STATE OF STRESS AND

STRAIN IN TWO-DIMENSION

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS (MSE 305) LECTURE

DELIVERED BY:

DR. J. O. OLAWALE
February 2021
 STATE OF STRESS IN TWO-DIMENSION
(PLANE STRESS)
• Recalled that the general state of stress at a point is characterized by
six independent normal and shear stress components which act on the
faces of an element of material located at the point Fig.1a.
• This state of stress, however, is not often encounter in engineering
practice.
• Instead, engineers frequently make approximations and simplifications
of the loadings on a body in order that the stress produced in a
structural member or mechanical element can be analyzed in a single
plane.
• When this is the case, the material is said to be subjected to plane
stress Fig. 1b.
Fig. 1a: The State of Stress in 3D Fig. 1b: The State of Stress in 2D
• A two-dimensional state-of-stress exists when the stresses and body
forces are independent of one of the coordinates. Such a state is
described by stresses 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and the x and y body forces.
(Here z is taken as the independent coordinate axis.)

• In this state the two of the faces of the cubic element are free of any
stress. Since 𝑧 axis is chosen perpendicular to this face, we have 𝜎𝑧 =
𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 0 and the only remaining stress components are 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦
and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 as shown in Fig. 2.

• Such a situation is refer to as a state of stress in two dimension (plane

stress). Thus a two dimensional stress system is one in which the stress
at any point in the body act in the same plane.
• Plane stress arises in a thin components loaded in certain ways.

• In addition, many engineering problems, such as axial bars, beams in

bending and circular members in torsion, are examples of a state of
stress called plane stress
Fig. 2a: Element in plane stress in the 𝑥𝑦 Fig. 2b: Two-dimensional presentation
plane. of plane stress.
• Many problems can be simplified by considering a two-dimension
state of stress.
• This condition is frequently approached in practice when one of the
dimensions of the body is small relative to the others.
• For example, in a thin plate loaded in the plane of the of the plate (Fig.
3) there will be no stress acting perpendicular to the surface of the
plate.
• If we take the 𝑥𝑦 plane to be the plane of the sheet, then the state of
stress at a point 𝑂 in the sheet can be visualized as shown in Fig. 1a,
where 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 0.
• Hence, the state of stress at a point will depend on only the stress
components:
 𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑥 array of tress component is called
𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑦 plane stress in the 𝑥𝑦 plane.
Taking the summation of the
forces about center O in the 𝑧
direction:
𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧 ∆𝑥 = (𝜏𝑦𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑧 )∆𝑦
∴ 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥
If we assume further that for a thin
sheet there are no variations in the
stress components in the 𝑧
direction, then the stress
components are functions of only
𝑥 and 𝑦. Under this assumption the Fig. 3: A thin plate loaded by
forces in the 𝑥𝑦 plane
 TRANSFORMATION OF PLANE STRESS
• Let us assume that a state of plane stress exists at point 𝑂 (with 𝜎𝑧 =
𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 0) and that it is defined by the stress components 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦
and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 associated with the elements shown in Fig. 4a.
• We propose to determine the stress components 𝜎𝑥 ′ , 𝜎𝑦′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′
associated with the element after it has been rotated through an angle
𝜃 about the 𝑧 axis (Fig. 4b), and to express these components in terms
of 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and 𝜃.
• In order to determine the normal stress 𝜎𝑥 ′ and shearing stress 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′
exerted on the face perpendicular to 𝑥 ′ axis, we shall consider a
prismatic element with faces respectively perpendicular to the 𝑥, 𝑦 and
𝑥 ′ (Fig. 5a).
• If the area of the oblique face is denoted by 𝐴, it follows that the
forces exerted on the three faces are shown in Fig. 5b.
• Left face has area 𝐴.
• Bottom face has area 𝐴 tan 𝜃.
• Inclined face has area 𝐴 sec 𝜃.
• Using the components of forces along the 𝑥 ′ and 𝑦 ′ axes, we write the
following equilibrium equations:

σ 𝐹𝑥 ′ = 0:
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝐴 sec 𝜃 − (𝜎𝑥 𝐴) cos 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐴 sin 𝜃 − (𝜎𝑦 𝐴 tan 𝜃) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − (𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐴 tan 𝜃) cos 𝜃 = 0
σ 𝐹𝑦′ = 0:
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝐴 sec 𝜃 − (𝜎𝑥 𝐴) sin 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐴 cos 𝜃 − (𝜎𝑦 𝐴 tan 𝜃) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − (𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐴 tan 𝜃) sin 𝜃 = 0

Using 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 and solving the first equation for 𝜎𝑥 ′ and second for
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ , we have :
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 Eqn. 1
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = − 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) Eqn. 2
Recalling the trigonometric relations:
sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 cos 2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
and
1 +cos 2𝜃 1 −cos 2𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃=
2 2
Using trigonometric relations, we write Eqn. 1 as follow:

1 + cos 2𝜃 1 − cos 2𝜃
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
or
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃 Eqn. 3
2 2

Using trigonometric relations, we write Eqn. 2 as follow:

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃 Eqn. 4
2

The expression for the normal stress 𝜎𝑦′ can be obtained by replacing 𝜃
in Eqn. 3 by the angle 𝜃 + 90° that 𝑦 ′ axis forms. Since cos(2𝜃 +
180°) = − cos 2𝜃 and sin 2𝜃 + 180° = − sin 2𝜃, we have:
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃 Eqn. 5
2 2
Equations 3 to 5 are refer to as stress transformation equations for plane
stress which gives the stresses in an 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ coordinate system if the stress
in an 𝑥𝑦 coordinate system and the angle 𝜃 are known.

Adding Eqns. 3 and 5 member to member, we obtained:

𝜎𝑥 ′ + 𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦

Since 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧 ′ = 0, we thus verify in the case of plane stress that sum

of the normal stress exerted on the cubic element of material is
independent of the orientation of that element.
Special cases
Case 1: Uniaxial stress Case 2 : Pure Shear

𝜎𝑦 = 0 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = 0
1 +cos 2𝜃
𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 = 0
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑥
2 𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
sin 2𝜃
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
Case 3: Biaxial stress 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0

𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃
2 2

𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = − sin 2𝜃
2
Sign Convention:
1. Positive normal stress acts outward from all faces and positive shear
stress acts upwards on the right-hand face of the element.
2. Negative normal stress acts inward from all faces and negative shear
stress on the right-hand face of the element.
3. If the body is rotated clockwise the shear stress is negative and the
angle 𝜃 is negative.
4. If the body is rotated counterclockwise the shear stress is positive
and the angle 𝜃 is positive.
5. If the body is rotated in positive angle the shear stress is positive.
6. If the body is rotated in negative angle the shear stress is negative.
Example 1: The state of plane stress at a point is represented by the stress
element below. Determine the stresses acting on an element oriented 30°
clockwise with respect to the original element.

