Coatings Formulation Guide

An overview of Dow’s capabilities

and recommendations in several
coating formulations
Index

Water-based architectural coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Water-based industrial coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Solvent-based industrial coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Water-based automotive coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Solvent-based automotive coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Water-based wood coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Solvent-based marine and protective coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Additional information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2
1. Water-based architectural coatings
• Pigment/binder ratio and pigment volume concentration
in the formulation
• Compatibility of the components
• Minimal film formation temperature
• Odor of the paint
• Application properties (leveling, sagging)
• Storage stability

1.5 Components used in water-based

architectural coatings
Preservatives, biocides and fungicides hinder the growth
of microorganisms during the storage and after application
of the paint.
1.1 Description A water-based architectural coating has to contain several
An architectural coating is the product used for decoration ingredients that play key roles in paint manufacturing but
and protection of new constructions as well as maintaining also impact the performance of the finished coating. The
existing buildings: residential areas, apartments, offices, concentration of each component varies depending on
commercial and public properties. Architectural coatings are the paint. The typical ranges of the concentration of each
the biggest group of products within the coatings market. The component are demonstrated in the table:
majority of the decorative coatings are water-based systems
and the constant volume growth of this group is foreseen. Component Content %
Water-based architectural coatings can generally be divided Water 35-50
into two groups: interior and exterior paints. Pigment 10-20
Fillers 10-30
1.2 Benefits
Binder 10-40
• Safe handling and storage – low flammability and toxicity
Rheology modifier 0,2-1,5
• Easy to use for both consumers and professionals Wetting agent 0,2-1,0
• Good properties of the coating (opacity, washability, dirt Dispersant 0,5-1,0
resistance, scrub resistance, gloss adhesion to different
Defoamer 0,2-0,6
substrates, UV resistance)
Preservative 0,1-0,3
• Low content of volatile organic compounds (VOC) and
Coalescing agent/cosolvent 1-5
low odor
pH stabilizer 0,1-0,3
• Good cost/performance balance
Please bear in mind that in specific paints, the concentration
1.3 Key trends in architectural coatings might differ from the one given in the table or other types of
• Low to zero VOC and odor free ingredients might be used to provide the desired properties
of the coating.
• New binders for coalescent free paints
Pigment is responsible for optical properties like hiding
• Coatings from bio-renewable sources
gloss and opacity. It also significantly affects the total cost
1.4 Criteria for architectural coatings formulation of the paint. The most popular pigment used in the water-
based architectural coatings is titanium dioxide. Cheaper
The main drivers for the formulators are the regulations imposed
components (like carbonates, clay, talc or mica) are used as
by authorities. These regulations are designed to mitigate the
fillers in the paint formulation. Fillers are responsible for the
potential adverse impact of the paint on the human health. It’s
opacity, whiteness, gloss and rheology of the paint.
crucial for the formulator to design the paint system so it meets
the requirements of the regulations. Waterborne coatings are dominated by straight acrylics
(copolymers of acrylate esters: methyl, butyl, ethyl) and vinyl-
The main criteria for painting formulations, apart from the
acrylic binders. Other binders (like alkyds) are used not so
regulatory issues, that should be considered while designing
frequently in architectural applications. Binders impact the
a water-based architectural coating system are:
final performance of the finished coating (minimal film formation
• Type of the binder depending on the end use (interior or temperature, scrub resistance, weatherability, washability,
exterior paint) - curing conditions durability, gloss, water resistance, and efflorescence resistance).

3
Rheology modifiers, like HEUR (hydrophobically modified
urethanes), HASE (hydrophobically modified alkali swellable
emulsions), HEC (Hydroxyethyl cellulose), adjust the flow
behavior of the paint while applying it with a roller or a brush
and contribute to leveling and sagging performance of the
paint. Additionally, they enhance the storage stability.
Wetting agents lower the surface tension at the phase
boundary and allow the efficient wetting of the pigment,
thus enhancing the pigment dispersion process. Anionic and
nonionic surfactants are popular wetting agents used in paint
formulation as they additionally improve the stability of the
system (stability of dispersion and freeze-thaw stability) and
wetting to various substrates.
Dispersants, for example salts of polyacrylic acid,
polyphosphates, alcohol ethoxylates, prevent the flocculation
of the pigment particles dispersed in the grinding process.
Dow offers silicone additives which are used as dispersants,
in addition to these solutions.
Defoamers and deaerants decrease the volume of foam
generated during the manufacturing (process-aid) and
during application eliminating/minimizing the film defects.
Preservatives, biocides and fungicides hinder the growth
of microorganisms during the storage and after application
of the paint.
Coalescing agents (glycol ethers, esters) decrease the
minimal film formation temperature and ensure homogeneity
of the coating after application.
Cosolvents increases the solubilizing power of the medium and
stabilizes the viscosity
Neutralizing agents, amine derivatives in most cases,
increase the pH of the paint thus increase the stability of the
product. They also enable rheology modifiers to reach the
maximum efficiency.
1.6 How to develop a water-based architectural
coating
Prior to initiating the formulation development, it’s essential to
become familiar with the properties of the products used (Safety
and Technical Data Sheets) and the specifics of the laboratory
equipment in order to assure proper safety measures.
Generally, the preparation of the paint can be divided into two
parts: pigment dispersion (so called “grinding”) and let down.
Pigment dispersion (“Grinding”)
The purpose of this stage is to destroy the pigment clusters and
to obtain fine particle pigment dispersion. In most cases, this
operation is carried out in bead mills. The process is run until
needed particle size is achieved. Grinding can be controlled by
the measurement of Hegman fineness.
Let down
At this stage, a binder is added to the dispersion together
with other additives (defoamer, coalescing agent, preservative,
rheology modifiers). At the end of this stage, the viscosity of the
paint can be adjusted to the required value, if needed, using
thinner (water) or thickener.
4
We recommend starting with the recipe calculated for 500g of
the ready paint. This quantity is sufficient to evaluate the paint
properties as well as the properties of the finished coating.
1.6.1 Procedure
During formulation, it is important that all of the components
have demonstrated that they are compatible with each other.
While stirring mechanically, add to the mixer a defined volume
of solvent, defoamer, dispersant, pigment, and fillers. Biocide
can be added during grinding (it helps avoid grids generation).
Then the paste is ground at a high-speed rate – high shear forces
cause the destruction of the pigment agglomerates into fine
particles. Usually the speed of the mixer is no lower than 1200 rpm.
The friction generated during the grinding process may raise
the temperature of the system. Cooling is necessary during this
process to prevent the degradation or alteration of the behavior
of the used components (defoamer, dispersant, etc).
This step is run until the desired particle size is achieved.
In the let down stage, the remaining ingredients are added at
a slow mixing rate: binder, coalescing agent neutralizing agent,
rheology modifiers, preservatives. The viscosity of the paint
can be adjusted with the addition of thickener or thinner (water).
This is a general procedure. Please consider that in numerous
water-based architectural coatings formulations, some
ingredients might be added in different order (for example, to
adjust the viscosity of the paste during the pigment dispersion);
therefore, the experience and the knowledge of the formulator
play a key role in the process of formulation development.
1.6.2 Methods of analysis
There is no set definition of a single methodology to assess the
properties of the coating formulation. Each coating company
defines the most appropriate analysis suitable for its needs
based on the recognized standards for each country or region
(for example ISO, ASTM).
We recommend evaluating the following properties:
Properties of the paint:
• Viscosity profile
• Paint stability
• Density
• Freeze-thaw stability
Finished coating properties:
• Opacity
• Gloss
• Color acceptance
• Water resistance
• Scrub resistance
• Dirt pick up
• Minimum film forming temperature
Since there is no specific methodology, it is important to
use a single method during development to ensure proper
comparisons between formulations.
For more details on methods of analysis please refer to
organization webpages (ISO, ASTM etc).
1.6.3 Suggested formulations Low VOC white paint formulation for interiors with excellent
stain resistance based on acrylic resin
This is a suggested formula and needs to be tested.
Regulations may vary by city, state, country, or geographic region. % by
Function Product
weight
Not all ingredients listed may be available or approved for every
region. Please contact the Customer Information Group in Grinding
your region for any additional, relevant regulatory information. Vehicle Water 6,73
In the following tables, products offered by Dow are marked Dispersant TAMOL™ 165A* 0,57
with “*”. Surfactant TERGITOL™ 15-S-40* 0,19
Solvent Propylene glycol 0,82
White paint formulation
Pigment Titanium dioxide 32,36
% by
Function Product 5-chloro-2-methyl-4-
weight Preservative 0,17
isothiazolin-3-one based
Grinding
Let down
Vehicle Water 20,51
Binder RHOPLEX™ VSR-1050* 45,91
Dispersant OROTAN™ 731 A ER* 0,25
Solvent Propylene glycol 0,19
Thickener Cellosize QP-4400H 0,44
Coalescent UCAR™ Filmer IBT* 0,46
Defoamer DOWSIL™ 8590 Additive* 0,36
Mineral oil and
Pigment Titanium dioxide 15,26 Defoamer 0,19
silicone additives
Extender Talc 7,38 Neutralizing agent Ammonia (28%) 0,04
Extender Nepheline syenite extender 5,21 Rheology modifier ACRYSOL™ RM-2020* 2,87
Extender Calcium carbonate 9,34 Rheology modifier ACRYSOL™ SCT-275* 0,43
Let down Vehicle Water 9,09
Binder UCAR™ Latex DL 420G* 25,02 Sum 100
Opacifier ROPAQUE™ Ultra E* 4,01
pH modifier Potassium hydroxide 5% 0,25 Satin interior wall paint formulation
Coalescent DOWANOL™ TPnB* 1,59 % by
Rheology modifier ACRYSOL™ RM-5000* 0,99 Function Product
weight
Rheology modifier ACRYSOL™ RM-8W* 0,39 Grinding
Biocide BIT and MIT mixture 0,15 Vehicle Water 5,94
Vehicle Water 8,85 Dispersant OROTAN™ 731 A ER* 1,10
Sum 100 Defoamer TRITON™ DF 16* 0,20
Defoamer DOWSIL™ 8590 Additive* 0,16
Pigment Titanium dioxide 20,76
Filler Nepheline syenite extender 6,64
Rheology modifier ACRYSOL™ RM-5000* 0,36
Let down
Binder PRIMAL™ SG-380* 47,60
Opacifier ROPAQUE™ Ultra E* 4,54
Coalescent UCAR™ Filmer IBT* 1,82
Rheology modifier ACRYSOL™ RM-5000* 1,62
Vehicle Water 9,25
Sum 100

