Motivation

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 1

 Motivation
Latin term – to move
It starts with:
a psychological or physiological deficiency or need (motive),
that:
Need: psychological or physiological imbalance
Need for food - drive to reduce hunger
Need for friend – drive for affiliation
activates a behaviour or a drive (action-orientation)
attention and direction (channel),
intensity (energize), and
persistence (sustain)
It ends with:
Anything that alleviates a need or reduce a drive. Restores the
balance and reduce or cutKM,off the
2017, IIMIDRdrive. Eating food or obtaining
2

friends will restore balance/reduce drive.

 Motives (Needs)
Physiological (biological, hardwired) motives
Hunger, sleep, avoidance of pain, maternal concern
Secondary (learned) motives
Power, achievement, affiliation, security, status
Extrinsic motives:
Distributed by other people (reward, recognition,
punishment avoidance)
Contingent based – given for a reason
Intrinsic motives:
Internally generated (feelings of responsibility, achievement,
accomplishment)
Many motivators have bothKM,intrinsic
2017, IIMIDR and extrinsic 3

components
Motivation Theories
Content Theories:explains specific factors that
motivates people. What motivates people.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, ERG theory,
Herzberg’s motivator & Hygiene theory,
McLelland’s need theory
Process Theories: the behavior is outcome of series
of process which can be understood and duplicated,
provided certain constant necessary conditions are
met. How motivation happens.
Expectancy, Equity, Reinforcement
Contemporary Theories:
Equity & Justice theory
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 4
Four Drives
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially
satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Self-Actualization (capable of
becoming; includes growth,
Assumptions achieving one’s potential, and self-
fulfillment) (TO TRANSFORM
PERCEPTION OF SELF INTO Individuals cannot move to
Higher Order REALITY)
the next higher level until all
Internal Esteem (internal esteem factors
such as self-respect, autonomy,
needs at the current (lower)
and achievement; and external level are satisfied
esteem factors such as status,
recognition, and attention.) Must move in hierarchical
Social (affection, belongingness, order
friendship, acceptance)

Safety (physical & emotional

harms)
Lower Order KM, 2017, IIMIDR 5

External Physiological (bodily needs)

ERG Theory
Three groups of core needs:
Existence: basic material existence requirements
Relatedness: desire to maintain interpersonal
relationship
Growth: intrinsic desire for personal development
Unlike Maslow, multiple needs operate as motivators
at the same time
Frustration in attempting to satisfy a higher level
need can result in regression to a lower level
need
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McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y
Theory X assumptions are basically negative.
a. Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever
possible, will attempt to avoid it.
b. Since employees dislike work, they must be
coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment.
Theory Y assumptions are basically positive.
a. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest
or play.
b. People will exercise self-direction and self-control
if they are committed to the objectives.

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 7

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene factors (relates to job context) consistently
related to job dissatisfaction:
Extrinsic factors like supervision, pay, company policies,
working conditions, job security, relations with others
Motivator factors (relates to job content) consistently
related to job satisfaction:
Intrinsic factors work itself, responsibility, achievement,
promotional opportunities, personal growth, recognition.
Job is intrinsically challenging & provides opportunities for
recognition & reinforcement

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 8

McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
Indviduals posses several often competing needs that serve
to motivate when activated. People have varying levels of
each of the three needs (learned). Hard to measure
Need for Achievement (nAch)
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed. Defined as behavior
directed toward competition with a standard of excellence
Need for Power (nPow)
The need to make others behave in a way that they
would not have behaved otherwise. Need to have a
control over one’s environment
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
The desire for friendly KM,
and2017, close
IIMIDR interpersonal 9

