DISASTER MANAGEMENT

A disaster is a natural or man-made event that negatively affects life, property, livelihood or
industry often resulting in permanent changes to human societies, ecosystems and
environment."

As the definition suggests, disasters are uncontrollable events that cause suffering,
deprivation, adversity, injury and even death, due to this numerous outbreaks are caused such
as, disease, obstruction of commerce and business, and partial or total destruction of
infrastructure such as homes, hospitals, and other buildings, roads, bridges, power lines, etc.

Disasters can be caused by naturally occurring events or they can be due to man-made
events, either accidental or deliberately caused.

Naturally occurring disasters include disasters such as floods, earthquakes, Hurricanes,

Volcanic Eruption, Landslide, Tsunami and Drought.

Human-made disasters can be further classified into accidental or deliberately caused.

Examples of accidental disasters encompass hazardous material spills, fires, groundwater

contamination, transportation accidents, structure failures and mining accidents. Terrorist
attacks, nuclear explosions/nuclear radiation are types of deliberate disasters.

Disasters are uncontrollable. However, we can control the way we respond to these disasters.
To have humans manage with these disasters, Disaster Management is formed.

Disaster Management can be defined as an organisation of resources and responsibilities for

dealing with all humanitarian aspects of a crisis, in particular, preparedness, response and
recovery to diminish the impact of disasters.

Types Of Disasters-

Natural Disasters are naturally occurring physical events caused

either rapid or slow events that have immediate impacts on human health and subordinate
impacts causing further death and suffering. Natural Disasters can be further classified into-
-Geophysical (e.g. Earthquakes, Landslides, Tsunamis and Volcanic Activity)

-Hydrological (e.g. Avalanches and Floods)

-Climatological (e.g. Extreme Temperatures, Drought and Wildfires)

-Meteorological (e.g. Cyclones and Storms/Wave Surges)

-Biological (e.g. Disease Epidemics and Insect/Animal Plagues)

Manmade Disasters are events that are caused by humans which occur in or close to human
settlements often caused as a result of Environmental or Technological calamity.

These can be further classified into-

-Environmental Degradation

-Pollution

-Accidents (e.g. Industrial, Technological and Transport usually involving the production, use
or transport of hazardous materials)

-Deliberate (e.g. terrorism and hazardous material outbreak)

Natural Disasters- Wildfires

A wildfire is an unplanned fire that burns in a natural area such as a forest, grassland, or
prairie. Wildfires are often caused by human activity or a natural phenomenon such as
lightning, and they can happen at any time anywhere. 50% of wildfires that are recorded,
there seems to be no evidence behind the reason for any of these cases.

The risk of wildfires increases in extremely dry conditions, such as drought, and during high
winds. Wildfires can disrupt transportation, communications, power and gas services, and
water supply. They also lead to a deterioration of the air quality, and loss of property, crops,
resources, animals and people.

Wildfires and volcanic activities affected 6.2 million people between 1998-2017 with 2400
attributable deaths worldwide from suffocation, injuries, and burns, but the size and
frequency of wildfires are growing due to climate change. Hotter and drier conditions are
drying out ecosystems and increasing the risk of wildfires. Wildfires also simultaneously
impact weather and the climate by releasing large quantities of carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide and fine particulate matter into the atmosphere. Resulting air pollution can cause a
range of health issues, including respiratory and cardiovascular problems. Another significant
health effect of wildfires is on mental health and psychosocial well-being.

Wildfires or forest fires can have a significant impact on mortality and morbidity depending
on the size, speed and proximity to the fire, and whether the population has an advanced
warning to evacuate.

Wildfire smoke is a mixture of air pollutants of which particulate matter is the principal
public health threat.

Infants, young child, women who are pregnant, and older adults are more susceptible to
health impacts from smoke and ash, which are important air pollutants. Smoke and ash from
wildfires can greatly impact those with pre-existing respiratory diseases or heart disease. Fire
fight spend the next 10 minutes slowly going and emergency response workers are also
greatly impacted by injuries, burns and smoke inhalation.

