavorable
2 2 2 2 2 2
c c c c
8
110 @
110
c
010 @
c
Unfavorable
2 2 2 2
c c c c
9
110 @
110
c
100 @
c
Unfavorable
2 2 2 2
c c c c c 3 
10
110 @
011

121 @ d c
Unfavorable
2 2 2 2 2 2
c c c c c c
11
110 @
011

101 @ e
Favorable; Lomer Lock
2 2 2 2 2 2
 c c c c c 3 
12
011 @
101

112 @ d c
Unfavorable
2 2 2 2 2 2
c c c c c c
13
011 @
101

110 @ e
Favorable: it can glide on
2 2 2 2 2 2 111
c c c c c 3 
14
011 @
110

121 @ d c
Unfavorable
2 2 2 2 2 2
c c c c 
c 
c
15
011 @
110

101 @ e
Favorable; Lomer Lock
2 2 2 2 2 2
c c c 
c 
16
011 @
011
c
010 @
c
Unfavorable
2 2 2 2
c c c c
17
011 @
011
c
001 @
c
Unfavorable
2 2 2 2

14. Let the slip plane be one of the 12 {110} planes. Dislocation & the Burgers vector must lie on slip
plane. The Possible glide planes are 110, 101, 011. The best way to check if dot product of
Burgers vector & plane normal is equal to zero (b.n = 0). If the slip plane were of type {112} the
slip plane for this case would be 211, 121 & 112. Try to find out the possible slip plane of
type {123}.

If it were an edge dislocation one must specify its direction. It could glide only if it lies on one of
the slip planes. For example an edge dislocation
111lying along
211could glide on 011.


Find other possibilities.

15. Look at the standard project & identify the the slip plane & direction having highest resolved
shear stress. In this case it is 111
101. Therefore resolved shear stress:h
" 567i 567j.
]:]:]B  ]:']:]B 
567i

& 567j

 k The force on dislocation
√B√ √ √√ √
which is
'.Bm m
mobile is given by l
hD
"D567i567j
100 ]  ] 10` ]  m=0.012 N/m
√ √

16. The force on a dislocation is given by ln

onp3 "pq Dq >3 The subscripts can have values 1, 2 or 3.
Since only non zero compoments of σ, b & t are σ22, b2 & t1. ln
on " D > Therefore
subscript i has to be 3 (onp3
1 r6s t u v u A /7/ onp3
0 & oB
&1  Thus lB
&" D
This being an edge dislocation can climb noly due to a force acting along its Burgers vector. Since
the force is along x3 it can help it climb down.

17. Assume both dislocations lie on (001) plane. Let this be the glide plane. Since x2 = 0 only non

zero force acting on the dislocation is given by l
J Since both dislocations have
9
positive b they would repel each other. Here it is balanced by a force acting on the second

dislocation which is τb. Therefore the distance between the two is given by 0
w

']'; ]'.S]'[^

59.7z
]]'.B]'
  '']'; ]'.S
18. Shear stress τ is given by h
q

]';

25{|c This represents shear strength. YS is
usually = 2 x shear stregth = 50MPa.

19. Look at the following schematic diagram given below relating different parameters during
rolling. Assume that plate width is 1 & initial length is l0. Since the volume during rolling does not
q 8
change it can be shown that strain is given by }
  

2 The time to achieve this
q 8
strain is estimated as follows:

If R is the roll radius ω is the angular velocity, time it takes

to give this deformation =θ/ω. Since R=25, $

‰ [‰
Z  ' Œ
567 
ˆ
Š
567  S
567  0.8 & ‹

θ Z m'
]'' '  BWXE [9 '.a

7
0.031& strain
20
m' B '
>'
Thus time =
q-

'.'B
22.567  . Stored energy due to
t
rate =}Ž
increased dislocation density =0.5_D R = 0.5 x 200 x 10 x
 9

(0.25)2 x 10-18 x 1011 x 104 = 6.25 MJ/m3

Energy spent =flow stress x strain = 300 ln(2) = 208 MJ/m3. This shows only a very small amount
of the total enegy is stored within the metal. Bulk of it is dissipated as heat. Assuming the
( 'am.S]'\
process of rolling is adiabatic temperature increase ∆
OE
T 46€
a`'k]'.`]';

20. Total strain (ε) is given by }

RD0 where ρ is dislocation density, b is Burgers vector & 0 is the
‚
average glide distance of dislocation. Burgers vector b = a/√3 =0.248nm. Therefore 0
O

'.B
'.a]'[^ ]'9ƒ

1.21 ] 10S z. This is equal to 1.21micron which is less than its grain size.
The average velocity = 1.21x10-3 m/s.

21. The force experienced by a dislocation due to another at a distance x on the slip plane is given

by l
J . Since the dislocation source is at the centre of the grain, it is at a distance =

d/2 from the disloaction at grain boundary. Therefore x=d/2. Thus l
„ This may be


assumed to be the resisting force acting on the source. The net force acting on the source = τb-F
 k']'^ ]'.'`]'[9…
which is
hD & 
50 ] 10m ] 0.3 ] 10` &
0.015 & 0.00057 T
]'.k]S]'[\
0.014†/z

  '.'S

110


0.29z The spacing
 √ √
22. Burgers vector of a dislocation in a tilt boundary =
 '.`
between two dislocations is given by ?
,
] 180
3.32z
S
  '.BS


0.25z When the dislocations are 10b apart energy of the low
√ √
23. Burgers vector =

'
angle boundary = (since boundary consists of one dislocation of unit length at every distance
  

$% & $ where q = b/10b = 0.1rad & A
@
''  ''],
of h). h = 2r0 =10b. Thus
$ =-1.42


24. Since poisson ration is same as in the previous problem 
$&1.42 & $


a]'^ ]'.S]'[^  
&1.42 &  
0.13 J/m2
]]'.B a' a'

(  
25. Differentiating the expression for E: ,
 % & $ , & $
0 Thus $J
% & 1 On

substituting the magtitude of A from the previous problem $J
5.1⁰ & J
$
 J
( , , , ,
(note A = 1+ln θmax) (
, % & $
1 @ $J & $
, 1 &  , 
)*+ )*+ ,)*+ )*+ )*+

26. Energy of the free surface depends on the way atoms are arranged. This varies from grain to
grain depending on their orientations. If Z is the cordination number, the number of bonds of

type AA in one mole of pure metal =  ’†' where N0 is Avogrado number. If ε is the energy of

one bond, bE
 ’†' } where Ls is heat of sublimation. The free surface has a set of broken
bonds. Energy of a broken bond is approximately ε/2. The number depends on the indices of the
top surface. If it were (111) there will be 3 broken bonds / atom (There are 6 bonds on the plane
3 beneath & 3 above it). Energy of free surface is therefore = 3ε/2 J/atom. If na is number of
B NG - *
atom / unit area surcae free energy “E
 ”•
The arrangements of atom in (111) plane is
B NG   √B N G
shown below. On substituion in expression for “E

”•
2.5–/z
 ”• √B 

c
√2 0.5 4


c 
√3c
0.5 — ˜ 7t60
√2
60⁰