5
2. Water-based industrial coatings
• Type of the binder and the curing conditions
• Two component coatings – ratio between base component
and hardener
• Type of the pigment and fillers
• Type of the additives to be used in the formulation
• Pigment/binder ratio and pigment volume concentration
in the formulation
• Compatibility of the components
• Performance of the coating

2.5 Components used in water-based

industrial coatings
Preservatives, biocides and fungicides hinder the growth
2.1 Description
of microorganisms during the storage and after application
Solvent-based industrial coatings are used to protect metal of the paint.
surfaces from corrosion and properties deterioration caused by
A water-based industrial coating has to contain several
the impact of the environment. They are also used for decorative
ingredients that play key roles in paint manufacturing but
purposes. Such paints might be applied to metal surfaces in
also impact the performance of the finished coating. The
industrial lines (can/coil) or used by consumers (Do It Yourself).
concentration of each component varies depending on
Water-based paints are not very popular in the can/coil the paint. The typical ranges of the concentration of each
painting process as it’s dominated by solvent-based systems. component are demonstrated in the table:
It’s estimated that 85% of can/coil paints are solvent-based.
Nevertheless, it’s expected that water-based systems’ share Component Content %
will increase in the future. Water 35-50
Pigment 10-20
2.2 Benefits
Fillers 10-30
• Safe handling and storage – low flammability and toxicity
Binder 10-40
• Easy to use for both consumers and professionals
Rheology modifier 0,2-1,5
• Fast curing time – more efficient lines Wetting agent 0,2-1,0
• Good properties of the coating (drying time, hardness, Dispersant 0,5-1,0
adhesion to different substrates, durability) Defoamer 0,2-0,6
• Low content of volatile organic compounds (VOC) and Preservative 0,1-0,3
low odor Coalescing agent/cosolvent 1-5
• Good cost/performance balance pH stabilizer 0,1-0,3

2.3 Key trends in industrial coatings
• Driving to zero VOC
• Water-based system’s share expected to grow
• Coatings from bio-renewable sources
• Silicone contamination free coatings
2.4 Criteria for water-based industrial
coating formulation
The main drivers for the formulators are the regulations imposed
by authorities. These regulations are designed to mitigate the
potential adverse impact of the paint on human health. It’s crucial
for the formulator to design the paint system so it meets the
requirements of the regulations. The main criteria for painting
formulations that should be considered while designing a water-
based architectural coating system are:
6
Please bear in mind that in specific paints, the concentration
might differ from the one given in the table or other types of
ingredients might be used to provide the desired properties
of the coating.
Pigment is responsible for optical properties like hiding,
gloss and opacity. It also significantly affects the total cost of
the paint. The most popular pigments used in water-based
industrial coatings are metal oxides (titanium, iron).
Cheaper components (like carbonates, clay, talc or mica) are
used as fillers in the paint formulation. Fillers are responsible
for the opacity, whiteness, gloss and rheology of the paint.
Binders used in water borne industrial coatings are based on
acrylic, polyesters, alkyd, epoxy, polyolefins and PU. Binders
impact the final performance of the finished coating (like
minimal film formation temperature, corrosion resistance and
UV resistance).
Rheology modifiers (HEUR for example) adjust the flow
behavior of the paint, like reducing dripping while applying the
paint with a roller or a brush. Additionally, they enhance the
storage stability.
Wetting agents lower the surface tension at the phase
boundary and allow the efficient wetting of the pigment,
thus enhancing the pigment dispersion process. Anionic and
nonionic surfactants are popular wetting agents used in paint
formulation as they additionally improve the stability of the
system (stability of dispersion and freeze-thaw stability) and
wetting to various substrates.
Dispersants – for example, salts of polyacrylic acid,
polyphosphates, alcohol ethoxylates – prevent the flocculation
of the pigment particles dispersed in the grinding process.
Defoamers and deaerants minimize film formation during
paint manufacturing and processing. Preservatives, biocides
and fungicides hinder the growth of microorganisms during the
storage and after application of the paint.
Coalescing agents (glycol ethers, esters) decrease the minimal
film formation temperature.
As cosolvents, the same group of products can be used as
coalescent (glycol ethers, esters but also alcohols). Coalescing
agents (glycol ethers, esters) decrease the minimal film
formation temperature and ensure homogeneity of the coating
after application.
Neutralizing agents – in most cases, amine derivatives –
increase the pH of the paint, thus increase the stability of the
product. They also enable rheology modifiers to reach the
maximum efficiency.
2.6 How to develop a water-based industrial coating
Prior to initiating the formulation development, it’s essential to
become familiar with the properties of the products used (SDS,
TDS) and the specifics of the laboratory equipment in order to
assure proper safety measures.
Generally, the preparation of the paint can be divided into two
parts: pigment dispersion (so called “grinding”) and let down.
Pigment dispersion (“Grinding”)
The purpose of this stage is to destroy the pigment clusters and
to obtain fine particle pigment dispersion. In most cases, this
operation is carried out in bead mills. The process is run until
needed particle size is achieved.
Let down
At this stage, a binder is added to the dispersion together
with other additives (defoamer, coalescing agent, preservative,
rheology modifiers). At the end of this period, the viscosity of
the paint can be adjusted to the required value, if needed, using
thinner or thickener.
We recommend starting with the recipe calculated for 500g of
the ready paint. This quantity is sufficient to evaluate the paint
properties as well as the properties of the finished coating.
2.6.1 Procedure
During this stage, it is important that all of the components
have demonstrated that they are compatible with each other.
While stirring mechanically, add to the mixer a defined volume
of solvent, defoamer, dispersant, pigment, and fillers. Biocide
can be added either during grinding (it helps avoid grids
generation) or let down step.
Then the paste is ground at a high-speed rate – high shear
forces causes the destruction of the pigment agglomerates into
fine particles. Usually the speed of the mixer is no lower than
1200 rpm.
The friction generated during the grinding process may raise
the temperature of the system. Cooling is necessary during this
process to prevent the degradation or alteration of the behavior
of the used components (defoamer, dispersant, etc).
This step is run until the desired particle size is achieved. When
working on clearcoat formulations, this step is skipped as there
is no pigment used.
In the let down stage, the remaining ingredients are added at
a slow mixing rate: binder, coalescing agent neutralizing agent,
rheology modifiers. The viscosity of the paint can be adjusted
with the addition of thickener or thinner (water).
This is a general procedure. Please consider that in specific
formulations, some ingredients might be added in a different way
or order; therefore, the experience and knowledge of the formulator
play a key role in the process of formulation development.
2.6.2 Methods of analysis
There is no set definition of a single methodology to assess the
properties of the coating formulation. Each coating company
defines the most appropriate analysis suitable for its needs
based on the recognized standards for each country or region
(for example ISO, ASTM).
We recommend evaluating the following properties:
Properties of the paint:
• Viscosity profile
• Paint stability
• Density
• Freeze-thaw stability
Finished coating properties:
• Opacity
• Gloss
• Color acceptance
• Water resistance
• Scrub resistance
• Dirt pick up
• MFFT
7
Since there is no specific methodology, it is important to Coating providing corrosion protection and preventing
use a single method during development to ensure proper chemical damage
comparisons between formulations.
% by
Function Product
For more details on methods of analysis please refer to weight
organization webpages (ISO, ASTM etc). Grinding

