The Python Tutorial - Python 3.8.6 Documentation

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<span id="tutorial-index"></span><h1>The Python Tutorial<a class="headerlink"
href="#the-python-tutorial" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
<p>Python is an easy to learn, powerful programming language. It has efficient
high-level data structures and a simple but effective approach to
object-oriented programming. Python’s elegant syntax and dynamic typing,
together with its interpreted nature, make it an ideal language for scripting
and rapid application development in many areas on most platforms.</p>
<p>The Python interpreter and the extensive standard library are freely available
in source or binary form for all major platforms from the Python Web site,
<a class="reference external"
href="https://www.python.org/">https://www.python.org/</a>, and may be freely
distributed. The same site also
contains distributions of and pointers to many free third party Python modules,
programs and tools, and additional documentation.</p>
<p>The Python interpreter is easily extended with new functions and data types
implemented in C or C++ (or other languages callable from C). Python is also
suitable as an extension language for customizable applications.</p>
<p>This tutorial introduces the reader informally to the basic concepts and
features of the Python language and system. It helps to have a Python
interpreter handy for hands-on experience, but all examples are self-contained,
so the tutorial can be read off-line as well.</p>
<p>For a description of standard objects and modules, see <a class="reference
internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html#library-index"><span
class="std std-ref">The Python Standard Library</span></a>.
<a class="reference internal"
href="https://docs.python.org/3/reference/index.html#reference-index"><span
class="std std-ref">The Python Language Reference</span></a> gives a more formal
definition of the language. To write
extensions in C or C++, read <a class="reference internal"
href="https://docs.python.org/3/extending/index.html#extending-index"><span
class="std std-ref">Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter</span></a> and
<a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3/c-api/index.html#c-
api-index"><span class="std std-ref">Python/C API Reference Manual</span></a>.
There are also several books covering Python in depth.</p>
<p>This tutorial does not attempt to be comprehensive and cover every single
feature, or even every commonly used feature. Instead, it introduces many of
Python’s most noteworthy features, and will give you a good idea of the
language’s flavor and style. After reading it, you will be able to read and
write Python modules and programs, and you will be ready to learn more about the
various Python library modules described in <a class="reference internal"
href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html#library-index"><span class="std
std-ref">The Python Standard Library</span></a>.</p>
<p>The <a class="reference internal"
href="https://docs.python.org/3/glossary.html#glossary"><span class="std std-
ref">Glossary</span></a> is also worth going through.</p>
<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
<ul>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal"
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/appetite.html">1. Whetting Your
Appetite</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/interpreter.html">2. Using the Python
Interpreter</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/interpreter.html#invoking-the-
interpreter">2.1. Invoking the Interpreter</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/interpreter.html#argument-passing">2.1.1.
Argument Passing</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/interpreter.html#interactive-mode">2.1.2.
Interactive Mode</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/interpreter.html#the-interpreter-and-its-
environment">2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/interpreter.html#source-code-
encoding">2.2.1. Source Code Encoding</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/introduction.html">3. An Informal
Introduction to Python</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/introduction.html#using-python-as-a-
calculator">3.1. Using Python as a Calculator</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/introduction.html#numbers">3.1.1.
Numbers</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/introduction.html#strings">3.1.2.
Strings</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/introduction.html#lists">3.1.3.
Lists</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/introduction.html#first-steps-towards-
programming">3.2. First Steps Towards Programming</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html">4. More Control Flow
Tools</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#if-statements">4.1. <code
class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span
class="pre">if</span></code> Statements</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#for-statements">4.2.
<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span
class="pre">for</span></code> Statements</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#the-range-function">4.3.
The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span
class="pre">range()</span></code> Function</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#break-and-continue-
statements-and-else-clauses-on-loops">4.4. <code class="xref std std-keyword
docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">break</span></code> and <code
class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span
class="pre">continue</span></code> Statements, and <code class="xref std std-
keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">else</span></code> Clauses
on Loops</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#pass-statements">4.5.
<code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span
class="pre">pass</span></code> Statements</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#defining-functions">4.6.
Defining Functions</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#more-on-defining-
functions">4.7. More on Defining Functions</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#default-argument-
values">4.7.1. Default Argument Values</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#keyword-arguments">4.7.2.
Keyword Arguments</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#special-
parameters">4.7.3. Special parameters</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#positional-or-keyword-
arguments">4.7.3.1. Positional-or-Keyword Arguments</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#positional-only-
parameters">4.7.3.2. Positional-Only Parameters</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#keyword-only-
arguments">4.7.3.3. Keyword-Only Arguments</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#function-
examples">4.7.3.4. Function Examples</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#recap">4.7.3.5.
Recap</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#arbitrary-argument-
lists">4.7.4. Arbitrary Argument Lists</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#unpacking-argument-
lists">4.7.5. Unpacking Argument Lists</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#lambda-
expressions">4.7.6. Lambda Expressions</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#documentation-
strings">4.7.7. Documentation Strings</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#function-
annotations">4.7.8. Function Annotations</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#intermezzo-coding-
style">4.8. Intermezzo: Coding Style</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html">5. Data
Structures</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#more-on-lists">5.1.
More on Lists</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#using-lists-as-
stacks">5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#using-lists-as-
queues">5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#list-
comprehensions">5.1.3. List Comprehensions</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#nested-list-
comprehensions">5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#the-del-
statement">5.2. The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal
notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code> statement</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#tuples-and-
sequences">5.3. Tuples and Sequences</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#sets">5.4.
Sets</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#dictionaries">5.5.
