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Macro- and micro-nutrient intake of adolescent Greek

female volleyball players

Article  in  International journal of sport nutrition · March 2002

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International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism,
Nutrient Intake of2002, 12, 71-78Volleyball Players / 71
Adolescent
© 2002 Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Macro- and Micro-Nutrient Intake of Adolescent

Greek Female Volleyball Players

Souzana K. Papadopoulou, Sophia D. Papadopoulou,

and George K. Gallos
Adequate nutrition is critically important for the achievement of the adolescent
athlete’s optimal performance. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate
the adequacy of macro- and micro-nutrients in the adolescent Greek female
volleyball players’ diet. The subjects of the study consisted of 16 players who
were members of the Junior National Team (NP) and 49 players who partici-
pated in the Junior National Championship (CP). Dietary intake was assessed
using a 3-day food record. Protein intake (16.0 ± 4.9% of total energy intake)
was satisfactory, whereas fat consumption (37.5 ± 11.1%) was above recom-
mended values and at the expense of carbohydrate intake (45.9 ± 12.5%). There
were no significant differences between NP and CP concerning the intake of
macronutrients, except for the fat intake (when this is expressed in grams per
day and grams per kilogram of body weight and the saturated fat intake, which
were both higher in NP compared to CP players (p < .05). The mean energy
intake was 2013 ± 971 and 1529 ± 675 kcal for NP and CP, respectively (p <
.05). NP, in particular, consumed fat and especially saturated fat in order to meet
their energy needs. As for micronutrients, the volleyball players fell short of
meeting the RDA values for calcium, iron, folic acid, magnesium, zinc, and
vitamins A, B1, B2, and B6. There was no difference between NP and CP in
micronutrient intake. In conclusion, subjects in the current study lacked proper
nutrition in terms of quantity and quality.

Key Words: nutrition, elite athletes, energy, team sports

Adolescent athletes have increased energy needs because of physical activity and
physical development. This is especially true for elite adolescent athletes, who
exercise strenuously in order to maximize their performance. These athletes should
consume high density food for both nutrients and kilocalories (32). Proper nutrition
is essential for optimizing athletic performance (9). A general recommendation for
all athletes is to consume 60–70% of total energy intake from carbohydrates (CHO),
12–15% from proteins, and 25–30% from fats (20).
Generally, young athletes may be inclined to stress fracture (7). Proper nutri-
tion can play a valuable role in avoiding such injuries, as inappropriate nutrition may

The authors are with the Laboratory of Sports Hygiene and Nutrition in the Depart-
ment of Physical Education & Sport Science at Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54 623,
Thessaloniki, Greece.

71
72 / S.K. Papadopoulou, S.D. Papadopoulou, and Gallos

contribute to sport injuries (14). Adequate intake in calories and nutrients also may
prevent hormonal disturbances, such as oligomenorrhea, delayed menarche, and
amenorrhea (2).
Unfortunately, improper nutrition appears to be a common problem among
young athletes. Several researchers suggest that athletes do not meet their nutri-
tional needs, and perhaps it is for this reason that these athletes have not reached their
potential maximum performance (27, 29).
Volleyball is a sport that requires an athlete not only to jump high and hit the
ball hard but also to perform for 1 to 3 hours. So, although volleyball is mainly an
anaerobic sport, the aerobic capacity of volleyball athletes is of critical importance,
because of the long duration of a volleyball game (26). As a result, volleyball
demands a combination of both aerobic and anaerobic energy. Proper nutrition is
critical in order to enable the volleyball player to reach his or her peak performance
and replace the lost energy (8).
Very limited data are available concerning the nutritional intake of volleyball
players, either adults or adolescents, although there are review studies covering
good nutrition for volleyball (8, 12). The purpose of the present study was to record
the nutritional intake and evaluate the adequacy in micro- and macro-nutrients of the
diet of Greek adolescent female volleyball players.

Methods
Subjects
Sixty-five female Greek volleyball players, between the ages of 14 and 19 years,
participated in this study. Informed consent was obtained from the athletes’ parents.
All athletes competed in the Greek Junior National Championship. The subjects
were divided into two subgroups. The first subgroup consisted of 16 players, who
were members of Junior National Volleyball Team (NP), and the second subgroup
consisted of 49 players who competed only in Junior National Championship (CP).
All athletes had normal menstrual cycles. Table 1 shows the characteristics of the
subjects.

