History of Science, Philosophy and

Culture in Indian Civilization

General Editor: D.P. Chattopadhyaya

Volume IX Part 1

Medicine in India:
Modern Period

O.P. JAGGI

Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
 Contents

Foreword xiii
General Introduction xvii

1. The Colonial Period 1

The Political Scene I
The People: Their Intellectual Horizon 5
The Advent of English Education 8
The College of Fort William 9
The Hindu College of Calcutta 9
British Policy on Education 11
Impact of English Education 16
Traditionalism gives place to rationalism 17
Impact on religion 18
Impact on social structure 19
Impact on Muslim religion and society 20
Science Education 21
Charter of Indian Education 21
Science Education in Schools 22
Science Education in Colleges 23
Postgraduate Science Education 24

2. Scientific Concepts Before and After the Renaissance 26

Physical World 26
Biological World 29

3. Advent of Western Medical Education in India 31

Medical Education in Ancient Times 31
Medical Education in Britain 35
Portuguese Medical School at Goa 40
First British Medical School in India 41
First Medical College in Calcutta 44
Madras Medical School and College 49
Grant Medical College, Bombay 50
Other Medical Colleges 53
Medical Schools 55
Medical Education for Women 57
IMG scorns the idea 58
Scharlieb, the first woman medical student 58
viii Contents

Dr Clara Swain 61
Missionary women doctors 62
Indian women pioneers in medicine 64
The Countess of Dufferin Fund 64
Evaluation of Medical Education 65
Bhore Committee Report (1946) 67

4. Hospitals in India 70
Ancient Period 71
Medieval Period 71
European Period 74
Royal Portuguese Hospital at Goa 74
French Hospital, Pondicherry 76
Hospitals in Madras Presidency 77
Hospitals in Bombay Presidency 79
Hospitals in Bengal Presidency 81

5. Insanitation, Disease, and Remedial Measures 86

Insanitary Conditions in the Nineteenth Century 87
Remedial Measures 90
Plague Commission Report and Subsequent Measures 93
Bhore Committee Recommendations (1946) and After 94

6. Army Health and Hygiene 98

Food and Clothing 98
British Soldier's Wife and Children 99
Stay in the Hills Recommended 101
Soldiers' Barracks 102
Army Hospital Ward 103
'Precious Supplies' 105

7. Communicable Diseases 107

Introduction 107
I. Cholera 108
Prevalence 108
Why did cholera always spread from Bengal? Ill
Cholera and pilgrimages 112
Increase in cholera mortality 114
Causes 114
Koch's discovery of Cholera vibrio and his work in India 116
IMS officers ridicule Koch's findings 117
Haffkine's cholera prophylactic inoculation 118
Treatment 119
Cholera mortality unabated 122
II. Plague 124
Prevalence 124
Plague preventive inoculation 132
From worship of Sitala to vaccination 136
 Contents ix
III. Smallpox 143
Prevalence 143
Initiation of Vaccination in India 144
Present to Dr Jenner from Calcutta Citizens 147
Prejudice against Vaccination 147
Recent Work 149
IV. Malaria and Other Fevers 150
Fevers Classified Clinically 151
What is Malaria? 152
Research on Malaria and the works of Ross 154
Further Work on Malaria 161
Recent Work 164
V. Kala-azar 165
Prevalence 165
Cause 168
Leishman identifies the causative agent 169
Transmission of kala-azar 169
Treatment 170
VI. Typhoid 172
Typhoid is Common in Europeans and Rare in Indians 172
Wide Prevalence of Typhoid Recognized 172
VII. Tuberculosis 173
Mistaken Notion that Tuberculosis is Rare in India 173
Scepticism about Koch's Discovery in India 176
Anti-tuberculosis Work 177
VIII. Leprosy 180
First Leprosy Home 180
Views on Causation 181
Research Work 182
Treatment 183
Anti-leprosy Work 184
Recent Work 184
IX. Venereal Diseases 185
Occurrence among the Army 185
Occurrence among the Indian population 186
Anti-venereal Measures 187

8. Vital Statistics about Disease and Death 191

9. Maternal and Child Health 194

Plight of Women in the Nineteenth Century 194
Pregnancy and Labour 194
Criminal Abortion 196
Infanticide 196
Role of Western Medicine in Maternity and Child Welfare Work 197