Dictionaries</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#looping-
techniques">5.6. Looping Techniques</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#more-on-
conditions">5.7. More on Conditions</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#comparing-sequences-
and-other-types">5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html">6. Modules</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html#more-on-modules">6.1. More on
Modules</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html#executing-modules-as-
scripts">6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html#the-module-search-
path">6.1.2. The Module Search Path</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html#compiled-python-files">6.1.3.
“Compiled” Python files</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html#standard-modules">6.2.
Standard Modules</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html#the-dir-function">6.3. The
<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span
class="pre">dir()</span></code> Function</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html#packages">6.4.
Packages</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html#importing-from-a-
package">6.4.1. Importing * From a Package</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html#intra-package-
references">6.4.2. Intra-package References</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html#packages-in-multiple-
directories">6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/inputoutput.html">7. Input and
Output</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/inputoutput.html#fancier-output-
formatting">7.1. Fancier Output Formatting</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/inputoutput.html#formatted-string-
literals">7.1.1. Formatted String Literals</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/inputoutput.html#the-string-format-
method">7.1.2. The String format() Method</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/inputoutput.html#manual-string-
formatting">7.1.3. Manual String Formatting</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/inputoutput.html#old-string-
formatting">7.1.4. Old string formatting</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/inputoutput.html#reading-and-writing-
files">7.2. Reading and Writing Files</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/inputoutput.html#methods-of-file-
objects">7.2.1. Methods of File Objects</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/inputoutput.html#saving-structured-data-
with-json">7.2.2. Saving structured data with <code class="xref py py-mod docutils
literal notranslate"><span class="pre">json</span></code></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/errors.html">8. Errors and
Exceptions</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/errors.html#syntax-errors">8.1. Syntax
Errors</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/errors.html#exceptions">8.2.
Exceptions</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/errors.html#handling-exceptions">8.3.
Handling Exceptions</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/errors.html#raising-exceptions">8.4.
Raising Exceptions</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/errors.html#user-defined-exceptions">8.5.
User-defined Exceptions</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/errors.html#defining-clean-up-
actions">8.6. Defining Clean-up Actions</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/errors.html#predefined-clean-up-
actions">8.7. Predefined Clean-up Actions</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html">9. Classes</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#a-word-about-names-and-
objects">9.1. A Word About Names and Objects</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#python-scopes-and-
namespaces">9.2. Python Scopes and Namespaces</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#scopes-and-namespaces-
example">9.2.1. Scopes and Namespaces Example</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#a-first-look-at-classes">9.3.
A First Look at Classes</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#class-definition-
syntax">9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#class-objects">9.3.2. Class
Objects</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#instance-objects">9.3.3.
Instance Objects</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#method-objects">9.3.4. Method
Objects</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#class-and-instance-
variables">9.3.5. Class and Instance Variables</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#random-remarks">9.4. Random
Remarks</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#inheritance">9.5.
Inheritance</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#multiple-inheritance">9.5.1.
Multiple Inheritance</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#private-variables">9.6.
Private Variables</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#odds-and-ends">9.7. Odds and
Ends</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#iterators">9.8.
Iterators</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#generators">9.9.
Generators</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html#generator-expressions">9.10.
Generator Expressions</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib.html">10. Brief Tour of the
Standard Library</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib.html#operating-system-
interface">10.1. Operating System Interface</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib.html#file-wildcards">10.2. File
Wildcards</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib.html#command-line-arguments">10.3.
Command Line Arguments</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib.html#error-output-redirection-and-
program-termination">10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program
Termination</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib.html#string-pattern-matching">10.5.
String Pattern Matching</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib.html#mathematics">10.6.
Mathematics</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib.html#internet-access">10.7.
Internet Access</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib.html#dates-and-times">10.8. Dates
and Times</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib.html#data-compression">10.9. Data
Compression</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib.html#performance-
measurement">10.10. Performance Measurement</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib.html#quality-control">10.11.
Quality Control</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib.html#batteries-included">10.12.
Batteries Included</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib2.html">11. Brief Tour of the
Standard Library — Part II</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib2.html#output-formatting">11.1.
Output Formatting</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib2.html#templating">11.2.
Templating</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib2.html#working-with-binary-data-
record-layouts">11.3. Working with Binary Data Record Layouts</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib2.html#multi-threading">11.4. Multi-
threading</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib2.html#logging">11.5.
Logging</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib2.html#weak-references">11.6. Weak
References</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib2.html#tools-for-working-with-
lists">11.7. Tools for Working with Lists</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/stdlib2.html#decimal-floating-point-
arithmetic">11.8. Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/venv.html">12. Virtual Environments and
Packages</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/venv.html#introduction">12.1.
Introduction</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/venv.html#creating-virtual-
environments">12.2. Creating Virtual Environments</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/venv.html#managing-packages-with-
pip">12.3. Managing Packages with pip</a></li>
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href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/whatnow.html">13. What Now?</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/interactive.html">14. Interactive Input
Editing and History Substitution</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/interactive.html#tab-completion-and-
history-editing">14.1. Tab Completion and History Editing</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/interactive.html#alternatives-to-the-
interactive-interpreter">14.2. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter</a></li>
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href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/floatingpoint.html">15. Floating Point
Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations</a><ul>
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error">15.1. Representation Error</a></li>
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href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/appendix.html">16. Appendix</a><ul>
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Interactive Mode</a><ul>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/appendix.html#error-handling">16.1.1.
Error Handling</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/appendix.html#executable-python-
scripts">16.1.2. Executable Python Scripts</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/appendix.html#the-interactive-startup-
file">16.1.3. The Interactive Startup File</a></li>
href="https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/appendix.html#the-customization-
modules">16.1.4. The Customization Modules</a></li>
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