Table 1 Characteristics of Athletes

All athletes National players Championship

Variable (n = 65) (n = 16) players (n = 49)

Age (years) 16.2 ± 1.2 16.6 ± 1.5 16.1 ± 1.1

Weight (kg) 64.2 ± 7.2 66.0 ± 7.1 63.6 ± 7.3
Height (cm) 173.2 ± 7.1 177.9 ± 6.8 171.7 ± 6.6
BMI (kg/m2) 21.4 ± 2.0 20.8 ± 1.6 21.6 ± 2.2

Note. Values are expressed as mean ± SD.

 Nutrient Intake of Adolescent Volleyball Players / 73

Dietary Intake
Dietary intake was assessed using a 3-day food record (2 weekdays and 1 weekend
day). The subjects were at home eating their normal diet at the time of data collec-
tion. Food intake was not assessed during competition days. Food records were
taken during the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle to avoid the higher
energy intake, which has been observed during the luteal phase (30). A dietitian
provided verbal and written instructions on how to record food consumption. The
use of food models helped the subjects to measure the quantity of food.
In addition to energy, dietary intake of the following macronutrients was
evaluated: carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. For the above, total grams, grams per
kilogram body weight, and percentages of total energy were calculated. Also, fiber,
starch, cholesterol, and saturated fat intake were calculated. The micronutrients that
were calculated were calcium, iron, magnesium, zinc, folic acid, vitamins A, B1, B2,
B3, B6, B12, and C. The collected data were analyzed using a nutrition program based
on McCance and Widdowson’s database of food (18) and the Trichopoulou data-
base of Greek food and recipes (31).

Statistical Analysis
The SPSS (SPSS Inc., v. 9.0) computer program was used for the analysis and
statistical elaboration. All data are presented as mean values ± standard deviation.
The independent t test was used to evaluate the differences between subgroups (NP
and CP). Statistical significance was set up at p < .05.

Results
Figure 1 shows the energy intake of the athletes. The mean energy intake of all the
athletes was 1648 ± 780 kcal/day. NP consumed a significantly higher energy intake
than did CP (2013 ± 971 and 1529 ± 675 kcal, respectively, p < .05). The energy

Figure 1 — Energy intake of athletes.

74 / S.K. Papadopoulou, S.D. Papadopoulou, and Gallos

intake expressed in kcal/kg was 30.5 kcal/kg for the NP and 24.1 kcal/kg for the CP
(p < .05).
Table 2 presents the macronutrient intake of all subjects, as well as of the
subgroups. Of the total energy intake, the mean intake for all subjects was 45.9 ±
12.5% for carbohydrate, 37.5 ± 11.1% for fat, and 16.0 ± 4.9% for protein.
Results of the independent t tests indicated no significant differences (p > .05)
in the percent values between NP and CP in CHO, fat, and protein daily intake. NP
had significantly higher values than CP (p < .05) in fat consumption when expressed
in grams per day or in grams per kilogram of body weight. Also, the daily intake of
saturated fat was higher in NP than CP (40 ± 33 and 22 ± 19 g, respectively; p < .05).
The micronutrient intake of athletes is shown in Table 3. The values of vita-
mins B3, B12, and C were the only values that exceeded the Recommended Dietary
Allowance (RDA; 25). The other micronutrients did not meet RDA values. No
significant differences were detected between NP and CP for micronutrient intake.

Discussion
The mean daily energy intake of adolescent Greek female volleyball players was
1648 kcal, which was below the RDA. There was a significant difference in energy

Table 2 Macronutrient Intake of Athletes

Nutrient All NP CP

Carbohydrate
Energy ratio % 45.9 ± 12.5 44.7 ± 12.6 46.2 ± 12.6
Per day (g/day) 195 ± 88 228 ± 97 185 ± 84
Per weight (g/kg) 3.1 ± 1.4 3.5 ± 1.4 2.9 ± 1.3
Starch (g) 98 ± 24 94 ± 29 99 ± 51
Fat
Energy ratio % 37.5 ± 11.1 40.8 ± 11.4 36.5 ± 10.9
Per day (g/day) 73 ± 49 98(a) ± 67 65(a) ± 40
Per weight (g/kg) 1.1 ± 0.8 1.6(b) ± 0.9 1.0(b) ± 0.7
Saturated (g) 26 ± 46 40(c) ± 33 22(c) ± 19
Protein
Energy ratio % 16.0 ± 4.9 14.7 ± 5.0 16.4 ± 4.8
Per day (g/day) 62 ± 26 67 ± 25 60 ± 26
Per weight (g/kg) 1.0 ± 0.4 1.0 ± 0.4 1.0 ± 0.5
Alcohol (g) 0.1 ± 0.9 0 ± 0 0.1 ± 1.0
Cholesterol (mg) 104 ± 110 141 ± 102 92 ± 111
Fiber (g) 13 ± 7 15 ± 6 13 ± 8

