PHYSICS FORMULA

Topic Main Oriented Topics

Optical Instruments
Polarization & Diffraction
Electro Magnetic Waves
Semiconductor
Principle of Communication

OPTICAL INSTRUMENT

SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
D
 Magnifying power :
U0

D
 when image is formed at infinity M 
f
D
 When change is formed at near print D. MD  1
f

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Magnifying power Length of Microscope
V 0D 0
M L = V0 + Ue
U 0U e

V0D
M  L = V0 + fe
U 0f e

V0  D D.f e
MD   1   LD = V0 
U0  fe  D  fe
Astronomical Telescope
Magnifying power Length of Microscope
f0
M=  L = f + ue.
e

f0
M  L = f0 + fe
fe

f0  f  Df e
MD  1  e  LD= f 0 + D  f
fe  D e

Terrestrial Telescope
Magnifying power Length of Microscope
f0
M L= f 0 + 4f + Ue.
Ue

f0
M  L = f 0 + 4f + fe.
fe

f0  fe  Df e
MD  1   LD = f 0 + 4f + D  f
fe  D e

Galilean Telescope
Magnifying power Length of Microscope
f0
M L = f 0 - Ue.
Ue

f0
M  L = f 0 - fe.
fe

f0  f  fe D
MD  1 – e  LD = f 0 – D – f
fe  d e

Resolving Power
1 2 sin 
Microscope R  
d 
1 a
Telescope. R  
 1.22
 Polarisation
  = tan .(brewster's angle)
 +  r = 90°(reflected and refracted rays are mutually
perpendicular.)
 Law of Malus.
I = I 0 cos2
I = KA2 cos2
 Optical activity


 t
C 
L C
 = rotation in length L at concentration C.

Diffraction
 a sin  = (2m + 1) /2 for maxima. where m = 1, 2, 3 ......

m
 sin  = , m =  1,  2,  3......... for minima.
a

2d 
 Linear width of central maxima =
a

2
 Angular width of central maxima =
a
2
 sin  / 2  a sin 
   0   where  =
 /2  

 Resolving power .

 
R= 
2 – 1 

1   2
where ,   ,  = 2 -  1
2
 ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVES
Maxwell's equations

 E  dA  Q /  0 (Gauss's Law for electricity)

 B  dA  0 (Gauss's Law for magnetism)

–

d B
 E d  dt
(Faraday's Law)

d E
 B  d   i
0c  0  0
dt
(Ampere-Maxwell Law)

Oscillating electric and magnetic fields

E= Ex(t) = E0 sin (kz - t)
 z    z t 
= E0 sin  2  – vt   = E 0 sin  2  – T  
     
E0/B0 = c

c = 1 /  0 0 c is speed of light in vaccum

v  1/  v is speed of light in medium

U energy transferred to a surface in time t is U, the magnitude of

p
c
the total momentum delivered to this surface (for complete
absorption) is p
Electromagnetic spectrum
Type Wavelength Production Detection
range
Radio > 0.1m Rapid acceleration and Receiver's aerials
decelerations of electrons in
aerials
Microwave 0.1m to 1mm Klystron value or magnetron Point contact diodes
value
Infra-red 1mm to 700nm Vibration of atoms and Thermopiles Bolometer,
molecules Infrared photographic
film
Light 700nm to Electrons in atoms emit light The eye, photocells,
400nm when they move from one Photographic film
energy level to a lower
energy
Ultraviolet 400nm to 1nm Inner shell electrons in photocells photographic
atoms moving from one film
energy level to a lower level
3
X rays 1nm to 10 nm X ray tubes or inner shell Photograpic film, Geiger
–