2.6.3 Suggested formulations Binder MAINCOTE™ HG-54D* 41,78

Wetting agent TEGITOL™ 15-S-7* 0,89
This is a suggested formula that needs to be tested.
Neutralizing agent Ammonia (28%) 0,10
Regulations may vary by city, state, country, or geographic
Defoamer Mineral oil and polymer based 0,25
region. Not all ingredients listed may be available or approved
for every region. Please contact the Customer Information Pigment Titanium dioxide 13,33
Group (CIG) in your region for any additional and relevant Rheology modifier ACRYSOL™ RM-8W* 0,13
regulatory information. Let down
In the following tables, products offered by Dow are marked Binder MAINCOTE™ HG-54D* 33,27
with “*”. Coalescent DOWANOL™ TPnB* 4,67

Water-based metal coating providing good corrosion Defoamer Mineral oil and polymer based 0,25
resistance without use of primer Wetting agent TEGITOL™ 15-S-7* 1,04
Neutralizing agent Ammonia (28%) 0,42
% by
Function Product Anticorrosion
weight Sodium nitrite (15%) 0,86
Grinding additive

Vehicle Water 4,93 Vehicle Water 2,92

Neutralizing agent Ammonia (28%) 0,10 Rheology modifier ACRYSOL™ RM-8W* 0,08

Dispersant TAMOL™ 681* 0,82 Sum 100

Wetting agent TRITON™ CF-10* 0,15

Defoamer DOWSIL™ 108F Additive* 0,10
Pigment Titanium dioxide 19,24
Let down
Binder AVANSE™ 200* 63,24
Vehicle Water 4,29
Neutralizing agent Ammonia (28%) 0,39
Coalescent UCAR™ Filmer IBT* 4,27
Defoamer DOWSIL™ 108F Additive* 0,10
Anticorrosion
Sodium nitrite (15%) 0,89
additive
Rheology modifier ACRYSOL™ RM-5000* 1,48
Sum 100

8
3. Solvent-based industrial coatings
• Type of the binder and the curing conditions
• Two component coatings – ratio between base component
and hardener
• Type of the pigment and fillers
• Type of the solvent to be used in the formulation
• Pigment/binder ratio and pigment volume concentration
in the formulation
• Compatibility of the components
• Performance of the coating

3.5 Components used in solvent-based

industrial coatings
A solvent-based industrial coating has to contain several
3.1 Description
ingredients that play key roles in paint manufacturing but also
Solvent-based industrial coatings are used to protect metal impact the performance of the finished coating. The concentration
surfaces from corrosion and properties deterioration caused of each component varies depending on the paint end use. The
by the impact of the environment. They are also used for typical ranges of the concentration of each component are
decorative purposes. Such paints might be applied to metal demonstrated in the table:
surfaces in industrial lines (can/coil) or used by consumers (DIY).
It’s estimated that 85% of can/coil paints are solvent-based. Component Content %
Nevertheless, it’s expected that water-based systems’ share Solvent 30-50
will increase in the future. Pigment 10-20
Fillers 10-30
3.2 Benefits
Binder 10-40
• Easy to use for both consumers and professionals
Rheology modifier 0,2-1,5
• Energy efficient process in faster production lines Wetting agent 0,2-1,0
• Good properties of the coating (drying/curing conditions, Dispersant 0,5-1,0
hardness, gloss, chemical resistance, corrosion resistance,
Other additives 0-1,5
adhesion to substrate)
• Good cost/performance balance Please bear in mind that in specific paints, the concentration
might differ from the one given in the table or other types of
3.3 Key trends in solvent-based industrial coatings ingredients might be used to provide the desired properties
• Reduction or complete replacement of aromatic solvents of the coating.
(xylene, toluene) Solvent plays the role of a vehicle in the paint formulations
• Coatings from bio-renewable sources significantly affecting the properties of the ready product, such
as viscosity and drying time. It also impacts the safety profile
• High solids formulations of the paint, thus the equipment needed to apply the paint in a
• Energy savings – more efficient production lines for coil coating safe manner.
Pigment is responsible for the hiding and opacity properties.
3.4 Criteria for industrial coatings formulation
It also significantly affects the total cost of the paint. The
The main driver in this application is the possibility to decrease most popular pigments used in industrial coatings are oxides:
the environmental impact of the paint ingredients. In solvent- titanium, iron, etc.
based formulations, aromatic solvents still have a major share.
Cheaper components (like carbonates, clay, talc or mica) are
Due to their labelling, it’s expected that low VOC alternatives
used as fillers in the paint formulation. Fillers are responsible
gain bigger shares in the market.
for the opacity, gloss and rheology of the paint.
The main criteria for painting formulations that should be
considered while designing a solvent-based industrial coating
system are:

9
Binders used in industrial coatings are based, in most cases,
on the epoxy, polyester and alkyd resins.
The type of the binder used in the formulation affects the
properties and performance of the coating.
Rheology modifiers adjust the flow behavior of the paint,
like reducing dripping while applying the paint with a roller or
a brush (or any other method). Additionally, they enhance the
storage stability.
Wetting agents lower the surface tension at the phase boundary
and allow the efficient wetting of the pigment, thus enhancing the
pigment dispersion process. Anionic and nonionic surfactants
are popular wetting agents used in paint formulation.
Dispersants prevent the flocculation of the pigment particles.
In solvent systems, similar dispersants can be used in the
water-based formulations (salts of polycarboxylic acids, alcohol
ethoxylates).
Other additives used in the solvent-based industrial coatings
include:
• Anti-settling agents
• Dehydrating agent
• Anti-skinning agent
These are the most important ingredients used in automotive
paint formulations. Please bear in mind that in specific paints,
the concentration might differ from the one given in the table or
other types of ingredients might be used to provide the desired
properties of the coating.
3.6 How to develop a solvent-based industrial
coating
Prior to initiating the formulation development, it’s essential to
become familiar with the properties of the products used (SDS,
TDS) and the specifics of the laboratory equipment in order to
assure proper safety measures.
In most cases, the procedure is similar to the one for water-
based systems – that consists of two steps:
Pigment dispersion (“Grinding”)
The purpose of this stage is to destroy the pigment clusters and
to obtain fine particle pigment dispersion. In most cases, this
operation is carried out in bead mills. The process is run until
needed particle size is achieved.
Let down
At this stage, a binder is added to the dispersion together with
other additives. At the end of this period, the viscosity of the
paint can be adjusted to the required value, if needed, using
thinner or thickener.
We recommend starting with the recipe calculated for 500g of
the ready paint. This quantity is sufficient to evaluate the paint
properties as well as the properties of the finished coating.
10
3.6.1 Procedure
During this stage, it is important that all of the components
have demonstrated that they are compatible with each other.
While stirring mechanically, add to the mixer a defined volume
of solvent, defoamer, dispersant, pigment, and fillers.
Then the paste is ground at a high-speed rate – high shear
forces causes the destruction of the pigment agglomerates into
fine particles. Usually the speed of the mixer is no lower than
1200 rpm.
The friction generated during the grinding process may raise
the temperature of the system. Cooling is necessary during this
process to prevent the evaporation, degradation or alteration of
the behavior of the used components (solvent, dispersant etc).
This step is run until the desired particle size is achieved.
If we are working on clearcoat formulations, this step is skipped
as there is no pigment used.
Often, the “grinding” step is performed with the addition of the
binder (whole amount or only a part and the remaining part
added in let down step).
In the let down stage, the remaining ingredients are added at
a slow mixing rate: binder, rheology modifiers, other additives.
The viscosity of the paint can be adjusted with the addition of
thickener or thinner.
This is a general procedure. Please consider that in specific
formulations, some ingredients might be added in a different way
or order, therefore the experience and knowledge of the formulator
play a key role in the process of formulation development.
3.6.2 Methods of analysis
There is no set definition of a single methodology to assess the
properties of the coating formulation. Each coating company
defines the most appropriate analysis suitable for its needs
based on the recognized standards for each country or region
(for example ISO, ASTM).
We recommend evaluating the following properties:
Properties of the paint:
• Viscosity profile
• Paint stability
• Density
Finished coating properties:
• Opacity
• Hardness
• Gloss
• Color acceptance
• Corrosion resistance
• Chemical resistance
Since there is no specific methodology, it is important to White stoving topcoat
use a single method during development to ensure proper
% by
comparisons between formulations. For more details on Function Product
weight
methods of analysis, please refer to organization webpages
Grinding
(ISO, ASTM, etc).
Alkyd resin
Binder 16,60
3.6.3 Suggested formulations (55% in aromatic solvents)
These are suggested formulations that need to be tested. Pigment Titanium dioxide 30,50
Regulations may vary by city, state, country, or geographic Block copolymer in
Wetting agent 1,20
region. Not all ingredients listed may be available or approved solvent mixture
for every region. Please contact the Customer Information Solvent Aromatic 100 2,50
Group (CIG) in your region for any additional and relevant Let down
regulatory information. Alkyd resin
Binder 20,37
In the following tables, products offered by Dow are marked (in aromatic solvents)
with “*”. Binder Melamine resin (in alcohol) 11,49
Leveling agent Cellulose ester 1,00
Red enamel based on combination of alkyd and
nitrocellulose resins Solvent Aromatic 100 3,84
Solvent Aromatic 150 5,00
% by
Function Product Solvent iso-Butanol* 5,00
weight
Grinding Solvent 2-Ethylhexanol* 2,50
Binder Alkyd resin (70% in xylene) 25,70 Sum 100
Plasticizer Phthalate based 2,40
For solvent-based formulations, Dow recommends replacing
Pigment Quinacridone red pigment 7,60 aromatic solvents (toluene, xylene, aromatic 100, aromatic 150)
Wetting agent Calcium octoate 0,40 with the following grades:
Solvent Butyl acetate* 6,00 • UCAR™ Ester EEP
Solvent Xylene 4,30 • UCAR™ n-Propyl Propionate
Let down
• UCAR™ n-Butyl Propionate
WALSRODER™
Binder Nitrocellulose E 510 18,20 • UCAR™ n-Pentyl Propionate
(in alcohol)* These grades provide excellent solubility of various resins and
Solvent Xylene 8,00 low viscosity of the paint (even in highly loaded formulations).
Solvent Butyl acetate* 19,00 Additionally, the boiling point is higher than aromatic solvents,
enabling the achievement of low VOC requirements.
Solvent N-butanol* 3,80
Solvent Butyl cellosolve acetate* 4,60 Please consider that the performance of the aromatic solvent
replacements has to be checked for every formulation.
Sum 100

11
4. Water-based automotive coatings
4.3 Key trends in water-based automotive coatings
• Driving to zero VOC
• Coatings from bio-renewable sources
• Silicone contamination free coatings

4.4 Criteria for water-based automotive coating

4.1 Description
Automotive coatings are one of the examples of coating systems
based on a few layers. Each layer has its specific function that
impacts the final performance of the automotive coating:
• CED (Cathodic Electrodeposition) – corrosion resistance
• Primer – UV resistance, anti-stone chipping
• Basecoat – color together with visual impression
• Clearcoat – weather resistance, durability of the coating
formulation
The main drivers for the formulators are the regulations imposed
by authorities. These regulations are designed to mitigate the
potential adverse impact of the paint on human health. It’s
crucial for the formulator to design the paint system so it meets
the requirements of the regulations.
The main criteria for painting formulations that should be
considered while designing a water-based architectural coating
system, apart from the regulatory issues, are:
• Type of the binder and the curing conditions
• Two component coatings – ratio between base component
and hardener
• Type of the pigment and fillers
• Type of the additives to be used in the formulation
• Pigment/binder ratio and pigment volume concentration in
the formulation
• Compatibility of the components
• Performance of the coating

4.5 Components used in water-based

automotive coatings
Preservatives, biocides and fungicides hinder the growth
of microorganisms during the storage and after application
of the paint.
A water-based automotive coating has to contain several
ingredients that play key roles in paint manufacturing but
also impact the performance of the finished coating. The
concentration of each component varies depending on
In this application, both systems are used (water and solvent the paint. The typical ranges of the concentration of each
borne) depending on the layer. component are demonstrated in the table:
These coatings are recommended for professional users equipped
Component Content %
with painting lines but also for consumers to perform small repairs
of the coating. Water 35-50
Pigment 10-20
4.2 Benefits Fillers 10-30
• Safe handling and storage – low flammability and toxicity Binder 10-40
• Easy to use for both consumers and professionals Rheology modifier 0,2-1,5
• Fast curing time – more efficient lines Dispersant 0,5-1,0
Defoamer 0,2-0,6
• Good properties of the coating (appearance, gloss, chemical
resistance, hardness, corrosion resistance) Coalescing agent/cosolvent 1,0-5,0