relationships
Equity Theory
Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-
to-inputs of relevant others.
When ratios are equal: state of equity exists –
there is no tension as the situation is
considered fair
When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to
unfairness
Underrewarded states cause anger
Overrewarded states cause guilt
Tension motivates people to act to bring their
situation into equity
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Goal-Setting Theory
Basic Premise: goals play an important part in
determining behavior
That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated
feedback, lead to higher performance
It improves performance in two ways:
By amplifying the intensity and persistence of efforts
By giving employees clearer role perceptions so that their effort is
channeled towards behavior that will improve work performance
Relationship between goals and performance
depends on:
Goal commitment (the more public the better!):
Believes that he can achieve the same
Wants to achieve the goal
Task characteristics (simple, well-learned – not novel, independent and not inter
dependent)
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Self efficacy – belief about having the capacity to perform
Culture bound
Implementation of Goal-Setting:
Management by Objectives
MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.
Corporate goals are broken down into smaller,
more specific goals at each level of organization.
Goals must be:
Tangible
Verifiable
Measurable
SMARTER goals:
specific
measurable
attainable
time-bound
Exciting (challenging goals fulfils growth
or achievement needs)
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 12

Reviewed
 Self-Efficacy Theory
Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief that he or
she is capable of performing a task.
Is he skilled?
Higher efficacy is related to: Does he get organisational
Greater confidence support to work?

Greater persistence in the face of difficulties

Better response to negative feedback (work harder)
Self-efficacy complements goal-setting theory
Increased Confidence

Given Hard Goal Higher Performance

Higher Self-Set Goal

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 13
Reinforcement Theory
Similar to goal-setting theory, but focused on a
behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one.
Behavior is environmentally caused
Thought (internal cognitive event) is not important
Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored
Behavior is controlled by its consequences –
reinforcers
Is not a motivational theory but a means of
analysis of behavior
Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is
not likely to be the sole cause
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 14
Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the
act will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.

Expectancy of Instrumentality of Valuation of the

performance success in getting reward in
success reward employee’s eyes

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 15

Self Determination theory/Cognitive
Evaluation Theory
- People prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so
anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an
obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine motivation.
- Introduction of extrinsic reward such as pay for work effort that was
previously intrinsically rewarding due to pleasure associated with
content of work decreases overall motivation. …… may be due to loss
of control over own behavior.

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 16

Self concordance theory: A Variant of
Self Determination Theory
Degree to which a person’s reasons for pursuing a
goal is consistent with the person’s interests and
core values. Strive towards a goal as striving is fun.
If people pursue their goal because of intrinsic interest,
they are likely to attain their goals and are happy even
if they do not achieve their goal.
More satisfied with their jobs, feel they fit in well, may
perform better

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 17

 Procedural
Justice
• Fairness of process
to make the decision

Distributive Interactional
Justice Justice
• Fairness of outcome • Being treated with
• “Get what they dignity and respect
deserve”

Organizational
Justice Overall perception
of what is fair in the
workplace.
Equity theory serves as the foundation to understand the perceived fairness
among various dimensions of justice. KM, 2017, IIMIDR 18
Decision Making

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Framing of a problem
Problem
A perceived discrepancy between the current
state of affairs and a desired state
Perception Linkage:
All elements of problem identification and the
decision-making process are influenced by
perception.
Problems must be recognized.
Data must be selected and evaluated.
Alternatives and evaluate their strengths and
weaknesses
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Human Beings are Quasi-Rational
Rational: consistent, value-maximizing choices
within specified constraints
Intuition: Gut feel (combination of past
experience and personal values, leads to
unconscious prompting)
Combine rationality with intuition(distilled
experience leads to unconscious prompting)!
Bounded Rationality: constructing simplified models
that extract essential features from problems without
capturing all their complexity
Satisficing: seek solutions that are satisfactory and
sufficient
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 21
Decision making process
Risk vs uncertainty:
Probability can be assigned to alternate
potential outcomes vs inability to assign such
probability
System 1 thinking: fast, automatic, effortless,
and often, emotional (heuristics, rule of thumb)
System 2 thinking: slow, controlled, requiring
effort, rule-governed, flexible
System 2 monitors activities of System 1;
most of the time System 1 thinking is
sufficient and practical.
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Prospect Theory
There is a reference point in person’s mind.
A person evaluate “outcomes of decisions
(prospects)” in terms of gains and losses relative to
the reference point.
There is a pain when it is a loss; there is a pleasure
when it is a gain.
Effects of loss and gain are valued differently.
For the same amount of gains and losses, the effect
of losses is more than that of gains.
If we perceive ourselves in the domain of gains, we
will behave in a risk-averse manner
If we perceive ourselves in the domain of losses, we
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 23
will behave in a risk-seeking manner
 Prospect Theory & the Value Function