- -

electrons tubes, lonisation chamber

3
Gamma < 10 nm Radioactive decay of the do
–

rays nucleus
 SEMICONDUCTOR

Conductivity and resistivity

 P (– m) (–1m–1)
Metals 10–2 -10–6 102 – 108

semiconductors 10–5 -10–6 105 – 10–6

Insulators 1011 –1019 10–11 – 10–19

Charge concentration and current
[ n = e] In case of intrinsic semiconductors
 P type n >> e
 i = ie + ih
 e n = i2
 Number of electrons reaching from valence bond to conduction bond.
= A T 3 / 2 e – Eg / 2kT (A is positive constant)
  = e ( e me + n n)
for  hype n = Na >> e.
for  – type e = Na >> h
V
 Dynamic Resistance of P-N junction in forward biasing =

Transistor
 CB amplifier
Samll change in collector current (ic )
(i) ac current gain c = Samll change in collector current ( i )
e

Collector current (ic )

(ii) dc current gain dc = Emitter current (i ) value of dc lies
e
between 0.95 to 0.99
Change in output voltage ( V0 )
(iii) Voltage gain AV = Change in input voltage ( V )
f
AV = aac × Resistance gain
Change in output power ( P0 )
(iv) Power gain = Change in input voltage ( P )
C
 Power gain = a2ac × Resistance gain
(v) Phase difference (between output and input) : same phase
(vi) Application : For High frequency
CE Amplifier
 i c 
(i) ac current gain ac =  i  VCE = constant
 b

ic
(ii) dc current gain dc = i
b

V0
(iii) Voltage gain : AV = V = ac × Resistance gain
i

P0
(iv) Power gain = P = 2ac × Resistance
i
(v) Transconductance (gm) : The ratio of the change in collector in
collector current to the change in emitter base voltage is called trans
i c AV
conductance i.e. gm = V . Also gm = R RL = Load resistance.
EB L

 
 Relation between  and  :   or  =
1–  1  
(v) Transconductance (gm) : The ratio of the change in collector in collec-
tor current to the change in emitter base voltage is called trans conductance
i.e. gm = . Also gm = RL = Load resistance.
 PRINCIPLE OF COMMUNICATION

Transmission from tower of height h

 the distance to the horizon dT = 2RhT

 dM = 2RhT  2RhR

Amplitude Modulation
 The modulated signal cm (t) can be written as
A c A c
cm(t) = Ac sin ct + cos (C - m) t – cos (C + m)
2 2
Change in amplitude of carrier wave kA m
 Modulation index ma  
Amplitude of original carrier wave Ac
where k = A factor which determines the maximum change in the
amplitude for a given amplitude Em of the modulating. If k = 1 then
A m A max – A min
ma = 
Ac A max – A min
 If a carrier wave is modulated by several sine waves the total modulated

index mt is given by mt = m12  m22  m23  .........

 Side band frequencies
(f c + f m) = Upper side band (USB) frequency
(fc - f m) = Lower side band (LBS) frequency

 Band width = (fc + fm) - (f c - f m) = 2fm

2
Vrms
 Power in AM waves : P 
R
2
 Ac 
 
(i) carrier power 2 A2
Pc    c
R 2R
 2
 ma A c   ma A c 
    2 2
(ii) Total power of side bands Psb =  2 2  2 2  ma A c
 
R 2R 4R

A c2  ma2 
(iii) Total power of AM wave PTotal = Pc + Pab = 2R  1  2 

 

Pt  ma2  P ma2 / 2
(iv) P   1  2  and sb 
 Pt  ma2 
c  
1 
 2 

(v) Maximum power in the AM (without distortion) will occur when
ma = 1 i.e., Pt = 1.5 P = 3Pab

(vi) If Ic = Unmodulated current and It = total or modulated current

Pt 2t t  ma2 
 P      1  
2c  2 
c c  
Frequency Modulation
Em
 Frequency deviation  = = (fmax - fc) = f c - fmin = kf .
2
 Carrier swing (CS) = CS = 2 × f
 Frequency modulation index (mf)
 fmax – fc fc – fmin k f Em
=. mf = f  fm

fm

fm
m
 Frequency spectrum = FM side band modulated signal consist of infi-
nite number of side bands whose frequencies are (fc ± f m), (f c ± 2f m),
(f c ± 3fm).........
(f )max
 Deviation ratio = (f )
m max
( f )actual
 Percent modulation , m = (f )
max