Define the stresses in terms of the

established sign convention:
𝜎𝑥 = −80 𝑀𝑝𝑎 𝜎𝑦 = 50 𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −25 𝑀𝑝𝑎 𝜃 = −30°

Solution:
The stress components are:
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

−80+50 −80 −50

𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2(−30) + (−25) sin 2(−30) = 25.9 𝑀𝑝𝑎
2 2

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

−80+50 −80−50
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 2(−30) − (−25) sin 2 −30 = −4.15 Mpa
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
 50 + 80
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = sin 2(−30°) + (−25) cos 2(−30°) = −68.8 𝑀𝑝𝑎
2

Note that 𝜎𝑦′ could also be

obtained (a) by substituting + 60°
into the equation for 𝜎𝑥 ′ (b) by
using the equation 𝜎𝑥 ′ + 𝜎𝑦′ =
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦

Example 2: An element in plane stress is subjected to stresses 𝜎𝑥 =

16000 𝑝𝑠𝑖, 𝜎𝑦 = 6000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 4000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (as shown in figure
below). Determine the stresses acting on an element inclined at an angle
𝜃 = 45° (counterclockwise)
 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = − 2
sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 16000 +6000
= = 11000 𝑃𝑠𝑖
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 16000 −5000
2
= 2
= 5000 𝑃𝑠𝑖

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 11000 + 5000 cos 90 + 4000 sin 90

Solution:
Given that 𝜎𝑥 = 16000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 , 𝜎𝑦 = 6000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 , 𝜎𝑥′ = 11000 + 5000 0 + 4000 1 = 15000 𝑃𝑠𝑖
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 4000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 and 𝜃 = 45°
𝜎𝑦 ′ = 11000 − 5000 cos 90 − 4000 sin 90
The stress components are:
𝜎𝑦 ′ = 11000 − 5000(0) – 4000(1) = 7000 𝑃𝑠𝑖
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 2
+ 2
cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −5000 sin 90 + 4000 cos 90
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦 ′ = 2
− 2
cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −5000 1 + 4000 0 = 5000 𝑃𝑠𝑖
Example 3: A plane stress Solution:
condition exists at a point on the Given that 𝜎𝑥 = −46 𝑀𝑝𝑎 , 𝜎𝑦 = 12 𝑀𝑝𝑎 ,
surface of a loaded structure such 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −19 𝑀𝑝𝑎 and 𝜃 = −15°
as shown below. Determine the The stress components are:
stresses acting on an element that 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎 +2 𝜎 + 𝜎 −2 𝜎 cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
′
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

is oriented at a clockwise angle of

15° with respect to the original 𝜎 +𝜎 𝑥𝜎 −𝜎𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
𝜎𝑦 = 2 −
′ cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
element. 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 −46 +12
= = −17 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 −46 −12
= = −29 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2
𝜎𝑥 ′ = −17 − 29 cos −30 − 19 sin(−30)

𝜎𝑥 ′ = −17 − 29(0.866) −19 −0.5 = −36.2 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑦′ = −17 + 29 cos −30 + 19 sin(−30)

𝜎𝑦′ = −17 + 29 0.866 + 19 −0.5 = −1.386 𝑀𝑃a

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 29 sin −30 − 19 cos(−30)

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 29 −0.5 − 19 0.866 = −31 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Example 4: A rectangular plate of dimensions 3.0 in x 5.0 in is formed
by welding two triangular plates (see figure). The plate is subjected to a
tensile stress of 600 psi. Determine the normal stress 𝝈𝒘 acting
perpendicular to the line or the weld and the shear stress 𝝉𝒘 acting
parallel to the weld. (Assume 𝝈𝒘 is positive when it acts in tension and
𝝉𝒘 is positive when it acts counterclockwise against the weld).
Solution:
Given that 𝜎𝑥 = 600 𝑝𝑠𝑖, 𝜎𝑦 = −250 𝑝si, and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0 𝑝𝑠𝑖
3
For 𝑥 axis tan 𝜃 = → 𝜃 = 30.96° → 2𝜃 = 61.92°
5

The stress components are:

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 600 −250
= = 175 𝑝𝑠𝑖
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 600+250
= = 425 𝑝𝑠𝑖
2 2

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 175 + 425 cos 61.92 + 0 sin(61.92)

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 175 + 425(0.471) = 375 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝜎𝑦′ = 175 − 425 cos 61.92 − 0 sin(61.92)

𝜎𝑦′ = 175 − 425 0.471 = −25 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝜏𝑥 ′𝑦′ = −425 sin 61.92 − 0 cos(61.92)

𝜏𝑥 ′𝑦′ = −425 0.882 = −375 𝑝𝑠𝑖

Stresses Acting on the Weld
Example 5: The state of stress is given by 𝜎𝑥 = 25 𝑝 and 𝜎𝑦 = 5 𝑝
plus shearing 𝜏𝑥𝑦 . On a plane at 45° counterclockwise to the plane on
which 𝜎𝑥 acts the state of stress is 50 𝑀𝑝𝑎 tension and 5 𝑀𝑝𝑎 shear.
Determine the values of 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 .
Solution:
From stress transformation equations
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
25𝑝+5𝑝 25𝑝 −5𝑝
50 = + cos 90° + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 90°
2 2
15𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
 5𝑝−25𝑝
50 = sin 90° + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 90°
2
−10𝑝 = 50 → 𝑝 = −0.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
∴ 𝜎𝑥 = 25 0.5 = −12.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑦 = 5𝑝 = 5 −0.5 = −2.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 50 − 15𝑝 = 50 − 15 −0.5 = 57.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
We can also find 𝜎𝑦′ , orthogonal to 𝜎𝑥 ′ = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎;
Since 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑥 ′ + 𝜎𝑦′
−12.5 − 2.5 = 50 + 𝜎𝑦′
∴ 𝜎𝑦′ = −65 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Example 6: For the given state of stress, determine the normal and
shearing stresses exerted on the oblique face of the shaded triangular
element shown.

Solution:
(a) Given that 𝜎𝑥 = 8 𝑘𝑠𝑖, 𝜎𝑦 = 4 𝑘𝑠𝑖, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 3 𝑘𝑠𝑖 and 𝜃 = 20°.
The normal and shearing stresses exerted on the oblique face are
evaluated as follows:
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

8+4 8−4
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 40° + 3 sin 40° = 9.46 𝑘𝑠𝑖
2 2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

8+4 8−4
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 40° − 2 sin 40° = 2.54 𝑘𝑠𝑖
2 2
𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
 4−8
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = sin 40° + 3 cos 40° = 1.013 𝑘𝑠𝑖
2

(b) Given that 𝜎𝑥 = 0 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑦 = −60 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −90 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝜃 =
30°. The normal and shearing stresses exerted on the oblique face
are evaluated as follows:

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

0 − 60 0 + 60
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 60° − 90 sin 60° = −92.94 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
 0 − 60 0 + 60
𝜎𝑦 ′ = − cos 60° + 90 sin 60° = 32.94 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2
𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2

−60 − 0
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = sin 60° − 90 cos 60° = −71 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2
 PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND MAXIMUM
SHEARING STRESS
• According to Eqns. 3 and 4 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ depend on the angle of
inclination 𝜃 of the planes on which these stresses acts.
• In engineering practice it is often important to determine the
orientation of the planes that cause the normal stress to be a maximum
and a minimum orientation of the planes that cause the shear stress to
be maximum.
• Hence, each of these will be considered:
Principal Stresses
To determine the maximum and minimum normal stresses, we must
differentiate Eqn. 3 with respect to 𝜃 and set the result equal to zero.
This gives:
𝑑𝜎𝑥′ 𝑑 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑑 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝑑
= + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝜎𝑥′ 𝑑 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑑 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝑑
= + cos 2𝜃𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑝 = 0 Eqn. 6
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃

where 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 denotes the angle (the principal directions) satisfying