We face stronger –ve emotion

Value +
when losing something of value
than +ve emotion when gaining
something of equal value. Value Function
So, we want to avoid loss at all cost.
A

Losses Gains

Reference Point

Value -

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Loss Aversion, Status Quo Bias,
Endowment Effect
Loss aversion: people place a higher value on
the status quo
Endowment effect: people ascribe a higher
value to items in their possession than they
would ascribe to the same items if they were
not in their possession

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Common Biases and Errors in
Decision Making
Overconfidence Bias
Believing too much in our own ability to make good
decisions, especially when outside of own expertise – we are
far too much optimistic
Anchoring Bias
Using early, first received information as the basis for making
subsequent judgments – fixated with initial info.
In other words, initial data or reference points have too much
influence on the final estimates or choices that we make.
We also get anchored to irrelevant data presented….
Confirmation Bias
Selecting and using only facts that support our decision (to
reaffirm past choices) (we see
KM, 2017, what we want (or expect) to see)
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More Common Decision-Making
Errors
Availability Bias
Emphasizing information that is most readily at hand:
Availability: Vividness and recency (ease of recall of instances of
an event) tend to make us overestimate its likelihood.
Randomness Error
Creating meaning out of random events – stitch together
random events(eg, superstitions)
Risk Aversion
The tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amount
over a riskier outcome, even if the riskier outcome might have
a higher expected payoff
Hindsight Bias
After an outcome is already known,
KM, 2017, IIMIDR believing it could have27
been accurately predicted beforehand
One more: Sunk Cost Trap
Escalation of Commitment
Increasing commitment to a decision in spite of
evidence that it is wrong – especially if responsible for
the decision! Specially, when substantial prior
investments of time, money, or other resources (investments
that are irreversible). (people tend to throw good money
after bad in many situations)

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 28

 Issues that impact decision making
Individual Differences
Personality (achievement striving and dutifulness
as two facets of conscientiousness), Gender,
Mental ability, culture impacts our decision making
Organisational Constraints
Performance evaluation: What is measured? What
is rewarded? Reward both outcome & process
Formal regulations: Saps decision making options
Time constraints: Leap of faith…..
Historical precedents: Follow the past…..
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Guarding Against Biases

Be aware of cognitive biases (built-in heuristics)

Adopt multiple perspectives

Act as Devil’s Advocate: Question assumptions, check

inferences

Consider the improbable or the unpopular

Make incremental decisions: Collect feedback, use real

options approach

Use probability and statistics

Use frameworks and models: Derived from theory or

developed by experts KM, 2017, IIMIDR 30
ETHICAL DECISION MAKING

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Ethics
Ethics: ethics involves learning what is right or wrong, and
then doing the right thing. Right conduct!
Ethics: consists of those unwritten rules we have
developed for our interactions with each other.
Ethics consists of standards of conduct that are beyond
laws and legal rights. These guide people’s decisions and
behavior.
Eg, line cutting vs traffic rule violation
Morality – difference between good and evil
Beliefs: what ‘is’ known about the world
Values: what should be and what is desirable