Beyond fatalities, wildfires, and the resulting smoke and ashes, can cause:

Burns and injuries

Eye, nose, throat and lung irritation

Decreased lung function, including coughing and wheezing

Pulmonary inflammation, bronchitis, exacerbations of asthma, and other lung diseases

Exacerbation of cardiovascular diseases, such as heart failure

Wildfires also release significant amounts of mercury into the air, which can lead to
impairment of speech, hearing and walking, muscle weakness and vision problems for people
of all ages.

Certain Precautions

Never leave a fire unattended in the forest. Completely extinguish the fire—by dousing it
with water and stirring the ashes until cold—before sleeping or leaving the campsite.

Always take care when using and fuelling lanterns, stoves, and heaters. Make sure lighting
and heating devices are cool before refuelling. Avoid spilling flammable liquids and store
fuel away from appliances.
Do not discard cigarettes, matches, and smoking materials from moving vehicles, or
anywhere on park grounds. Be certain to completely extinguish cigarettes before disposing of
them

Scientific research shows that proactively managing forests can restore ecosystem health and
improve habitat quality by using a variety of fire management tools. Selective harvesting,
thinning treatments, brush removal, and pruning are practices used by foresters to thin out
forests crowded with too many trees, branches, and undergrowth. In areas with an over-
accumulation of fuels, a combination of thinning small trees and clearing brush followed by
controlled burning can be the most effective method of reducing the risk of catastrophic
wildfire. “Prescribed fires” are managed fires used to intentionally clear out heavy vegetation
under trees, prepare new seedbeds, and dispose of excess wood debris on the forest floor. All
of these active fire management tools can make forest fires more manageable and reduce
smoke emissions during burning.

Case Study

The Hayman Fire is the largest and most devastating wildfire in Colorado's recorded history.
The cause of the fire was found to be arson, which was exacerbated by record drought and
extreme weather conditions. The fire was reported on June 8, 2002, contained on July 2,
2002, and controlled on July 18, 2002. It resulted in six indirect fatalities, including five fire-
fighters from Oregon who died in a traffic accident on their way to respond to the fire and
one woman who suffered a fatal asthma attack because of smoke inhalation.

The burned area encompassed more than 138,000 acres. In total, 600 structures were lost
(133 residences, one commercial building, and 466 outbuildings), causing more than $42
million in housing losses. A total of 5,340 people were forced to evacuate; at one time,
14,000 were told to stand by for evacuation.

Challenges

The Hayman Fire was a challenging natural disaster for many reasons:

Environmental conditions

Record drought and extreme weather conditions made the fire very unpredictable.

Scope of the disaster

The fire burned across four counties, three United States Forest Service (USFS) ranger
districts, three Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) office areas, and three state
forest service offices making communication and approvals much more challenging than if
the disaster had been in a more confined area.
Development

Many residences and other buildings were lost and threatened and thousands of people were
evacuated (some forced and some as a safety precaution).

Cost and available resources

With housing costs totalling over $42 million, individuals alone could not afford the cost of
recovery or mitigation.

Political environment

In Colorado, as in most of the western U.S., there is a lack of political will for regulation and
government intervention.

Aftermath

ECONOMIC

Communities in this portion of Colorado rely heavily on natural resource-based economies,

such as tourism and ranching, for their livelihoods. These were directly damaged by the fire.
Although post-fire Burned Area Emergency Assistance funds and Emergency Watershed
Protection funds were available from the U.S. Forest Service and the Natural Resources
Conservation Service, respectively, they require a cost-share and do not fund replacements
for things like lost feed, fencing, and equipment. Local small businesses estimated they lost
about 50 per cent of their summer season revenue because of these closures.

ENVIRONMENTAL

An increase in the number and severity of flooding events has serious environmental impacts
as well. Large amounts of sediment and debris threaten the vitality of watersheds and
ecosystems. Additionally, the destruction of land at that scale had devastating effects on
wildlife habitat. Finally, the debris created issues with hazardous waste disposal.