Eqn. 6
Rewriting Eqn. 6 produces an equation for 𝜃𝑝 ;

𝑑 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑑 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝑑
+ cos 2𝜃𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑝 = 0
𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
− 2 sin 2𝜃𝑝 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃𝑝 = 0
2

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
2 sin 2𝜃𝑝 = 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃𝑝
2

sin 2𝜃𝑝 𝜏𝑥𝑦

=
cos 2𝜃𝑝 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 Τ2

𝜏𝑥𝑦 2𝜏𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = Eqn. 7
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 Τ2 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
To find 𝜃𝑝 , we solve Eqn.8 for 2𝜃𝑝 . The roots of Eqn. 8 can be considered as the
intersection of the curve of tan 2𝜃 plotted as function of 2𝜃 with the value of the
constant 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 Τ(𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 ) plotted on the same graph as an horizontal line as
shown in Fig. 6

Fig. 7: Triangle indicating the relation

Fig. 6: Plot to illustrate location of between the angle 2𝜃𝑝 and stress
principal directions components
• The principal stresses can be found by substituting angle 𝜃𝑝 and 𝜃𝑝 +
90° into the stress transformation equation for 𝜎𝑥 ′ , Eqn.3.
• One stress value will correspond to a maximum and the other to a
minimum value.
• Upon substitution of 𝜃𝑝 into Eqn. 3, we have:

𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 = + cos 2𝜃𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑝 Eqn. 8
2 2

It follows from Eqn. 8 and trigonometry of Fig. 6 with both 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 positive that;
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
cos 2𝜃𝑝 = , sin 2𝜃𝑝 =
2𝑅 𝑅
 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
where 𝑅= + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 Eqn. 9
2

Substituting these in Eqn. 8, we find;

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 = + . + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 .
2 2 2𝑅 𝑅

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 1 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 = + + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 𝑅 2

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 1 2
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 = + .𝑅
2 𝑅
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 = + 𝑅 ≡ 𝜎1
2

𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
∴ 𝜎1 = + + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 Eqn.10
2 2

𝜋 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃𝑝 + = + cos(2𝜃𝑝 + 𝜋) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin(2𝜃𝑝 + 𝜋)
2 2 2

Since cos 2𝜃 + 180 = − cos 2𝜃 and sin 2𝜃 + 180 = −sin 2𝜃

𝜋 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃𝑝 + = − cos 2𝜃𝑝 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑝
2 2 2
 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
But cos 2𝜃𝑝 = and sin 2𝜃𝑝 =
2𝑅 𝑅

𝜋 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃𝑝 + = − . − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 .
2 2 2 2𝑅 𝑅

𝜋 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 1 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃𝑝 + = − − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2 𝑅 2

𝜋 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 1 2
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃𝑝 + = − .𝑅
2 2 𝑅
𝜋 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃𝑝 + = − 𝑅 ≡ 𝜎2
2 2
 𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
∴ 𝜎2 = − + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 Eqn.11
2 2

Eqns. 10 and 11 can be combined to give:

𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 Eqn. 12
2 2

• We define 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 as the maximum and minimum principal stress

respectively. Hence, 𝜎1 ≥ 𝜎2 .

• This particular set of values are called the in-plane principal stresses
and their corresponding planes on which they act are called the
principal planes.
Maximum Shear Stress
The location of the angle for the maximum shear stress is obtained by taking
the derivative of 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ with respect to 𝜃 and setting it equal to zero. This
gives:

𝑑𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝑑 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝑑
= − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′
= − 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 cos 2𝜃𝑠 − 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑠 = 0
𝑑𝜃

It follows that:

− 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 cos 2𝜃𝑠 − 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑠 = 0 Eqn. 13

 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑠 = − 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 cos 2𝜃𝑠

sin 2𝜃𝑠 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
=
cos 2𝜃𝑠 2𝜏𝑥𝑦

𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = − Eqn. 14
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
Using the trigonometry of Fig. 8 with Eqn. 13, we have;

𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
sin 2𝜃𝑠 = , cos 2𝜃𝑠 =
2𝑅 𝑅

Substituting these in Eqn. 13, we find;

 • The corresponding maximum
𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 ) =
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
+ 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦 = R
shear is given by the equation.
2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦 = R
2
Eqn. 15
• Another expression for the
maximum shear stress.

𝜎1 −𝜎2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Eqn. 16
Fig. 8: triangle indicating the rotation 2
between the angle 2𝜃𝑠 and stress
components.
• The shear stress 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ at 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 + 𝜋Τ2 is equal to −𝑅 , which
minimum value.
• In addition to the maximum and minimum shear stress acting on the
faces of the element when 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 , we have normal stress component
from Eqn. 3 and 5 using trigonometric equation:
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 = = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒
2

𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦′ 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑠 = = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒
2
Hence, the normal stresses associated with the maximum shear stress
are equal to:
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = Eqn. 17
2
 2𝜏𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = =
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = −
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
Comparing angle 𝜃𝑠 and 𝜃𝑝 , it shows that:
1
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = − = − cot 2 𝜃𝑝
tan 2𝜃𝑝
∴ tan 2𝜃𝑠 + cot 2𝜃𝑝 = 0
sin 2𝜃𝑠 cos 2𝜃𝑝
+ =0
cos 2𝜃𝑠 sin 2𝜃𝑝
sin 2𝜃𝑠 sin 2𝜃𝑝 + cos 2𝜃𝑠 cos 2𝜃𝑝 = 0

cos 2𝜃𝑠 − 2𝜃𝑝 = 0

2𝜃𝑠 − 2𝜃𝑝 = ±90°

𝜃𝑠 − 𝜃𝑝 = ±45° Eqn. 18
• 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 acts on both the plane of maximum and minimum 𝜏 planes.
Important Points
• The principal stresses represent the maximum and minimum normal
stress at the point.

• When the state of stress is represented by the principal stresses no

shear stress will act on the element.

• The state of stress at the point can also be represented in term of the
maximum in-plane shear stress. In this case an average normal stress
will also act on the element.

• The element representing the maximum in-plane shear stress with

average normal stress is oriented 45° from the element representing
the principal stresses.
Example 1: The state of plane Solution:
stress at a point is represented by From the stress element 𝜎𝑥 =
the stress element below. − 80 𝑀𝑃𝑎 , 𝜎𝑦 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and
Determine the principal stresses 𝜎𝑥𝑦 = −25 𝑀𝑃𝑎.
and draw the corresponding stress
element. Principal stresses are:

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦
2 2

2
−80 + 50 −80 − 50 2
𝜎1,2 = ± + −25
2 2

𝜎1,2 = 15 ± 69.6
𝜎1 = 54.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜎2 = −84.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎

2𝜏𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑝 =
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦

2(−25)
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = −0.3846
−80−50

2𝜃𝑝 = 21° and 21 + 180°

𝜃𝑝 = 10.5°, 100.5°

But we must check which angle goes with which principal stress.
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

−80+50 −80−50
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2(10.5) + (−25) sin 2(10.5) = −84.6
2 2

𝜎1 = 54.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝜃𝑝1 = 100.5°

𝜎2 = −84.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝜃𝑝2 = 10.5°

Example 2: Given that 𝜎𝑥 = 84 𝑀𝑃𝑎 , 𝜎𝑦 = −30 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 =