Note. Values expressed as mean ± SD.

a
NP consumed significantly higher fat per day than CP (p < .05); bNP consumed significantly
higher fat per weight than CP (p < .05); cNP consumed significantly higher saturated fat than
CP (p < .05).
 Nutrient Intake of Adolescent Volleyball Players / 75

Table 3 Micronutrient Intake of Athletes

All NP CP
Mean ± % Mean ± % Mean ± %
Nutrient RDA SD RDA SD RDA SD RDA

Vitamin A (Re) 800 544 ± 495 68.0 666 ± 584 83.3 505 ± 462 63.1
Vitamin B1 (mg) 1.1 0.9 ± 0.5 81.8 1.0 ± 0.4 90.9 0.9 ± 0.5 81.8
Vitamin B2 (mg) 1.3 1.2 ± 0.6 92.3 1.4 ± 0.8 107.7 1.1 ± 0.6 84.6
Vitamin B3
(mgNE) 15 20 ± 19 133.3 20 ± 12 133.3 21 ± 12 140.0
Vitamin B6 (mg) 1.5 0.8 ± 0.7 53.3 0.9 ± 0.4 60.0 0.8 ± 0.4 53.3
Vitamin B12 (mg) 2.0 2.3 ± 1.7 115.0 2.5 ± 1.5 125.0 2.3 ± 1.7 115.0
Folic acid (mg) 180 163 ± 98 90.6 151 ± 69 83.9 167 ± 106 92.8
Vitamin C (mg) 60 93 ± 91 155.0 75 ± 64 125.0 99 ± 97 165.0
Ca (mg) 1200 935 ± 497 77.9 979 ± 549 81.6 921 ± 484 76.8
Fe (mg) 15.0 7.9 ± 4.0 52.7 9.2 ± 3.7 61.3 7.5 ± 4.0 50.0
Mg (mg) 300 207 ± 130 69.0 232 ± 135 77.3 199 ± 128 66.3
Zn (mg) 12 7 ± 5 58.3 6 ± 4 50.0 7 ± 4 58.3

intake between NP and CP. Although the NP consumed more kilocalories than the
CP, both groups failed to consume the recommended kilocalories for female volley-
ball players of 44 kcal/kg (8), which is equal to the RDA value for a very active
woman (25). Energy consumption of the adolescent Greek female volleyball ath-
letes in the present study also was less than the reported energy consumption of
female track and field athletes (29), female adolescent swimmers (3), female rowers
(28), and gymnasts, figure skaters, and runners (24). Our results agree with other
studies showing that adolescent female athletes tend to consume a diet deficient in
kilocalories (23).
According to Scates (26), the energy during rallies in volleyball is supplied by
the phosphocreatine system by 90% and lactic acid system by 10%. On the other
hand, the aerobic system can contribute up to 50% during a volleyball game. Be-
sides, the aerobic system is responsible for the later appearance of anaerobic thresh-
old and the reduction of oxygen debt during game intervals. Further, the production
of ATP can occur both aerobically and anaerobically (26). So, the predominant
source of energy in sports like volleyball is carbohydrates, and that is why the
carbohydrate depletion is often the reason for fatigue during exercise (11). Athletes
should consume a high percentage of carbohydrates. Our athletes’ consumption of
carbohydrates was 45.9% of the total energy intake, which is far less than the
suggested 60% (16). Our athletes also had smaller CHO intake compared to the
athletes of other sports, both aerobic and anaerobic (3, 24, 28, 29).
CHO intake also should be expressed in terms of grams per kilograms of body
mass due to the fact that energy intake and body mass differ among athletes (27). The
suggested amount of carbohydrates essential for a volleyball player is 5 to 10 g/kg of
76 / S.K. Papadopoulou, S.D. Papadopoulou, and Gallos