• Low content of volatile organic compounds (VOC) and pH stabilizer 0,1-0,3

low odor
• Good cost/performance balance

12
Please bear in mind that in specific paints, the concentration
might differ from the one given in the table or other types of
ingredients might be used to provide the desired properties
of the coating.
Pigment is responsible for the hiding and opacity properties.
It also significantly affects the total cost of the paint. The most
popular pigments used in water-based industrial coatings are
metal oxides.
Cheaper components (like carbonates, clay, talc or mica) are
used as fillers in the paint formulation. Fillers are responsible
for the opacity, whiteness, gloss and rheology of the paint.
Binders used in water borne automotive coatings are based on
epoxy, PU and polyesters. Binders impact the final performance
of the finished coating (mechanical resistance, UV resistance,
scrub resistance, weatherability, washability).
Rheology modifiers adjust the flow behavior of the paint,
like reducing dripping while applying the paint with a roller
or a brush. Additionally, they enhance the storage stability.
Dispersants – for example, salts of polyacrylic acid,
polyphosphates and alcohol ethoxylates – prevent the
flocculation of the pigment particles.
Defoamers decrease the volume of the foam generated during
paint manufacturing and its application. Preservatives, biocides
and fungicides hinder the growth of microorganisms while
storing the paint.
Coalescing agents (glycol ethers, esters) decrease the minimal
film formation temperature.
As cosolvents, the same group of products can be used as
coalescent (glycol ethers, esters but also alcohols). Cosolvent
increases the solubilizing power of the medium and stabilizes
the viscosity.
Neutralizing agents – in most cases, amine derivatives – increase
the pH of the paint, thus increase the stability of the product.
Please bear in mind that in specific paints, the concentration
might differ from the one given in the table or other types of
ingredients might be used to provide the desired properties
of the coating.
4.6 How to develop a water-based automotive
coating
Prior to initiating the formulation development, it’s essential to
become familiar with the properties of the products used (SDS,
TDS) and the specifics of the laboratory equipment to assure
proper safety measures.
Generally, the preparation of the paint can be divided into two
parts: pigment dispersion (so called “grinding”) and let down.
Pigment dispersion (“Grinding”)
The purpose of this is stage is to destroy the pigment clusters
and to obtain fine particle pigment dispersion. In most cases,
this operation is carried out in bead mills. The process is run
until needed particle size is achieved.
Let down
At this stage, a binder is added to the dispersion together
with other additives (defoamer, coalescing agent, preservative,
rheology modifiers). At the end of this period, the viscosity of
the paint can be adjusted to the required value, if needed, using
a thinner or thickener.
We recommend starting with the recipe calculated for 500g of
the ready paint. This quantity is sufficient to evaluate the paint
properties as well as the properties of the finished coating.
4.6.1 Procedure
During this stage, it is important that all of the components
have demonstrated that they are compatible with each other.
While stirring mechanically, add to the mixer a defined volume
of solvent, defoamer, dispersant, pigment, and fillers.
Then the paste is ground at a high-speed rate – high shear
forces causes the destruction of the pigment agglomerates into
fine particles. Usually the speed of the mixer is no lower than
1200 rpm.
The friction generated during the grinding process may raise
the temperature of the system. Cooling is necessary during this
process to prevent the degradation or alteration of the behavior
of the used components (defoamer, dispersant, etc).
This step is run until the desired particle size is achieved.
If we are working on clearcoat formulations, this step is skipped
as there is no pigment used.
Very often, the “grinding” step is performed with the addition of
the binder (whole amount or only a part and the remaining part
added in let down).
In the let down stage, the remaining ingredients are added at a
slow mixing rate: binder, coalescing agent, rheology modifiers,
neutralizing agent. The viscosity of the paint can be adjusted
with the addition of a thickener or thinner.
This is a general procedure. Please consider that in some
automotive water-based formulations, some ingredients might
be added in a different order; therefore, the experience and
knowledge of the formulator play a key role in the process of
formulation development.
13
4.6.2 Methods of analysis In the following tables, products offered by Dow are marked
with “*”.
There is no set definition of a single methodology to assess the
properties of the coating formulation. Each coating company Grey primer for automotive application
defines the most appropriate analysis suitable for its needs
based on the recognized standards for each country or region % by
Function Product
(for example ISO, ASTM). weight
Grinding
We recommend evaluating the following properties:
Binder Epoxy resin 16,49
Properties of the paint:
Vehicle Water 44,19
• Viscosity profile
Pigment Titanium dioxide 7,48
• Paint stability Pigment Barium sulfate 7,48
• Density Filler Talc 3,51
Finished coating properties: Anticorrosion
Zinc phosphate 3,51
additive
• Appearance
Wetting agent TERGITOL™ 15-S-7* 2,00
• Gloss
Acrylate polymer-based
• Color acceptance Rheology modifier 1,00
additive
• Weather resistance Let down
• Corrosion resistance Binder Epoxy resin 8,00

• Durability Binder Melamin resin 3,24

Defoamer TERGITOL™ L-61* 0,30
Since there is no specific methodology, it is important to
use a single method during development to ensure proper Leveling agent Acrylate copolymer-based 0,20
comparisons between formulations. Cosolvent Butyl CARBITOL™ Solvent* 2,60
For more details on methods of analysis, please refer to Sum 100
organization webpages (ISO, ASTM, etc).
Water-borne basecoat providing metallic effect
4.6.3 Suggested formulations
% by
The following starting formulations are suggested for further Function Product
weight
development and optimization.
Grinding
Regulations may vary by city, state, country, or geographic Cosolvent Butyl CELLOSOLVE™* 4,62
region. Not all ingredients listed may be available or approved
Binder Saturated polyester 0,32
for every region. Please contact the Customer Information
Group (CIG) in your region for any additional and relevant Wetting agent TERGITOL™ TMN-6* 0,48
regulatory information. Pigment Aluminium 6,89
Neutralizing agent MEA 0,03
Let down (separately prepared batch mixed then with
pigment paste)
Binder PU dispersion 28,05
Binder Melamine resin 3,30
Vehicle Water 44,59
Cosolvent Butyl CELLOSOLVE™* Solvent 8,16
Neutralizing agent MEA* 4,24
Acrylate polymer-based
Rheology modifier 2,62
additive
Sum 100

14
5. Solvent-based automotive coatings
5.3 Key trends in solvent-based automotive coatings
• High solids coatings
• Reduction or complete replacement of aromatic solvents
(xylene, toluene)
• Coatings from bio-renewable sources
• Silicone contamination free coatings

5.4 Criteria for solvent-based automotive

5.1 Description
Automotive coatings are one of the examples of coating systems
based on a few layers. Each layer has its specific function that
impacts the final performance of the automotive coating:
coating formulation
The main drivers for the formulators are the regulations imposed
by authorities. These regulations are designed to mitigate the
potential adverse impact of the paint on human health. It’s crucial
for the formulator to design the paint system so it meets the
requirements of the regulations.
The main criteria for painting formulations that should be considered
while designing solvent-based automotive coatings are:
• Type of the binder and the curing conditions

• CED – corrosion resistance
• Primer – UV resistance, anti-stone chipping
• Basecoat – color together with visual impression
• Clearcoat – weather resistance, durability of the coating
• Two component coatings – ratio between base component
and hardener
• Type of the pigment and fillers
• Type of the solvent to be used in the formulation.
• Pigment/binder ratio and pigment volume concentration
in the formulation
• Compatibility of the components
• Performance of the coating