− 32 𝑀𝑃𝑎. Determine the principal stresses and maximum shear stress
and their directions.
The principal stresses can be obtained as follows:

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦
2 2

2
84 − 30 84 + 30 2
𝜎1,2 = ± + −32
2 2

𝜎1,2 = 27 ± 65.4

Thus 𝜎1 = 92.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜎2 = −38.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎

The principal angles 𝜃𝑝 can be obtained as follows:

2𝜏𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑝 =
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦

2(−32)
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = −0.5614
84−(−30)

2𝜃𝑝 = 150.6° or 330.6°

𝜃𝑝 = 75.5° or 165.3°
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

84−30 84+30
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2(165.3) + (−32) sin 2(165.3)
2 2

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 27 + 57 cos 2(165.3) + (−32) sin 2(165.3) = 92.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Hence, the principal stresses and their directions are as follows:

𝜎1 = 92.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎 for 𝜃𝑝1 = 165.3°

𝜎2 = −38.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎 for 𝜃𝑝2 = 75.3°

The maximum shear stresses are given by;

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦
2

2
84 + 30 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + −32 = 65.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2
Alternatively,
𝜎1 − 𝜎2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2
92.2 + 38.4
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 65.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2
The direction of maximum shear stress is given by;

𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = −
2𝜏𝑥𝑦

84+30
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = − = 1.781
2(−32)

2𝜃𝑠 = 60.7° or 240.7°

𝜃𝑠 = 30.3° or 120.3°
Alternatively,
𝜃𝑠 = 𝜃𝑝 ± 45°

𝜃𝑠 = 75.5° ± 45° = 30.5°, 120.5

The normal stress acting on the planes of maximum shear stress is;

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2

84 − 30
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = 27 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2
The sketch showing principal stresses and their directions
MOHR’S CIRCLE REPRESENTATION FOR
PLANE STRESS
• The transformation equations, Eqns. 3 and 4, can be interpreted as a
pair of equations with single parameter 𝜃 that give a plane curve in a
stress system with the normal stress 𝜎 identified with horizontal axis
and shear stress 𝜏 with vertical axis.

• The value of 𝜎 on the horizontal axis is the value of 𝜎𝑥 ′ and the value
of 𝜏 on the vertical axis is the value of 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ .

• As 𝜃 changes, locus points for 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ or a curve 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′

will be traced out.
• If the parameter 𝜃 is eliminated between Eqns. 3 and 4, then a single
equation relating 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ will be found in the stress plane, which
gives a simple geometric interpretation as the curve of all points
satisfying Eqns. 3 and 4.

• The equation of Mohr's circle can be derived from the transformation

equations for plane stress as follow:

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ − = cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ − 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ =− sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2

• To eliminate the parameter 2𝜃, we square both sides of each equation

and add them together.

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
2
𝜎𝑥 ′ − 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
2
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
 2 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎𝑥′ − 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 2 + 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃 + − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
2
cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝜃 + 2 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃
2 2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
2
− sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜃 − 2 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃
2 2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
2 2 2
𝜎𝑥 ′ − 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = + 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑅2
2

2 2
∴ 𝜎𝑥 ′ − 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑅2 Eqn. 19

• This is a equation of circle with 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ coordinates, the radius

is R and center at 𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 0
• The radius of the Mohr circle is
the magnitude R.

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝑅= + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦
2

• The center of the Mohr circle is

the magnitude

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2
• For the purposes of constructing and reading values of stress from
Mohr’s circle, the sign convention for shear stress is that positive shear
stress is plotted downward and a positive angle 2 𝜃 is plotted
counterclockwise.

•
Procedure for Obtaining Mohr’s Circle
Consider the state of plane stress shown in Fig. 8a, Mohr’s circle is
constructed following these steps:
1. Establish a rectangular co-ordinate system, indicating +𝜏 and +𝜎.
Both stress scales must be identical.
2. Locate the centre C of the circle on the horizontal axis a distance
1
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 from the origin as shown in the Fig. 8c.
2
3. Locate point A by co-ordinates 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦
4. Locate the point B by co-ordinates 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦
5. Draw a circle with centre C and of radius equal to CA. The radius of
the circle is
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
𝑅= + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦
2
Fig. 8: Construction of Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress
8. Draw a line AB through C.
9. The stress state on an inclined element with an angle 𝜃 (Fig. 15b) is
represented at point 𝐴′ on the Mohr's circle, which is measured an
angle 2𝜃 counterclockwise from point A.
10. Locate the 𝐶𝐴′ radius by rotating 𝐶𝐴 radius through the double
angle 2𝜃, as shown in Fig. 8c, in the same direction as the rotation 𝜃
on the 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ axes (Fig. 8b).
11. With the sign convention for the stress components, we can read off
the values of 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ as the co-ordinates of point 𝐴′ , and the
value of coordinate of point 𝐵′ on the diameter 𝐴′ 𝐵′ .
12. The values of the principal stress 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 , the principal directions
and the maximum shear stress are found on the circle.
• The transformation equations can be recast into form which helps to
clarify their relation to the circles

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2
Recall;
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
cos 2𝜃𝑝 = and sin 2𝜃𝑝 =
2𝑅 𝑅
Hence,
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
= 𝑅cos 2𝜃𝑝 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = Rsin 2𝜃𝑝
2
Substitute this in the above equation

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃𝑝 cos 2𝜃𝑝 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃𝑝 sin 2𝜃𝑝

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃 Eqn. 20a

𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −𝑅 cos 2𝜃𝑝 sin 2𝜃 + 𝑅 sin 2𝜃𝑝 cos 2𝜃

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝑅 sin 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃 Eqn. 20b

• Eqns. 20a and 20b are the parametric representation of this circle in
the 𝜎, 𝜏 plane.
• Angle 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃 in Eqn. 20 is angle 𝐴′ 𝐶𝐸 (𝛽).
• Hence, Eqn. 20a becomes 𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos β and Eqn. 20b 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ =
𝑅 sin 𝛽.

If 𝜃 = 0

𝜎𝑥 ′ 𝜃 = 0 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos 2𝜃𝑝 = 𝜎𝑥

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 𝜃 = 0 = 𝑅 sin 2𝜃𝑝 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦

• The values of 𝜎𝑥 ′ and 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ follow as the coordinates of point 𝐴′

consistent with Eqn. 20.
• In Fig. 8c the following points are located by these coordinates:

𝐴 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐵 𝜎𝑦 , −𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐶 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 0 𝐴′ 𝜎𝑥 ′ , 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′

𝐵′ 𝜎𝑥 ′ , −𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′

At point 𝑃1 on the circle, 𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎1

Hence, 𝑃1 represents the stress state at principal plane the other

principal plane (𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎2 ) is represented by 𝑃2

Points 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 representing the points of maximum and minimum

shear stresses.
Fig. 9: Simple Biaxial stress systems: (a) compression, (b) tension/compression, (c) pure shear
Example 1: At a point on the
surface of a pressurized cylinder,
the material is subjected to biaxial
stresses as shown in the element.
Using the Mohr circle, determine (i)
stresses acting on an element
inclined at an angle 30° (Sketch a
properly oriented element) (ii)
principal stress and their
orientation.
Solution: From the state of stress,
𝜎𝑥 = 90 𝑀𝑃𝑎 , 𝜎𝑦 = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎 a nd
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0 𝑀𝑃𝑎
The centre of the circle 𝐶 is located
at point (𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 0) on 𝜎 axis

𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 90+20
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 55 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2

A point (𝐴) on the circle is located

at the point of intersection of 𝜎𝑥 and
𝜏𝑥𝑦 . With point 𝐶 as the centre and
𝐴𝐶 as the radius the circle is drawn
as follow:
Stresses on an element inclined at 𝜃 = 30°

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 60°

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 90 + 20
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 55 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2

𝑅= 𝐴′ 𝐷 2 + 𝐶𝐷 2

𝑅= 30.32 + 17.32 = 35 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 55 + 17.5 = 72.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎

 𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 = 55 − 35𝑐𝑜𝑠 60°

𝜎𝑦′ = 55 − 17.5 = 37.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −𝑅 sin 2θ = −35 sin 60° = −30.3 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Principal stresses:
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 ± 𝑅

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 55 + 35 = 90 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 55 − 35 = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎
The orientation of stresses inclined at angle 𝜃 = 30° is as shown below:
Example 2: An element in a state
of plane stress has stress
components acting on its coordinate
faces as shown. Using the Mohr’s
circle determine the following:
a) The stresses acting on an
element inclined at an angle 𝜃 =
40°,
b) The principal stresses and
c) The maximum shear stresses.
Solution:
Given that 𝜎𝑥 = 15000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 , 𝜎𝑦 =
5000 𝑝𝑠𝑖, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 4000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 and 𝜃 = 40°
The centre of the circle C is located
at point (𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 0) on 𝜎 axis

𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 15000+5000
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 10000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
2 2

A point (𝐴) on the circle is located

at the point of intersection of 𝜎𝑥 and
𝜏𝑥𝑦 . With point 𝐶 as the centre and
𝐴𝐶 as the radius the circle is drawn
as follow:
Point A, representing the stresses on
the x face of the element (θ = 0) has
the coordinates 𝜎𝑥 = 15000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 4000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Point B, representing the stresses on the y face of the element (θ = 90)
has the coordinates 𝜎𝑦 = 5000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = − 4000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
The circle is now drawn through points A and B with center C and
radius R
(a) The Stresses Acting on an Element Inclined at an Angle Rotated
Clockwise 40°

Diameter 𝐴𝐵 is rotated clockwise through 2𝜃𝑝 until it coincides with the

diameter 𝐴′ 𝐵′ . Point 𝐴′ and 𝐵′ on Mohr’s circle correspond to 𝜎𝑥 ′ and
𝜎𝑦′ stress components on the rotated element
From angle 𝐴𝐶𝑃1 , 2𝜃𝑝 can be evaluated as:
4000
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = 0.8 → 2𝜃𝑝 = 38.66°
5000
Hence, 𝛽 = 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃 = 80° − 38.66° = −41.34°
Thus,
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos 𝛽
𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅 cos β

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝑅 sin β

𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2 15000−5000 2
But, 𝑅 = + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑅 = + 4000 2 = 6403 𝑝𝑠𝑖
2 2

Hence,
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos 𝛽 = 10000 + 6403 cos 41.34° = 14807 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅 cos β = 10000 − 6403 cos 41.34° = 5192 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −𝑅 sin β = 6403 sin 41.34° = −4229 𝑝𝑠𝑖

Sketch of Orientation of Stresses Inclined at 40° counterclockwise
(b) Principal Stresses and Principal Planes

The principal stresses are represented by points 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 on the Mohr’s

circle

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 ± 𝑅

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 10000 + 6403 = 16403 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 10000 − 6403 = 3597 𝑝𝑠𝑖

The principal planes are found on angles 2𝜃 = 38.66° or 19.3° and

2𝜃 = 218.66° or 109.3°
Sketch of Orientation of Principal Stresses
(c) Maximum Shear Stress
These are represented by point 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 in Mohr’s circle. Algebraically
the maximum shear stress is given by the radius of the circle. Hence,
maximum shear stress is 6403 𝑝𝑠𝑖.

The angle 𝐴𝐶𝑆1 from point 𝐴 to point 𝑆1 is 2𝜃𝑆1 = −51.34°. This angle
is negative because is measured clockwise on the circle. Then the
corresponding 𝜃𝑆1 value is −25.7.
Sketch of Orientation of Maximum Shear Stress
Example 3: For the state of stress
shown determine (a) the stress
components on elements rotated
45° clockwise and their orientations
(b) the principal stresses and their
orientations, and (c) the maximum
shearing stress and the
corresponding normal stress.

Solution:
Given that 𝜎𝑥 = −50 𝑀𝑃𝑎 , 𝜎𝑦 =
10 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −40 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝜃 =
− 45°
The centre of the circle C is located
at point (𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 0) on 𝜎 axis
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 −50+10
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = −20 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2

A point (𝐴) on the circle is located at

the point of intersection of 𝜎𝑥 and
𝜏𝑥𝑦 . With point C as the centre and
𝐴𝐶 as the radius the circle is drawn
as follow:
Point A, representing the stresses on
the x face of the element (θ = 0) has
the coordinates 𝜎𝑥 = −50 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −40 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Point B, representing the stresses on the y face of the element (θ = 90)
has the coordinates 𝜎𝑦 = 10 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = − 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎.
The circle is now drawn through points A and B with center C and
radius R
(a) The Stresses Acting on an Element Inclined at an Angle Rotated
Anticlockwise 45°

Diameter 𝐴𝐵 is rotated clockwise through 2𝜃𝑝 until it coincides with the

diameter 𝐴′ 𝐵′ . Point 𝐴′ and 𝐵′ on Mohr’s circle correspond to 𝜎𝑥 ′ and
𝜎𝑦′ stress components on the rotated element
From angle 𝐴𝐶𝑃2 , 2𝜃𝑝 can be evaluated as:
40
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = 1.33 → 2𝜃𝑝 = 53.13°
30
Hence, 𝛽 = 2𝜃𝑝 − 2𝜃 = 90° − 53.13° = 36.87°
Thus,
𝜎𝑥′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos 𝛽
𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅 cos β

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝑅 sin β

𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2 −50−10 2
But, 𝑅 = + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑅 = + −40 2 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2

Hence,
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos 𝛽 = −20 − 50 cos 36.87° = −60 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅 cos β = −20 + 50 cos 36.87° = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝑅 sin β = 50 sin 36.87° = 30 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Sketch of Orientation of Stresses Inclined at 45° Clockwise
(b) Principal Stresses and Principal Planes

The principal stresses are represented by points 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 on the Mohr’s

circle

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 ± 𝑅

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −20 + 50 = 30 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −20 − 50 = −70 𝑀𝑃𝑎

The principal planes are found on angles 2𝜃 = 53.13° or 26.6° and

2𝜃 = 233.13° or 116.6°. 𝜃𝑃1 = 116.6° and 𝜃𝑃2 = 26.6°.
Sketch of Orientation of Principal Stresses
(c) Maximum Shear Stress
These are represented by point 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 in Mohr’s circle. Algebraically
the maximum shear stress is given by the radius of the circle. Hence,
maximum shear stress is 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎

The angle inclination of maximum shear stress is evaluated as follow:

𝜃𝑆 = 𝜃𝑃1 − 45° = 116.6 − 45° = 71.6°

Sketch of Orientation of Maximum Shear Stress
Example 4: for the state of plane
stress shown, determine (a) the
principal planes and principal
stresses, (b) the stress components
exerted on the element obtained by
rotating the given element counter
clockwise through 30°.
Solution: 𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 100+60
Construction of Mohr’s Circle 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 80 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2
Given that 𝜎𝑥 = 100 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑦 =
60 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −48 𝑀𝑝𝑎. A point ‘𝑋’ on the circle is located
The centre of the circle ‘ 𝐶 ’ is at the point of 𝜎𝑥 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 . With
located at point (𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 0) on 𝜎 axis point 𝐶 as the centre and 𝐶𝑋 as the
radius the circle is drawn as
follow:
The normal stress after rotating the (a) Principal Planes and Principal
body about 𝑥 and 𝑦 axis is located at Stresses
point 𝑋′ by rotating 𝐶𝑋 Diameter XY is rotated
counterclockwise 2𝜃 = 60°. counterclockwise through 2θp until it
coincide with the diameter AB.
 𝑋𝐹 48 Since the orientation that brings 0x
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = = 2.4
𝐶𝐹 20 into the axis Oa corresponding to
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 is also clockwise; we obtain
2𝜃𝑝 = 67.4° and 𝜃𝑝 = 33.7°
the orientation shown for principal
The principal stresses are planes.
represented by abscissas of points
A and B:
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 = 80 + 52
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐵𝐶 = 80 − 52

∴ 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 132 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 28 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Points 𝑋 ′ and 𝑌 ′ on the Mohr’s
circle correspond to the stress
components on the rotated element
are obtained as follow:
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝑂𝐾 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐾𝐶
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅
𝑅= 𝐶𝐹 2 + 𝐹𝑋 2 𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 52𝑠𝑖𝑛 52.6° = 41.3 𝑀𝑃𝑎
∴𝑅= 202 + 482 = 52 𝑀𝑃𝑎
∅ = 180° − 60° − 67.4° = 52.6°
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 80 − 52𝑐𝑜𝑠 52.6° = 48.8 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑦′ = 𝑂𝐿 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐶𝐿
𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅
𝜎𝑦′ = 80 + 52𝑐𝑜𝑠 52.6° = 111.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜏𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝐾𝑋 ′ = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅
Since 𝑋 ′ is located above the
horizontal axis, the shearing stress
on the face perpendicular to 𝑂𝑥 ′
tends to rotate the element
clockwise.
Example 5: An element in a state of plane stress has stress components
acting on its coordinate faces, as shown in the figure below: (a)
construct Mohr’s circle that represent the state of plane stress at this
point, (b) locate points 𝑥 ′ and 𝑦 ′ on the Mohr’s circle that give stress
components on planes normal in the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions obtained by
rotating the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes by 40° clockwise, (c) determine the principal
stresses and (d) show the stress components on an element aligned to 𝑥 ′
and 𝑦 ′ .
(a) Construction of Mohr’s Circle
Given that 𝜎𝑥 = 80 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑦 = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎

The centre of the circle 𝐶 is located at point (𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 0) on 𝜎 axis

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 80 + 20
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2
A point 𝑥 on the circle is located at the point of intersection of 𝜎𝑥 and
𝜏𝑥𝑦 . With point 𝐶 as the centre and 𝐶𝑥 as the radius the circle is drawn.
The normal stress after rotating the body about 𝑥 and 𝑦 axis is located at
point 𝑥 ′ by rotating 𝐶𝑥 through 2𝜃 = 80°.
𝐴𝑥 60
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = = 2 → 2𝜃𝑝 = 63.43°
𝐶𝑥 30
(b) Stress Components on Element Rotated 40° Clockwise
Points 𝑥 ′ and 𝑦 ′ on the Mohr’s circle which correspond to the stress
components on the rotated element are obtained as follows:
𝜎𝑥 ′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos 𝛽

But; 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝛽 = 180° − 80° − 63.43° = 36.57°

2 2
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 80 − 20
𝑅= + 𝜏2 𝑥𝑦 = + 60 2 = 67.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2

𝜎𝑥 ′ = 50 − 67.1 cos 36.57 = −3.9 𝑀𝑃𝑎

 𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅 cos β
𝜎𝑦′ = 50 + 67.1 cos 36.57° = 103.9 𝑀𝑝𝑎

𝜏𝑥 ′𝑦′ = 𝑅 sin β
𝜏𝑥 ′𝑦′ = 67.1 sin 36.57° = 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎

(c) Principal Stresses

The principal stresses are represented by 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 on the Mohr’s circle

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 ± 𝑅

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 50 + 67.1 = 117. 1 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 50 − 67.1 = −17.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎

(d) Stress Components Aligned
 STATE OF STRAIN IN TWO
DIMENSION (PLANE STRAIN)
• The general state of strain at a point in a body is represented by
combination of three components of normal strain 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 , 𝜀𝑧 and three
components of shear strain 𝛾𝑥𝑦 , 𝛾𝑦𝑧 , 𝛾𝑥𝑧 .
• However, if a state of plain strain exist, i.e. situation where the
deformation of material take place within parallel planes the state of
strain at a point will be represented by two components of normal
strains 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and one component of shear strain 𝛾𝑥𝑦 .
• Strain components 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 in the 𝑥𝑦 plane is as showing in Fig.
10.
Fig. 10: The Components of Strains in 𝑥𝑦 Plane
Comparison of Plane Stress and Plain Strain
 TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS FOR
PLAIN STRAIN
• It is important in plain strain analysis to establish transformation
equations that can be used to determine the 𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ components of
normal and shear strain at a point, provided 𝑥, 𝑦 components of strain
are known.
• Assuming that the strain 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 associated with the 𝑥𝑦 plane
are known. We need to determine the normal and shear strains (𝜀𝑥 ′ ,
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ ) associated with the 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ axis. 𝜀𝑦′ can be obtained from the
equation 𝜀𝑥 ′ by substituting 𝜃 + 90 for 𝜃.
• To determine 𝜀𝑥 ′ , 𝜀𝑦′ and 𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ associated with 𝑥 ′ and 𝑦 ′ axes we
rotate the body counterclockwise through angle 𝜃 from 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes.
In the 𝑥 direction: The strain 𝜀𝑥
produces an elongation 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥. The
diagonal increases in length by
𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥cos 𝜃.
In the 𝑦 direction: The strain 𝜀𝑦
produces an elongation 𝜀𝑦 𝑑𝑦. The
diagonal increases in length by
𝜀𝑦 𝑑𝑦sin 𝜃.
The shear strain 𝛾𝑥𝑦 in the plane
𝑥𝑦 produces a distortion of the
element such that the angle at the
lower left corner decreases by an
amount equal to the shear strain.
Consequently, the upper face
moves to the right by an amount
𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦. This deformation results in
an increase in the length of the
diagonal equal to: 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃.
Thus in 𝑥 direction:
𝛿𝑥 = 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥 In 𝑦 direction:
𝛿𝑥 ′ = 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥cos 𝜃 𝛿𝑦 = 𝜀𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝛿𝑥 ′ = 𝜀𝑦 𝑑𝑦sin 𝜃
In 𝑥𝑦 plane: 𝛿𝑥 = 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝛿𝑥 ′ = 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

Then the total increase 𝛿 in 𝑥 ′ direction is;