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Ethical Decision-Making Criteria
Assessed
Divine commandment
Ethical egoism
act in our self interest
Ayn Rand
Categorical Imperative;
You cannot use others such that it gives you
one-sided benefit – everyone must operate
under same usage rules
You not only have to be fair; you have to want to
do it for all the right reasons
We should not discriminate
KM, 2017, IIMIDR in anyway 33
Ethical Decision-Making Criteria
Assessed
Utilitarianism: greatest good to greatest no of
people
Pro: Promotes efficiency and productivity
Con: Can ignore individual rights, especially those in minority
Rights: everyone has a set of rights and it is upto
the government to protect those rights
Pro: Protects individuals from harm; preserves rights
Con: Creates an overly legalistic work environment
Justice: social contract that will operate if there
were no rules at all. Eg, equitable distribution.
Pro: Protects the interests of weaker members
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Con: Encourages a sense of entitlement
Ethical Decision-Making Criteria
Assessed
Moral Relativists:
Time and place ethics – weighing the competing factors at
the moment and then making a determination to take the
lesser of the evils as the resolution

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Ethical Dilemma
Are unethical decisions more a function of an
individual decision maker or the decision maker’s
work environment?
Is business ethics a matter of dealing with
dilemmas that have no clear indication of what is
right or wrong?
Do every ethical dilemma has a right solution?
Managers can agree on a process for dealing
with dilemmas

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 36

Principal antecedents of ethical
decision making
Individual factors
Actual cognitive map of the individual and his value system.
Choose the stronger ideal of yours…..
Impact on people
Who are the stakeholders? Who gets hurt? Choose the action
that produces greater good…..
Organisational setting (cultural, industry setting..)
Environment which promotes or hinders ethical action: way of
doing business, policies and procedures
Opportunity for action
The occasions, if at all present, when the individual can act
unethically: Choose the stronger obligation, short term vs long
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 37

term business impact….. Source: Ferrel and Gresham, 1985

 Perspective around business
ethics
What is?
Descriptive ethics: describing, characterizing
and studying ethics of people, culture, society
What is your personal / organisational / cultural /
societal ethics?
What ought to be?
Normative ethics: supplying and justifying a
coherent ethical system of thinking and judging

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 38

Source : Otto Bremer
Does Business Ethics reward?
Keeping up with ‘others’ joining the bandwagon.
Response to pressure from civil society and irritating
pressure groups
Prospect of profit – in long term
In case there is ethics dividend, it has to be earned through
set-up or recurring costs in time and resources and possibly
in terms of opportunity costs
People involved consider it simply the right thing to do –
not because it is fashionable or profitable or makes for a
quite life
Treating people with honesty, fairness & respect is a matter
of moral principle, not of expediency
Striking the right balance between
KM, 2017, IIMIDR two basic human feelings
39 –

concern for one’s own self and concern for others

Interpersonal Effectiveness

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 40

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

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Transactional analysis
Theory of personality: how people are
structured psychologically in terms of ego
states (Parent-Adult-Child) to explain how
people function and express their personality in
their behavior.
Communication as transaction between ego
states (pattern of feelings, thoughts, experience
directly related to a corresponding pattern of
behavior) of two people
Four life positions (deep conviction about self
and others) to transact with external world
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 42

Helps to analyse the interpersonal styles

Adult ego state
Adult : ……….which are adapted to current
reality. Main focus is collecting and processing
information in the present. Adult works like a
computer – without any values or emotions.
It is the part of our personality that processes
data accurately, that sees, hears, thinks and
can come up with solutions to problems based
on facts and not solely on our pre-judged
thoughts or child like emotions. It responds to
reality.
I will be frank with you
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 43
Parent ego state
Parent : ……….resembling (that is, learnt or
borrowed) that of parent. Main focus is on
values and norms Do as I do/tell you
Nurturing Parent: soft, loving, permission
giving, providing needed support, set limits in a
healthy way
Critical Parent (Controlling, Regulating):
Prescriptions – instructing in detail what needs
to be done and how, sanctions – punishing that
behavior that Parent disapproves of.
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 44
 Child ego state
Child : ……….which are relics of the individual’s
own childhood. That part of personality that is the
seat of emotions, thoughts, and feelings and all of
the feeling state ‘memories” that we have of
ourselves from childhood. They relate to emotions!
What shall I do
Natural Child: curious, fun loving, playful,
authentic, expressive, emotional, spontaneous
feelings. That side of us that experiences world
in a direct & immediate way
Having good contact with this ego state is essential
for intimate relationship
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 45

This, along with Adult state, is seat of creativity.