10. Indigenous Profession of Midwives (Däis) 199

The Service of the Däi 199
x Contents

Training of Indigenous Midwives (Däis) 200

Victoria Memorial Scholarship Fund 201
Bhore Committee Report 201

11. Nursing Profession in India 203

Introduction 203
In the Madras Presidency 204
In the Bombay Presidency 206
In the Bengal Presidency 207
Teething Problems 207
Military Nursing 209
College of Nursing, New Delhi 210

12. Goodwill Earned by European Medical Personnel 213

IMS Officers Win Praise of Ailing Humanity 213
Work of Medical College Professors 215
Work of Christian Missionary Women Doctors 216
Work of the Red Cross 216
Work of St John Ambulance Association 217

13. Political and Social Influence of European Physicians

Among the Muslim Royalty 219
Gabriel Boughton treats Shah Jahan's Daughter 219
William Hamilton treats Emperor Farrukh Siyar 219
Manucci and Other Court Physicians 220
Popularity of European Physicians 222

14. Surgery in India in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century 225
Surgery in India before 1870 225
High mortality from amputations 225
Successful removal of scrotal swellings 226
Suture material 227
Surgical methods 228
Surgery in India after 1870 229

15. Cataract Surgery: From Couching to Lens Removal 232

Couching in Sushruta's Time and After 232
Lens Removal 237

16. Researches in Material Medica and Pharmacology 239

Introduction 239
Early Treatises by Europeans 239
Treatises after 1850 241
Treatises in the Early Twentieth Century 244
Cultivation of Cinchona and Manufacture of Quinine 245
Manufacture of Morphine 246
Research on Indigenous Drugs 247
R.N. Chopra's Work 249
 Contents xi
Research on Musk 250
Beginnings of Pharmaceutical Industry 252
Arrival of Antibiotics 253

17. Organization of Medical Research 255

Pioneering Efforts 255
Indian Research Fund Association 256
Bhore Committee Report 259

18. Medical Research Institutes (upto 1947) 260

Haffkine Institute, Bombay 260
The King Institute of Preventive Medicine, Guindy 260
The Central Research Institute, Kasauli 261
The Pasteur Institute of Southern India, Coonoor 262
The Pasteur Institute, Shillong 262
The School of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Calcutta 263
The imperial serologist 265
The All-India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health, Calcutta 265
Nutrition Research Laboratories, Coonoor 266
The Malaria Institute of India, New Delhi 267
The Indian Council of the British Empire, Leprosy Relief Association 268
Indian Institute of Medical Research, Calcutta 268

19. Early History of the Indian Medical Service 269

Introduction 269
Foundation of the Indian Medical Services (IMS) 270
Regulations for Recruitment 272
Indians join the IMS after 1855 273
Duties of the IMS Officers 274
Military duties 274
Civil duties 275
Officer's View of the IMS 277
Effect of Political Changes 279
The IMS after the First World War 280

20. Creation of the Indian Medical Council 283

Introduction 283
Bengal Medical Act 285
Bombay Medical Act 286
All-India Medical Act 287
G.M.C. Derecognizes Indian Medical Degrees 287
Indian Medical Council Act 289
Views for and against 290

21. Medical Ethics in India through the Ages 295

History of Medical Practice and Values 295
Ayurvedic medicine 295
Tantrism 296
xii Contents

Unani medicine (Tibb) 296

European medicine 297
The 1956 Code of Conduct 297
Current Trends 298
Health care 299
Family planning 299
Future Outlook 300

22. What Foreigners had to Say about Ayurveda 302

23. Revival of Ayurveda 311

Recommendations of Different Committees 312

24. Unani Medicine in India 319

25. Homoeopathy in India 323

26. Nature Cure System in India 330

27. Faith Healing in India 333

Causes and Cure of Disease 333
Prevention of Disease 334
Avoiding evil spirits 334
Use of amulets 335
The evil eye 335
How Faith Healing Works 335
28. Yoga 337
Modern trends 337
Scope of Yoga 338

29. Indigenous Systems of Medicine during British Supremacy in India 340

Introduction 340
Utilization of Indigenous Medical Practitioners 340
No Official Encouragement 341
Vaids and Hakims Non-registrable 342
Self-assessment by Indigenous Medical Systems 343
Support by the Local Self-governments 345

Index 347