𝛿𝑥 ′ = 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥cos 𝜃 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑑𝑦sin 𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Hence the strain in 𝑥 ′ direction is:
𝛿 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝜀𝑥 ′ = = 𝜀𝑥 cos 𝜃 + 𝜀𝑦 sin 𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
But = cos 𝜃 = sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
Thus;
𝜀𝑥 ′ = 𝜀𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

Substituting 𝜃 + 90° for 𝜃, 𝜀𝑦′ is obtained;

𝜀𝑦′ = 𝜀𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝜀𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝛾𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

The shear strain 𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ associated with 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ axes is obtained as follow:

This strain is equal to the decrease
in angle between lines in the
material that were initially along
the 𝑥 ′ and 𝑦 ′ axes. 𝑂𝑎 and 𝑂𝑏
were the lines initially along the 𝑥 ′
and 𝑦 ′ axis respectively. The
deformation caused by the strains
𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 caused the 𝑂𝑎 and
𝑂𝑏 lines to rotate and angle 𝛼 and The angle 𝛼 can be found from the
𝛽 from the 𝑥 ′ and 𝑦 ′ axis deformations produced by the
respectively. The shear strain 𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ strains 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 . The strains
is the decrease in angle between 𝜀𝑥 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 produce a clockwise
the two lines that originally were rotation, while the
at right angles, therefore, 𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = strain 𝜀𝑦 produces a
𝛼+𝛽 counterclockwise rotation.
Let us denote the angle of rotation
produced by 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 as 𝛼1 ,
𝛼2 and 𝛼3 respectively.
 𝑑𝑥
𝛼1 = 𝜀𝑥 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑦
𝛼2 = 𝜀𝑦 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑦
𝛼3 = 𝜀𝑥 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝛼 = 𝛼1 + 𝛼1 + 𝛼1 = 𝜀𝑥 sin 𝜃 + 𝜀𝑦 cos 𝜃 + 𝜀𝑥 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
But, = cos 𝜃 and = sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

∴ 𝛼 = − 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

The rotation of line 𝑂𝑏 which initially was at 90° to the line 𝑂𝑎 can be
found by substituting 𝜃 + 90° for 𝜃 in the expression for 𝛼. Because 𝛽
is positive when clockwise. Thus:
𝛽 = 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 sin(𝜃 + 90°) cos(𝜃 + 90°) − 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃 + 90°)
𝛽 = − 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ = 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃]
2
Using the following trigonometric identities:
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1Τ2 1 + cos 2𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1Τ2 1 − cos 2𝜃
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = 1Τ2 sin 2𝜃
 𝜀𝑥 +𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑥 ′ = + cos 2𝜃 + sin 2𝜃 Eqn. 21
2 2 2

𝜀𝑥 +𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦

𝜀𝑦′ = − cos 2𝜃 − sin 2𝜃 Eqn. 22
2 2 2

𝛾𝑥′ 𝑦′ 𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦

=− si𝑛 2𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 Eqn. 23
2 2 2

Invariant; 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑥 ′ + 𝜀𝑦′

𝜀𝑥 +𝜀𝑦
𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 = Eqn. 24
2
 Principal Strains
The angle for the principal strains is :

𝛾𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = Eqn. 25
𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦
The value for the principal strains are

𝜀𝑥 +𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2

𝜀1 = + + Eqn. 26
2 2 2

𝜀𝑥 +𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2

𝜀2 = − + Eqn. 27
2 2 2
 Maximum Shear Strain
The maximum shear strains in the 𝑥𝑦 plane are associated with axes at 45° to
the directions of the principal strains
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
=+ + Eqn. 28
2 2 2
or
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜀1 − 𝜀2 Eqn. 29
The direction of the axis of maximum in-plane shear strain is determined
from:
𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑠 = − Eqn. 30
𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑥 +𝜀𝑦
While average normal strain is given as; 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2

For isotropic materials, at a given point in an stressed body, the principal

strains and principal stresses occur in the same directions.
 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRAIN
The Mohr’s circle representations for
plane strain follows the same
construction techniques as for plane
stress, using𝛾 𝜀𝑥 and 𝜀𝑦 in the place of
𝜎𝑥 and 𝜎𝑦 , 𝑥𝑦ൗ2 in place of 𝜏𝑥𝑦

Similar to equation of circle in plane

stress the equation for plane strain is
given as:

𝜀𝑥 ′ = 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 Eqn. 31

𝜀𝑦′ = 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 Eqn. 32

𝛾𝑥′ 𝑦′
= 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 Eqn. 33
2
Example 1: An element of
material in plane strain undergoes
the following strains: 𝜀𝑥 = 340 ×
10−6 , 𝜀𝑦 = 110 × 10−6 , 𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
180 × 10−6 . Determine the
following quantities:
(a) the strains of an element
oriented at an angle 𝜃 = 30°; 𝜺𝒙 + 𝜺𝒚 𝜺𝒙 − 𝜺𝒚 𝜸𝒙𝒚
𝜺𝒙′ = + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽
(b) the principal strains; and 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

(c) the maximum shear strains. 𝜺𝒙′ =

𝟑𝟒𝟎 + 𝟏𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒𝟎 − 𝟏𝟏𝟎
+ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟔𝟎 +
𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Solution:
𝜺𝒙′ = 𝟑𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
(a) Element oriented at an angle
𝜃 = 30° (2𝜃 = 60°)
 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑦 ′ = − cos 2𝜃 − sin 2𝜃
2 2 2

340 + 110 340 − 110 180

𝜀𝑦 ′ = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60 × 10−6
2 2 2

𝜀𝑦′ = 90 × 10−6

𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
=− si𝑛 2𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃
2 2 2
𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ 340 − 110 180
=− si𝑛 60 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60 × 10−6
2 2 2

𝛾𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = −110 × 10−6
(b) Principal Strains and Angle of Rotation

𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
𝜀1 = + +
2 2 2

2 2
340 + 110 340 − 110 180
𝜀1 = + + × 10−6 = 371 × 10−6
2 2 2

𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
𝜀2 = − +
2 2 2

2 2
340 + 110 340 − 110 180
𝜀2 = − + × 10−6 = 79 × 10−6
2 2 2
 𝛾𝑥𝑦 180𝜇
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = = = 0.7826 → 2𝜃𝑝 = 38° → 𝜃 = 19°
𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 340𝜇 − 110𝜇
(c) In-Plane Maximum Shear Strain

𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
= +
2 2 2

2 2
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 340𝜇 − 110𝜇 180𝜇
= + = 146𝜇
2 2 2

∴ 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 292𝜇
or
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜀1 − 𝜀2 = 371𝜇 − 79𝜇 = 292𝜇
(d) Out-of-Plane Maximum Shear Strain

𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜀1 − 𝜀3 = 371𝜇 − 0𝜇 = 371𝜇

All of this results can be obtained
from Mohr's circle:
Construction of Mohr’s Circle
Given that 𝜀𝑥 = 340𝜇 , 𝜀𝑦 =
110𝜇, 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 180𝜇
The centre of the circle ‘C’ is
located at point (𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 0) on 𝜀 axis
𝜀𝑥 +𝜀𝑦 340𝜇+110𝜇
𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 225𝜇
2 2

A point ‘A’ on the circle is located

at
𝛾𝑥𝑦
point of intersection of 𝜀𝑥 and
ൗ2. With centre at point 𝐶 and
radius 𝐶𝐴 the circle is drawn as
follow:
The normal strain after rotating the
body axes is located at point 𝐴′ by
rotating 𝐶𝐴 anticlockwise through
2𝜃 = 60°.