5.5 Components used in solvent-based

automotive coatings
Preservatives, biocides and fungicides hinder the growth
of microorganisms during the storage and after application
of the paint.
A solvent-based automotive coating has to contain several
ingredients that play key roles in paint manufacturing but also impact
the performance of the finished coating. The concentration of each
component varies depending on the paint. The typical ranges of the
concentration of each component are demonstrated in the table:
In this application, both systems are used (water and solvent
borne) depending on the layer. Component Content %
These coatings are dedicated for professional users equipped Solvent 30-50
with painting lines but also for consumers to perform small Pigment 10-20
repairs of the coating.
Fillers 10-30
5.2 Benefits Binder 10-40
• Easy to use for both consumers and professionals Rheology modifier 0,2-1,5
Wetting agent 0,2-1,0
• Fast curing time – more efficient lines
Dispersant 0,5-1,0
• Good properties of the coating (appearance, gloss, chemical
Other additives 0-1,5
resistance, hardness, corrosion resistance)
• Good cost/performance balance Please bear in mind that in specific paints, the concentration
might differ from the one given in the table or other types of
ingredients might be used to provide the desired properties
of the coating.
15
Pigment is responsible for the hiding and opacity properties.
It also significantly affects the total cost of the paint. The most
popular pigments used in solvent-based industrial coatings are
metal oxides.
Cheaper components (like carbonates, clay, talc or mica) are
used as fillers in the paint formulation. Fillers are responsible
for the opacity, whiteness, gloss and rheology of the paint.
Binders used in solvent borne automotive coatings are based
on epoxy, PU and polyesters resins. Some formulations are
based on resin + hardener systems. Binders impact the final
performance of the finished coating (mechanical resistance,
UV resistance, scrub resistance, etc).
Rheology modifiers adjust the flow behavior of the paint,
like reducing dripping while applying the paint with a roller or
a spray (or any other method). Additionally, they enhance the
storage stability.
Wetting agents lower the surface tension at the phase boundary
and allow the efficient wetting of the pigment, thus enhancing the
pigment dispersion process. Anionic and nonionic surfactants
are popular wetting agents used in paint formulation.
Dispersants – for example, salts of polyacrylic acid,
polyphosphates and alcohol ethoxylates – prevent the flocculation
of the pigment particles. Defoamers decrease the volume of the
foam generated during the paint manufacturing and its application.
Other additives used in the solvent-based automotive
coatings include:
• Anti-settling agents
• Dehydrating agent
• Anti-skinning agent
5.3 How to develop a solvent-based automotive
coating
Prior to initiating the formulation development, it’s essential to
become familiar with the properties of the products used (SDS,
TDS) and the specifics of the laboratory equipment to assure
proper safety measures.
Generally, the preparation of the paint can be divided into two
parts: pigment dispersion (so called “grinding”) and let down.
Pigment dispersion (“Grinding”)
The purpose of this stage is to destroy the pigment clusters and
to obtain fine particle pigment dispersion. In most cases, this
operation is carried out in a bead mill. The process is run until
needed particle size is achieved.
Let down
At this stage, a binder is added to the dispersion together with
other additives. At the end of this period, the viscosity of the
paint can be adjusted to the required value, if needed, using a
thinner or thickener.
We recommend starting with the recipe calculated for 500g of
the ready paint. This quantity is sufficient to evaluate the paint
properties as well as the properties of the finished coating.
16
5.6.1 Procedure
During this stage, it is important that all of the components
have demonstrated that they are compatible with each other.
While stirring mechanically, add to the mixer a defined volume
of solvent, dispersant, pigment, and fillers.
Then the paste is ground at a high-speed rate – high shear
forces causes the destruction of the pigment agglomerates into
fine particles. Usually the speed of the mixer is no lower than
1200 rpm.
The friction generated during the grinding process may raise
the temperature of the system. Cooling is necessary during
this process in order to prevent the evaporation, degradation
or alteration of the behavior of the used components (solvent,
dispersant, etc).
This step is run until the desired particle size is achieved. If we
are working on clearcoat formulations, this step is skipped as
there is no pigment used.
Very often, the “grinding” step is performed with the addition of
the binder (whole amount or only a part and the remaining part
added in let down).
In the let down stage, the remaining ingredients are added at a
slow mixing rate: binder rheology modifiers and other additives.
The viscosity of the paint can be adjusted by the addition of a
thickener or thinner.
This is a general procedure. Please consider that in specific
formulations, some ingredients might be added in a different way
or order; therefore, the experience and knowledge of the formulator
play a key role in the process of formulation development.
5.6.2 Methods of analysis
There is no set definition of a single methodology to assess the
properties of the coating formulation. Each coating company
defines the most appropriate analysis suitable for its needs
based on the recognized standards for each country or region
(for example ISO, ASTM).
We recommend evaluating the following properties:
Properties of the paint:
• Viscosity profile
• Paint stability
• Density
Finished coating properties:
• Appearance
• Gloss
• Color acceptance
• Weather resistance
• Corrosion resistance
• Durability
Since there is no specific methodology, it is important to Two component clearcoat
use a single method during development to ensure proper
% by
comparisons between formulations. Function Product
weight
For more details on methods of analysis, please refer to Basic component
organization webpages (ISO, ASTM, etc).
OH functional Acrylic resin
Binder 54,00
5.6.3 Suggested formulations (60% in aromatic solvent)
Leveling agent Cellulose ester 1,33
The following starting formulations are suggested for further
development and optimization. Hydroxyphenyl
UV absorber 0,53
benzotriazole based
Regulations may vary by city, state, country, or geographic
Light stabilizer Amine-based light stabilizer 0,40
region. Not all ingredients listed may be available or approved
for every region. Please contact the Customer Information Leveling agent Silicone oil (1% in xylene) 0,67
Group (CIG) in your region for any additional and relevant Carboxylate salt
Catalyst 0,10
regulatory information. (10% in butyl acetate)
In the following tables, products offered by Dow are marked Solvent Butyl acetate* 4,33
with “*”. Solvent Butyl CELLOSOLVE™ Acetate* 2,67
Solvent Xylene 2,63
Oxidatively curing white for automotive repairs
Hardener
% by Mixture of polyisocyanates
Function Product
weight Binder 21,47
(in butyl acetate)
Grinding
Solvent Butyl acetate* 8,00
Alkyd resin
Binder 21,48 Solvent Xylene 3,87
(55% in aromatic solvents)
Sum 100
Pigment Titanium dioxide 22,80
Wetting agent Calcium octoate 0,87 Basic component and hardener are mixed before
Solvent Aromatic 100 8,28 the application.
Let down For solvent-based formulations, Dow recommends replacing
Alkyd resin aromatic solvents (toluene, xylene, Aromatic 100, Aromatic 150)
Binder 42,42 with the following grades:
(55% aromatic solvents)
DOWANOL™ PMA* • UCAR™ Ester EEP
Leveling agent 2,15
Glycol Ether • UCAR™ n-Propyl Propionate
Siccative Zirkonium octoate 0,30
• UCAR™ n-Butyl Propionate
Binder Alkylphenolic resin 1,40
• UCAR™ n-Pentyl Propionate
Anti-skin additive Amino compound in solvent 0,30
Sum 100 These provide excellent solubility of various resins and low
viscosity of the paint (even in highly loaded formulations).
Additionally, their boiling points are higher than those of aromatic
solvents, enabling the achievement of low VOC requirements.
Please consider that performance of the aromatic solvent
replacements has to be checked for every formulation.

17
6. Water-based wood coating
6.3 Key trends in wood coatings
• Driving to zero VOC
• Fast curing coatings
• Coatings from bio-renewable sources

6.4 Criteria for water-based wood coatings

The main drivers for the formulators are the regulations imposed
by authorities. These regulations are designed to mitigate the
potential adverse impact of the paint on human health. It’s
crucial for the formulator to design the paint system so it meets
the requirements of the regulations.
The main criteria for painting formulations that should be
considered while designing a water-based wood coatings
system, apart from the regulatory issues, are:
• Type of the binder and the curing conditions
• Two component coatings – ratio between base component
and hardener
• Type of the pigment and fillers
• Type of the additives to be used in the formulation
• Pigment/binder ratio and pigment volume concentration
in the formulation
• Compatibility of the components
• Performance of the coating

6.5 Components used in water-based wood coatings

Preservatives, biocides and fungicides hinder the growth
of microorganisms during the storage and after application
of the paint.
A water-based wood coating has to contain several ingredients
that play key roles in paint manufacturing but also impact the
6.1 Description
performance of the finished coating. The concentration of each
A wood coating is used to protect from environmental factors component varies depending on the paint. The typical ranges of the
(water, UV ray from the sunlight, chemicals, etc.) and to decorate concentration of each component are demonstrated in the table:
the indoor and outdoor furniture, doors and other elements. The
wood coatings market can be divided into consumer use (“do Component Content %
it yourself”) and a professional segment. The majority of the Water 35-50
protective and decorative coatings are water-based systems
Pigment 10-20
and the constant volume growth of this group is foreseen.
Fillers 10-30
6.2 Benefits Binder 10-40
• Safe handling and storage – low flammability and toxicity Rheology modifier 0,2-1,5
• Easy to use for both consumers and professionals Wetting agent 0,2-1,0