Child ego state
Adapted Child: the ego-state under the
influence of the parent
Learnt to comply with the parental messages we
received growing up.
Rebellious Child : revolting against authority
Rebelling against the parental messages we
received growing up.

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 46

Point to note
All ego states are important for a person.
If any of them is weak (that is, not used much and
related function is not getting priority), we call it
“underdeveloped”. (norm: out of 50, less than 20)
As you learnt to understand the ego state you or
someone else is using, you:
Become adept at recognising aspects of personality/behavior.
……see them change right before your eyes.
Learn to create a healthy human relationship
How to tell what ego state you are using
Tone of voice
Gestures KM, 2017, IIMIDR 47

Specific words being used, eg “Pay attention”

Transactions
Straight or complementary: Sent & received by the same
ego state
Crossed transactions: Respond doesnot originate from
ego state which has received the message
Ulterior transactions: Message is sent to two ego states

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 48

Strokes
Stroke : a unit of human recognition
A look, a nod, a smile, a spoken word, a touch
Any time one human does something to recognize another
human being = stroke. Eg, babies need stroke to survive
Positive or negative
Unconditional: they come to us just for being
Conditional: given for what we do, trait we possess
If we relate to each other only if certain conditions are there – it cuts
down spontaneity, limits pleasure, intimacy, creativity
Unconditional negative strokes : that is, core of you is not OK.

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 49

 Consistent way of interacting with others = style

Life position
We develop stroking patterns – it tends to support our
basic, existential life position, a stance in life that reflects
how we feel ourselves in relation to others.
Based on messages received from parents and early care
givers, a young child develops a basic life position – Existential
positions – as they influence how we view our own and others
existence. This helps to understand one’s style of working with
others
General transactional styles:
I am OK, you are OK. Healthy life script
Competenct/Confident/Creative
Paranoid/Depressive position. Build a life on Angry
I am OK, you are not OK position – difficult to form/maintain friendship, lack
Bossing
of trust. OR, cant feel good about himself in work
Diffident I am not OK, you are OK area or relationship.

Avoidant/
I am not OK, you are not OK Finds tough to see good in anyone.
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 50

Averse Life position of despair (futility position)

 Life position
People decide their story and destiny, therefore these decisions
can be changed.
Belief that we are each responsible for our own future, regardless
of what happened to us in the past.
Decide which type of parent ego state you will like to have
Which ego state you will like to use often, and which less
Which strokes you would like to give. And, ask for
By paying attention to different types of transaction, you can exert
some control in flow of conversation – honest, straightforward,
uncomplicated way
TA therapy helps in changing patterns in their life that they feel bad
or are not productive – mostly script patterns based on early
decisions made during childhood.
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 51
 FIRO B
(A FRAMEWORK FOR BEHAVIOR)
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 52
Fundamental Interpersonal Relations
Orientation Behavior FIRO-B
FIRO-B is a psychological instrument developed to
explain:
how interpersonal needs affect behaviour and
relationships.
how your behaviors might be interpreted in organizational
settings.
Interpersonal behaviors are related to the dynamic of
what we express towards others and want from others.
It is about behavior and should not be labeled as
“personality traits”
Interpersonal – any interaction - real (face to face, by
phone, memo) or imagined
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 53
Three aspects of interaction between
you & others
Inclusion: Need to establish and maintain
satisfactory interactions and associations with other
people. Extent of contact and prominence that a
person seeks. Belongingness
In or Out
Who will you select to interact with?
Primarily in the realm of group behavior
Descriptors: belonging, recognition, distinction,
involvement, participation

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 54

Three aspects of interaction between
you & others
Control: person’s behavior with respect to
responsibility, power, influence and decision making –
how much he desires to influence or direct the power
of others. Power and influence
Top or Bottom
Who directs the flow of interaction?
Descriptors: power, responsibility, authority,
consistency, influence