body mass (12). The subjects of this study did not manage to achieve that specified
CHO recommendation. Carbohydrate consumption was only 3.1 g/kg of body mass.
Fat intake provided 37.5% of the total energy consumption of the athletes,
while fat consumption should contribute 25% or less to the total energy intake (16).
There was no difference between NP and CP in fat percentage intake. However, NP
had a higher intake of fat than CP when expressed in grams per day or grams per
kilogram of body weight. Both NP and CP had a higher fat intake than female figure
skaters, gymnasts, runners, and female track and field athletes (24, 29). Female
adolescent swimmers had similar fat consumption with NP, while CP had lower
values (3). All of the above athletes had higher fat contribution in energy intake than
recommended, which also applied to our subjects.
The adolescent Greek female volleyball players consumed higher quantities
of fat at the expense of carbohydrates. While acute and chronic fat supplementation
has been reported to have beneficial metabolic responses, like glycogen sparing,
“excess” fat consumption also has been associated with lower plasma glucose utili-
zation and lower performance (19). Many researchers share the opinion that high fat
diets hamper performance (10, 13). High fat diets also may provoke many health
problems, and the best recommendation for endurance performance is a high CHO
diet (19). So, our subjects need to lower their fat percentage intake and increase the
CHO.
The saturated fat intake of the present group of Greek athletes was high,
26.6% of total fat intake. NP consumed more saturated fat than CP (40.4% vs. 22.2%
of the total fat intake). This is the main reason why NP had a larger total energy
intake than CP. It is suggested that NP need to alter their quality of diet in order to
meet daily energy needs (25). In other words, they need to eat more CHO.
The participants in this study had protein intakes as a percent of kilocalories of
14.7% for NP and 16.4% for CP. The contribution of protein to the exercise expen-
diture is only 6% and, in endurance sports, proteins may provide 10% of the total
exercise needs (4, 22). The increased protein requirements in adolescents, due to
growth demands, can be covered with the increased energy intake, as long as they
follow appropriate nutrition guidelines. Thus, intake of 12–15% of the total energy
intake as protein is recommended for athletes (15).
The protein intake of our subjects was within this recommended percentage,
but a little above the suggested amount for CP. NP had less protein consumption
than gymnasts, figure skaters, runners, and track and field athletes, while CP had a
higher protein intake (24, 29). Both NP and CP had higher protein consumption than
adolescent swimmers and female rowers (3, 28). In general, athletes usually con-
sume twice to three times the RDA value for protein (4). Increased protein consump-
tion can lead to increased calcium excretion (17), which may turn out to be a serious
problem for amenorrheal athletes (6).
The mean protein intake in the present study expressed relative to body mass
was 1.0 g/kg. This amount was less than the suggested consumption for endurance
athletes, which is 1.2 to 1.4 g/kg (21) or 1.0 to 1.2 g/kg (5).
Alcohol and cholesterol consumption of our subjects was low, which is ben-
eficial to their health. Fiber intake also was low, even lower and smaller than in other
female adolescent athletes (24). Fiber intake is essential for the optimal function of
the gastrointestinal tube. So our athletes should increase the consumption of com-
plex carbohydrates, which have a high fiber content.
 Nutrient Intake of Adolescent Volleyball Players / 77

Our subjects had an average intake of micronutrients that met the RDA values
with regard to vitamins C, B3, and B12, while they did not meet the RDA values
regarding vitamins A, B1, B2, B6, calcium, iron, folic acid, magnesium, and zinc.
There were no differences in any of the micronutrients between NP and CP. Adoles-
cent female athletes tend to consume a diet deficient in micronutrients like folate,
calcium, iron, and B complex vitamins (1, 8). Female rowers also showed mean
intakes of calcium, magnesium, iron, B6, B12, and zinc below the RDA values.
Gymnasts, figure skaters, and runners have been reported to consume iron and zinc
at less than RDA (24).
In conclusion, our athletes consumed an inadequate diet both in quantity and
quality. The poor nutritional habits were due to carbohydrate underconsumption,
which results in a higher fat contribution to energy intake. Nutrition counseling is
essential in order for the volleyball players to increase carbohydrates while decreas-
ing the fat content of their diets.
One of the first priorities of coaches and sports nutritionists should be the
proper nutrition of their adolescent athletes. Many communication and intervention
programs are necessary in order to convince the athletes to follow the scientific
guidelines. This is, most of the time, an extremely difficult task. On one hand, the
consumption of a high CHO diet is usually impractical (19) and, on the other hand,
adolescents are often unwilling to conform to the rules. It should be mentioned that
a diet adequate in all macro- and micro-nutrients is of extremely high significance
for adolescent athletes. Not only will a good diet boost their growth and perfor-
mance, but it will act preventively against any future health disturbances.

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