• Good properties of the coating (opacity/transparency, dirt Dispersant 0,5-1,0

resistance, scrub resistance, gloss, chemical resistance, Defoamer 0,2-0,6
natural look, UV resistance) Preservative 0,1-0,3
• Low content of volatile organic compounds (VOC) and Coalescing agent 1-5
low odor pH stabilizer 0,1-0,3
• Good cost/performance balance

18
Please bear in mind that in specific paints, the concentration
might differ from the one given in the table or other types of
ingredients might be used to provide the desired properties
of the coating.
Pigment is responsible for the hiding and opacity properties.
It also significantly affects the total cost of the paint. The most
popular pigment used in the water-based wood coatings is
titanium dioxide. In many formulations, colorants along with
UV protectors are used to give a delicate tint to the coating.
Cheaper components (like carbonates, clay, talc or mica) are
used as fillers in the paint formulation. Fillers are responsible
for the opacity, whiteness, gloss and rheology of the paint.
Pigments and fillers are not used in the clearcoat formulations.
In the majority of cases, wood coatings do not contain much
pigment to keep the wood structure visible. In this kind of
application, colorants in small amounts are used to achieve
slightly tinted, transparent or semi-transparent coating.
Waterborne wood coatings are dominated by straight acrylic
and polyurethane (two-component) binders. Binders impact
the final performance of the finished coating (Minimum film
formation temperature, weatherability, washability).
Rheology modifiers, like HEUR, adjust the flow behavior of
the paint, like reducing dripping while applying the paint with a
roller or a brush. Additionally, they enhance the storage stability.
Wetting agents lower the surface tension at the boundary
phase and allow the efficient wetting of the pigment, thus
enhancing the pigment dispersion process. Anionic and nonionic
surfactants are popular wetting agents used in paint formulation.
Dispersants – for example, salts of polyacrylic acid,
polyphosphates and alcohol ethoxylates – prevent the
flocculation of the pigment particles.
Defoamers decrease the volume of the foam generated during
the paint manufacturing and its application. Preservatives,
biocides and fungicides hinder the growth of microorganisms
while storing the paint.
Coalescing agents (glycol ethers, esters) decrease the minimal
film formation temperature.
Neutralizing agents – in most cases, amine derivatives –
increase the pH of the paint, thus increasing the stability of
the product.
6.6 How to develop a water-based wood coating
Prior to initiating the formulation development, it’s essential to
become familiar with the properties of the products used (SDS,
TDS) and the specifics of the laboratory equipment in order to
assure proper safety measures.
Generally, the preparation of the paint can be divided into two
parts: pigment dispersion (so called “grinding”) and let down.
Pigment dispersion (“Grinding”)
The purpose of this stage is to destroy the pigment clusters and
to obtain fine particle pigment dispersion. In most cases, this
operation is carried out in bead mills. The process is run until
needed particle size is achieved.
Let down
At this stage, a binder is added to the dispersion together
with other additives (defoamer, coalescing agent, preservative,
rheology modifiers). At the end of this phase, the viscosity of
the paint can be adjusted to the required value, if needed, using
a thinner or thickener.
We recommend starting with the recipe calculated for 500g of
the ready paint. This quantity is sufficient to evaluate the paint
properties as well as the properties of the finished coating.
6.6.1 Procedure
During this stage, it is important that all of the components
have demonstrated that they are compatible with each other.
While stirring mechanically, add to the mixer a defined volume
of water, defoamer, dispersant, pigment, and fillers.
Then the paste is ground at a high-speed rate – high shear
forces causes the destruction of the pigment agglomerates into
fine particles. Usually the speed of the mixer is no lower than
1200 rpm.
The friction generated during the grinding process may raise
the temperature of the system. Cooling is necessary during this
process to prevent the degradation or alteration of the behavior
of the used components (defoamer, dispersant etc).
This step is run until the desired particle size is achieved. If we
are working on clearcoat formulations, this step is skipped as
there is no pigment used.
In the let down stage, the remaining ingredients are added
at a slow mixing rate: binder, coalescing agent, preservative,
rheology modifiers, neutralizing agent. The viscosity of the paint
can be adjusted with the addition of a thickener or thinner.
This is a general procedure. Please consider that in specific
formulations, some ingredients might be added in a different way
or order; therefore, the experience and knowledge of the formulator
play a key role in the process of formulation development.
6.6.2 Methods of analysis
There is no set definition of a single methodology to assess the
properties of the coating formulation. Each coating company
defines the most appropriate analysis suitable for its needs
based on the recognized standards for each country or region
(for example ISO, ASTM).
We recommend evaluating the following properties:
Properties of the paint:
• Viscosity profile
• Paint stability
• Density
• Freeze-thaw stability
19
Finished coating properties: Transparent toner with low maintenance requirements
• Opacity % by
Function Product
• Gloss weight
Grinding
• Color acceptance
Binder ROSHIELD™ 3311* 55,19
• Water resistance
Vehicle Water 24,32
• Scrub resistance Solvent Butyl CELLOSOLVE* 0,98
• Dirt pick up DOWANOL™ DPnB*
Wetting agent 0,24
• MFFT Glycol Ether

Since there is no specific methodology, it is important to Defoamer DOWSIL™ 108F Additive* 1,51
use a single method during development to ensure proper Preservative TRITON™ HW-1000* 0,64
comparisons between formulations. Anionic parrafin-based
Light absorber 0,51
For more details on methods of analysis, please refer to emulsion
organization webpages (ISO, ASTM, etc). Light stabilizer Thermosetting plastic powder 0,24
Let down
6.6.3 Suggested formulations
Block resistance
The following starting formulations are suggested for further ACRYSOL™ RM-2020NPR* 0,93
additive
development and optimization. Vehicle ACRYSOL™ RM-12W* 13,46
Regulations may vary by city, state, country, or geographic Pigment/colorant Red iron oxide dispersion 0,35
region. Not all ingredients listed may be available or approved Pigment/colorant Yellow iron oxide dispersion 0,76
for every region. Please contact the Customer Information
Rheology modifier ACRYSOL™ RM-8W* 0,87
Group (CIG) in your region for any additional and relevant
regulatory information. Sum 100

In the following tables, products offered by Dow are marked

with “*”.

Water-based wood clearcoat

% by
Function Product
weight
Let down
Binder ROSHIELD™ 3311* 75,6
Vehicle Water 10
Coalescent Butyl CELLOSOLVE* 3,99
DOWANOL™ DPnB*
Coalescent 2,58
Glycol Ether
Defoamer DOWSIL™ 108F Additive* 0,37
Wetting agent TRITON™ HW-1000* 0,31
Block resistance Anionic parrafin-based
4,55
additive emulsion
Matt agent Thermosetting plastic powder 1,5
Rheology modifier ACRYSOL™ RM-2020NPR* 0,3
Rheology modifier ACRYSOL™ RM-12W* 0,3
Rheology modifier ACRYSOL™ RM-8W* 0,5
Sum 100

20
7. Solvent-based marine and protective coatings
The main criteria for painting formulations that should be
considered while designing a solvent-based marine and
protective coating system are:
• Type of the binder and the curing conditions
• Two component coatings – ratio between base component
and hardener
• Type of the pigment and fillers
• Type of the solvent to be used in the formulation
• Pigment/binder ratio and pigment volume concentration
in the formulation
• Compatibility of the components
• Performance of the coating