SOCIAL/HEALTH

The Hayman Fire forced 5,340 people to evacuate their homes, with 14,000 more posted for
possible evacuation. An estimated 350 people lost their homes. Although the impact on
victims has not been quantified, the fire undoubtedly took a toll on victims directly affected
as well as members of the larger community.

The fire also raised health concerns associated with worsened air and water quality. The State
of Colorado's Air Quality Control Division in downtown Denver showed the highest levels of
particulates ever measured while the Hayman and other fires were burning during the 2002
fire season. High levels of particulates, even over short periods, significantly increase health
impacts for susceptible populations including the elderly, young, and those with asthma.
Pre-Disaster Planning Efforts

Largely as a result of prior fire and flooding events around the same time, certain planning
efforts were in place before the Hayman Fire.

Post-disaster Planning Efforts

Since the Hayman Fire, many new organizations and initiatives have arisen. For example,
various non-profits such as Volunteers for Outdoor Colorado have provided volunteers,
trained crew leaders, and experienced project coordinators to assist fire victims and recovery
organizations like CUSP after the Hayman Fire. Also, the Woodland Park Healthy Forest
Initiative arose to demonstrate community engagement in fire protection and mitigation.

Tree trunks are strategically embedded along shorelines of a stream negatively impacted by
erosion and sedimentation. These trees change the current, bringing it back to a more natural
flow that will excavate deeper pools and disperse sediment.

The number of collaborations and partnerships has also increased. There is good involvement
from local, state, and federal agencies, and with individual citizens. These collaborations
have resulted in a significant increase in the number of property owners who are doing
mitigation on their land and fewer appeals of projects conducted by public entities.

Successes

Neighbouring communities have realized the importance of forming and nurturing

organizations like CUSP before a disaster. These groups can act as nongovernmental partners
across boundaries and can provide assistance and help attract resources. Communities have
realized that organizations like this cannot be formed in the heat of the moment after a
disaster has struck.

Opportunities for Improvement

Although many gains have been made since the Hayman Fire, several opportunities exist for
further improvement. The recommendations provided below would aid in recovery efforts
and reduce the amount of recovery needed.

LOCAL PLANS, CODES, AND POLICIES

Adopt, update, strengthen, and enforce land-use regulations, wild land-urban interface (WUI)
codes, building and fire codes, or language in comprehensive plans and strategic plans.

Develop best practices or regulations for retrofitting existing subdivisions or for renovations
in addition to new land development.

EDUCATION
Provide more education at the citizen level. Citizens should be directly involved and
accountable for their properties.

Man-Made Disasters-

The deep-water Bp oil spill

Late on April 20, the Deepwater Horizon was drilling for BP about 40 miles off the coast of
Louisiana. About 5,000 feet below the surface, a bubble of methane is believed to have burst
free of the well and expanded through the drill column. Witnesses told investigators later that
the lights flickered and there were two strong shakes as the blowout began and the fire raged.
After burning longer than a day, the rig sank on April 22.

The disaster touched off legal battles about liability that are ongoing. U.S. District Judge Carl
Barbier ruled that BP acted with “gross negligence and willful misconduct.” The oil company
reached a $4.5-billion criminal settlement with the Justice Department in 2012 and paid $14
billion for cleanup.

According to a study prepared by the Natural Resources Defense Council, more than $11.6
billion has been paid to individuals. Commercial fisherman could lose $8.7 billion by 2020
along with 22,000 jobs, and lost tourism dollars are more than $22.7 billion.

Challenges-

Scope of disaster

In the BP Oil Spill, more than 200 million gallons of crude oil was pumped into the Gulf of
Mexico for a total of 87 days, making it the biggest oil spill in U.S. history. 16,000 total miles
of coastline have been affected, including the coasts of Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi,
Alabama, and Florida

Development

Cost

In September 2014, a U.S. District Court judge ruled that BP was primarily responsible for
the oil spill because of its carelessness and reckless conduct. In July 2015, BP agreed to pay
$18.7 billion in fines, the largest corporate settlement in United States history.