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 55

Three aspects of interaction between
you & others
Affection: a person’s behavior in forming close,
personal relationships with others. Love and affection,
friendship
Close or Far
How open is the interaction with another?
Primarily in the realm of one to one interactions
Descriptors: personal ties, support, consensus,
openness, sensitivity

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 56

Effectiveness through Matching Needs:
Interpersonal Compatibility
Originator incompatibility: When people who wish to
act on needs of ICA joins a group who wish to accept
these expressions of ICA
Incompatibility: both want to control or both don’t want to control…..
both want to originate behavior associated with Control needs
……..leading to conflict or abdication……
Reciprocal compatibility: When A’s expressed behavior
matches what B wants, and B’s expressed behavior
matches what A wants.
Interchange compatibility: When group members share
similar need strengths around ICA. Typically for I and A
Incompatibility arises when one person emphasizes control needs
highly while the other person emphasizes affection needs highly
Thus when interpersonal problem arise, one person is likely to define
KM, 2017, IIMIDR
the problem as one of control, while the other person will define it as 57
one of closeness, warmth, affection.
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 58

Conflict Defined
A process that begins when one party perceives that
another party has taken, or will take action about
something that the first party cares about
(incompatible to one’s own interests)
That point in an ongoing activity when an
interaction “crosses over” to become an interparty
conflict
Involves a relationship in which a sequence of
conditions and events tend toward aggressive
behavior and disorder.
Encompasses a wide range of conflicts that people
experience in organizations:
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 59
Transitions in Conflict Thought
Traditional View of Conflict
The belief that all conflict is harmful and must
be avoided
Prevalent view in the 1930s-1940s
Conflict resulted from:
Poor communication
Lack of openness
Failure to respond to employee needs
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 60
Continued Transitions in Conflict
Thought
Resolution Focused View of Conflict
The belief that conflict is a natural and inevitable
outcome in any group
Focuses on productive conflict resolution
Interactionist View of Conflict
The belief that conflict is not only a positive
force in a group but that it is absolutely
necessary for a group to perform effectively
Current view: Managed Conflict- productive
conflict resolution
KM, 2017, IIMIDR 61
Causes of conflict
Personal variables:
Personality types
Value system
Grudges
Malevolent attributions
Destructive criticism
Distrust
Competition over scarce resources (space, money,
people, raw material, incentive, equipment, clients)

KM, 2017, IIMIDR 62

Causes of conflict
Communication:
Semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, over communication
and “noise”
Structure:
Size and specialization of jobs
Tasks assigned: Conflicts over content and goals of the work (sell
more or expand geographically). Low-to-moderate levels of this
type are FUNCTIONAL
Process related: Conflict over how work gets done (who should do
what). Low level of this type are FUNCTIONAL
Jurisdictional clarity/ambiguity
Leadership styles (close or participative)
Reward systems (win-lose)
Dependence/interdependence KM, 2017,of groups
IIMIDR 63
 Intentions
Intentions
Decisions to act in a given way
Note: behavior does not always accurately reflect
intent
Dimensions of conflict-handling intentions:
Cooperativeness
Attempting to satisfy
the other party’s
concerns
Assertiveness
Attempting to satisfy
one’s own concerns KM, 2017, IIMIDR 64
Source: K. Thomas, “Conflict and Negotiation Processes in Organizations,” in M.D. Dunnette and L.M. Hough (eds.), Handbook of Industrial and
Organizational Psychology, 2nd ed., vol. 3 (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1992), p. 668. Arrows added. Used with permission.
Conflict Management Techniques
Conflict Resolution Conflict Stimulation
Techniques Techniques
Problem solving Bringing in outsiders
Superordinate goals Communication
Expansion of Restructuring the
resources organization
Avoidance Appointing a devil’s
Smoothing advocate
Compromise
Authoritative command
Altering the human
variable
Altering the structural
variables (eg, KM, 2017, IIMIDR

restructuring) 14-65