7.1 Description 7.5 Components solvent-based marine and

Marine and protective coatings are widely applied when the
effective corrosion protection of metal surface is needed.
Additionally, paint has a decorative role. Marine and protective
coatings are widely used for the ship hulls, harbor infrastructure,
containers, bridges, storage tanks and petrochemical plants.
The main coating, is in most cases, based on a solvents system.
Water-based coatings might be used as surface primers.
protective coatings
A solvent-based marine and protective coating has to contain
several ingredients that play key roles in paint manufacturing
but also impact the performance of the finished coating. The
concentration of each component varies depending on the
paint end use. The typical ranges of the concentration of each
component are demonstrated in the table:

7.2 Benefits Component Content %

• Reduced maintenance and operational costs Solvent 30-50
• Easy to use for both consumers and professionals Pigment 10-20
• Reduced environmental footprint by using less impacting Fillers 10-30
raw materials Binder 10-40
• Good properties of the coating (chemical resistance, Rheology modifier 0,2-1,5
corrosion resistance, adhesion to metals, UV resistance) Wetting agent 0,2-1,0
• Good cost/performance balance Dispersant 0,5-1,0
Other additives 0-1,5
7.3 Key trends in marine and protective coatings
• Reduction or complete replacement of aromatic solvents Please bear in mind that in specific paints, the concentration
(xylene, toluene) might differ from the one given in the table or other types of
ingredients might be used to provide the desired properties of
• Epoxy-based coatings – low VOC replacement of benzyl alcohol the coating.
• Coatings from bio-renewable sources Solvent plays the role of a vehicle in the paint formulations.
Solvent significantly affect the properties of the ready product,
7.4 Criteria for marine and protective coatings
such as viscosity and drying time. It also impacts the safety
formulation
profile of the paint (flammability), thus the protective equipment
The main driver in this application is to decrease the needed to apply the paint in a safe manner. Typically, aromatic
environmental impact of the paint ingredients. In solvent-based solvents (toluene, xylene, Aromatic 100, Aromatic 150) are
formulations, aromatic solvents still have a major share. Due to used in this application. Nevertheless, due to their labeling, it is
their labeling, it’s expected that new low VOC alternatives might expected that other (for example, low VOC solvents) will gain a
be used (for example, propionates). bigger share.

21
Pigment is responsible for the hiding and opacity properties.
It also significantly affects the total cost of the paint. The most
popular pigments used in the marine and protective coatings are
oxides: titanium, iron, etc. In some formulations, metallic zinc
dust is used (primers) to provide better corrosion resistance.
Cheaper components (like carbonates, clay, talc or mica) are
used as fillers in the paint formulation. Fillers are responsible
for the opacity, gloss and rheology of the paint.
Binders used in marine and protective coatings are based,
in most cases (but not only), on the epoxy, polyurethane and
alkyd resins.
The type of the binder used in the formulation affects the
properties and performance of the coating.
Rheology modifiers adjust the flow behavior of the paint,
like reducing dripping while applying the paint with a roller or
a brush. Additionally, they enhance the storage stability.
Wetting agents lower the surface tension at the phase boundary
and allow the efficient wetting of the pigment, thus enhancing the
pigment dispersion process. Anionic and nonionic surfactants
are popular wetting agents used in paint formulation.
Dispersants prevent the flocculation of the pigment particles.
In solvent systems, similar dispersants can be used as in the
water-based formulations (salts of polycarboxylic acids and
alcohol ethoxylates).
Other additives used in the solvent-based marine and
protective coatings include:
• Anti-settling agent
• Defoamer
• Biocides for antifouling formulations
• Dehydrating agent
• Anti-skinning agent
7.6 How to develop a solvent-based marine and
protective coating
Prior to initiating the formulation development, it’s essential to
become familiar with the properties of the products used (SDS,
TDS) and the specifics of the laboratory equipment to assure
proper safety measures.
In most cases, the procedure is similar to the one for water-
based system that consists of two steps:
Pigment dispersion (“Grinding”)
The purpose of this stage is to destroy the pigment clusters and
to obtain fine particle pigment dispersion. In most cases, this
operation is carried out in a bead mill. The process is run until
needed particle size is achieved.
22
Let down
At this stage, a binder is added to the dispersion together with
other additives. At the end of this phase, the viscosity of the
paint can be adjusted to the required value, if needed, using a
thinner or thickener.
We recommend starting with the recipe calculated for 500g of
the ready paint. This quantity is sufficient to evaluate the paint
properties as well as the properties of the finished coating.
7.6.1 Procedure
During this stage it is important that all of the components have
demonstrated that they are compatible with each other.
While stirring mechanically, add to the mixer a defined volume
of solvent, dispersant, pigment, and fillers.
Then the paste is ground at a high-speed rate – high shear
forces causes the destruction of the pigment agglomerates into
fine particles. Usually the speed of the mixer is no lower than
1200 rpm.
The friction generated during the grinding process may raise
the temperature of the system. Cooling is necessary during this
process to prevent the evaporation, degradation or alteration
of the behavior of the used components (solvent, defoamer,
dispersant, etc).
This step is run until the desired particle size is achieved. If we
are working on clearcoat formulations, this step is skipped as
there is no pigment used.
Often, the “grinding” step is performed with the addition of the
binder (whole amount or only a portion and the remaining part
added in let down step).
In the let down stage, the remaining ingredients are added at
a slow mixing rate: binder, rheology modifiers, other additives.
The viscosity of the paint can be adjusted by the addition of a
thickener or thinner.
This is a general procedure. Please consider that in specific
formulations, some ingredients might be added in a different way
or order; therefore, the experience and knowledge of the formulator
play a key role in the process of formulation development.
7.6.2 Methods of analysis
There is no set definition of a single methodology to assess
the properties of the coating formulation as it may vary in each
region. Each coating company defines the most appropriate
analysis suitable for it needs based on the recognized
standards for each country or region (for example ISO, ASTM).
We recommend evaluating the following properties: High solid anticorrosion primer for marine coatings
Properties of the paint: % by
Function Product
• Viscosity profile weight
Grinding
• Paint stability
Pigment Zinc dust 75,00
• Density
Anti-settling agent Hydrophobic fumed silica 1,00
Finished coating properties: Alkyd modified epoxy resin
Binder 13,00
• Hardness (solution in xylene)
• Gloss Let down

• Color acceptance Dehydrating agent Molecular sieve 0,50

Iron salt of synthetic
• Corrosion resistance Siccative 0,10
organic acid
• Chemical resistance Solvent Xylene 5,40
• Adhesion to metals Solvent Aromatic 100 5,00
Since there is no specific methodology, it is important to Sum 100
use a single method during development to ensure proper
comparisons between formulations. For solvent-based formulations, Dow recommends replacing
aromatic solvents (toluene, xylene, Aromatic 100) with the
For more details on methods of analysis, please refer to
following grades:
organization webpages (ISO, ASTM, etc.).
• UCAR™ Ester EEP
7.6.3 Suggested formulations • UCAR™ n-Propyl Propionate
The following starting formulations are suggested for further
• UCAR™ n-Butyl Propionate
development and optimization.
• UCAR™ n-Pentyl Propionate
Regulations may vary by city, state, country, or geographic region.
Not all ingredients listed may be available or approved for every These provide excellent solubility of various resins and low
region. Please contact the Customer Information Group in your viscosity of the coating (even in highly loaded formulations).
region for any additional, relevant regulatory information. Additionally, they have higher boiling points than the aromatic
solvents, enabling the achievement of low VOC requirements.
Corrosion protection paint for steel construction
Please consider that the performance of the aromatic solvent
% by replacements has to be checked for every formulation.
Function Product
weight
Grinding
Plasticizer Chlorinated parrafins 10,90
Pigment Iron oxide 10,00
Pigment Titanium dioxide 8,00
Filler Barium sulfate 10,00
Anti-settling agent Bentonite dispersion 2,00
Solvent Xylene 6,20
Solvent Aromatic 100 12,00
Let down
Binder Chlorinated rubber 18,40
Solvent Xylene 6,40
Solvent Aromatic 100 16,10
Sum 100

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