Aftermath/Impact

Environmental
Almost 10 million pounds of oily residue was removed from Louisiana shorelines between
June 2011 and April 7, 2013. Even after the clean-up, more than 200 miles still had this oily
residue embedded in its marshlands. It killed vegetation and caused erosion.

BP spent $6 billion to hire 4,000 people to clean up the spill that year. This contributed more
than the $700 million lost in fishing and tourism revenues and the 3,000 jobs lost to the six-
month deep-water drilling moratorium. But that didn't count long-term costs or things that
aren't counted in gross domestic product such as the value of human and animal life that was
lost.

Groundwater

Experts theorize that the use of dispersants after the spill caused the oil to sink even more
deeply into beaches. They also suspect that it may have affected the groundwater supply in
that area.

The environmental impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill is still evident a decade later.

There is some hope though. The fishing industry in the area has seen their catches return to
normal levels. Oysters in many areas of the gulf are returning. Tests on edible seafood caught
in that area do not show excess hydrocarbons in the food supply in the region.

However, other species and areas are not showing the same kind of promise. Dolphin
numbers are down. As late as 2013, Cat Island, an important bird rookery, was still devoid of
the mangroves that had provided shelter, leading pelicans and other birds unable to use the
area.

According to research undertaken by Mandy Joye, an oceanographer with the University of

Georgia, the oil from the spill has settled to the seafloor, concentrating in thin sheets in some
areas and deep pools in others. Joye claims that the submerged oil continues to shift around,
and that it is impossible to determine at this point what the long term impact will be.

In 2015, federal officials claimed that it was still too soon to make any judgments about the
long-term effects of the spill and the success of the recovery process.

Social and Health

The Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA) tried to eliminate problems as well as to
restore the systems that were possibly dangerous or harmful to human health.
For example, seafood made toxic by the oil spill caused harmful effects, such as damage to
human immune systems.

Direct exposure to the spill caused many skin irritations or rashes as well as upper respiratory
problems for the crew working on the oil platform as well as to other humans in the
surrounding area.

After the platform exploded, great plumes of smoke rose into the air and were inhaled by
people in the surrounding area.

Other concerns brought about by the spill were memory loss, headaches and confusion as
well as gastrointestinal problems from the dispersants from the oil. Although these
dispersants won't be in the water and surrounding area forever, the effects felt immediately
after the spill as well as some time later was a big concern to doctors and physicians as well.

For the crews working to clean up the spill, the exposure to these contaminants was the main
focus for health officials and they tried, to the best of their ability, to protect those clean-up
crew members. However, controlling every aspect of the clean-up was difficult and therefore,
not everyone felt comfortable working around the spill.

Succeses

Over the years, with removal and clean-up, provided health care to those vulnerable and
victims of this oil spill, the disaster has recovered. However, certain parts of the ocean still
have traces of the oil spill.

Oppourtunities for improvement

There were a variety of errors that contributed to the explosion, but investigators cited the
failure of the blowout preventer, which should have been the last line of defense. The
preventer is a five-story collection of valves and blades, including an emergency hydraulic
device with two sharp cutting blades called a blind shear ram. The blades are designed to cut
and seal the drill pipe, stopping a blowout.

According to the Chemical Safety Board, the drill pipe buckled, preventing the blades from
working cleanly. The new requirements call for double shear rams “with an enhanced
capability to shear pipes.” Doubling the blades can mean quicker cuts as well as a backup if
the first set fails.

In addition to the tougher rules, regulators cite the increase in the number of inspectors, from
55 to 92, as part of the safety push. The agency also wants any company doing deep-water
drilling to have access to better containment domes. Two such prevention domes are on
station in the gulf.
The new government regulations reflect the technological advances and heightened standards
already in effect, according to the oil industry’s Center for Offshore Safety. “America’s
offshore oil and natural gas industry is even safer than before, but our goal will always be
zero accidents and zero spills,” said Charlie Williams, the group’s executive.

To conclude, Disasters are uncontroable. However, the way we combat them is controlablr,
disaster management is an essential and required part of education.

Bibliography

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Aljazeera
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https://www.latimes.com

https://www.theguardian.com/international

bbc.com

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