Strain Components on Element

Rotated 30° Counterclockwise

Points 𝐴′ and 𝐵′ on Mohr’s circle

which correspond to the strain
components on the rotated element
are obtained by rotating 𝐶𝐴
counterclockwise through 2𝜃 = 60°.
We find:
 𝜀𝑥′ = 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 340 − 110
2
180
2
But; 𝑅= +
𝛽 = 2𝜃 − 2𝜃𝑝 2 2
The principal directions, 2𝜃𝑝 , of 𝑅 = 146𝜇
strain is represented by:
𝛾𝑥𝑦 180 𝜀𝑥 ′ = 225 + 146 cos 22° 𝜇
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = =
𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 340 − 110 𝜀𝑥 ′ = 360𝜇
∴ tan 2𝜃𝑝 = 0.7826 → 2𝜃𝑝 = 38.05° 𝜀𝑦′ = 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
𝛽 = 60 − 38.05 = 22° 𝜀𝑦′ = 225 − 146 cos 22° 𝜇

𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2 𝜀𝑦′ = 90𝜇

𝑅= + 𝛾𝑥 ′𝑦′
2 2
= −𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
2
 𝛾𝑥 ′𝑦′
= − 146 sin 22° 𝜇 = −55𝜇
2
∴ 𝛾𝑥 ′𝑦′ = −110𝜇

Principal Strains
𝜀1,2 = 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑒 ± 𝑅
𝜀1 = 225 + 146 𝜇 = 371𝜇
𝜀2 = 225 − 146 𝜇 = 79𝜇

Maximum Shear Stress

𝛾𝑥𝑦
ൗ2 = 𝑅 = 292𝜇
Strain when 𝜃 = 0° Strain when 𝜃 = 30°
Strain when 𝜃 = 0° Principal Strain
Strain when 𝜃 = 0° Maximum Shear Strain
 TWO DIMENSIONAL STRESS-STRAIN
RELATIONS
Recall in one-dimensional stress-strain relations are:

1
𝜀𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 − ʋ 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧
𝐸
1
𝜀𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 − ʋ 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑧
𝐸
1
𝜀𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧 − ʋ 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝐸
𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
𝐺
However, in two-dimensional stress-strain there are no stress in the z
direction, the stress depend only on the components of x and y direction.
Thus if we considered a case of plane stress for which 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 =
𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 0, the stress-strain relations in the absence of a temperature
change becomes;
1
𝐸𝜀𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 − ʋ𝜎𝑦 → 𝜀𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 − ʋ𝜎𝑦 Eqn. 34
𝐸

1
𝐸𝜀𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 − ʋ𝜎𝑥 → 𝜀𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 − ʋ𝜎𝑥 Eqn. 35
𝐸

𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝐺𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 → 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = Eqn. 36
𝐺
If we solve for the stress in terms of the strains, we have

𝐸
𝜎𝑥 = 𝜀𝑥 + ʋ𝜀𝑦 Eqn. 37
1−ʋ2

𝐸
𝜎𝑦 = 𝜀𝑦 + ʋ𝜀𝑥 Eqn. 38
1−ʋ2

𝐸
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝐺𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝛾𝑥𝑦 Eqn. 39
2 1+ʋ
Volume Changes
When a solid object undergoes
strains, both its dimensions and its
volume will change.
Consider an object of dimensions
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐. The original volume is
𝑉0 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 and its final volume is

𝑉1 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝜀𝑥 𝑏 + 𝑏𝜀𝑦 𝑐 + 𝑐𝜀𝑧

𝑉1 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 1 + 𝜀𝑥 1 + 𝜀𝑦 1 + 𝜀𝑧
Upon expanding the terms:
𝑉1 = 𝑉0 1 + 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧 + 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑧 + 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧 + 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧
For small strains:
𝑉1 = 𝑉0 1 + 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧
The volume change is
∆𝑉 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉0 = 𝑉0 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧
The unit volume change e, also known as dilatation is defines as:
𝑒 = 𝑉1 Τ𝑉0 = 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧
Positive strains are considered for elongations and negative strains for
shortening, i.e. positive values of e for an increase in volume.
Since,
1 1 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 − ʋ𝜎𝑦 , 𝜀𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 − ʋ𝜎𝑥 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
𝐸 𝐸 𝐺

∆𝑉 1−2ʋ 1−2ʋ
𝑒= = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 For uniaxial stress 𝜎𝑦 = 0 𝑒= 𝜎𝑥
𝑉0 𝐸 𝐸

Strain Energy Density in Plane Stress

The strain energy density u is the strain energy stored in a unit volume
of the material. Because the normal and shear strains occur
independently, we can add the strain energy of these two elements to
obtain the total energy.

Work done = Force x distance

Work done in the 𝑥 - direction =
𝜎𝑥 𝑏𝑐
𝑎𝜀𝑥
2
Work done in the 𝑦 - direction =
𝜎𝑦 𝑏𝑐
𝑎𝜀𝑦
2
The sum of the energies due to Then the strain energy density
normal stresses: (strain per unit volume)

𝑎𝑏𝑐 1
𝑈= 𝜎𝑥 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜀𝑦 𝑢1 = 𝜎𝑥 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜀𝑦 Eqn. 40
2
2
Similarly, the strain energy density associated with the shear strain:
1
𝑢2 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦 Eqn. 41
2

By combining the strain energy densities for the normal and shear
strains:
1
𝑢= 𝜎𝑥 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦 Eqn. 42
2
The strain energy density in terms of stress alone:

𝜎𝑥 2 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
𝑢= + −ʋ + Eqn. 43
2𝐸 2𝐸 𝐸 2𝐺
The strain energy density in terms of strain alone:
𝐸 2 2 𝐺
𝑢= 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 − 2ʋ𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2 Eqn. 44
2 1−ʋ2 2

For the special case of uniaxial stress: 𝜎𝑦 = 0, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0, 𝜀𝑦 = −ʋ𝜀𝑥 ,

𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 0

𝜎𝑥 2 𝐸𝜀𝑥 2
𝑢= or 𝑢=
2𝐸 2

For the special case of pure shear: 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜀𝑥 = 𝜀𝑦 = 0

𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 𝐺𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
𝑢= or 𝑢=
2𝐺 2
Example: Strain-gage measurements made on the free surface of a steel
plate indicate that the principal strains are 0.004 and 0.001. What are
the principal stresses if 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝑣 = 0.33?

Solution:
𝐸
𝜎1 = 2
𝜀1 + 𝑣𝜀2
1−𝑣
200
𝜎1 = 0.004 + 0.33 0.001 = 0.965 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 965 𝑀𝑃𝑎
1 − 0.109

𝐸
𝜎2 = 2
𝜀2 + 𝑣𝜀1
1−𝑣
200
𝜎2 = 0.001 + 0.33 0.004 = 0.516 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 516 𝑀𝑃𝑎
1 − 0.109
References
1. Case, J. and Chilver, A.H. “Strength of Materials and Structure” The
English Language Book Society and Edward Arnold (Publisher)
Ltd., London.
2. Beer, F.P. and Johnston, E.R. (1981). “Mechanics of Materials”
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
3. Dieter, G.E. (1988). “Mechanical Metallurgy”. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, London.
4. Lardner, T.J. and Archer, R.R. (1994). “Mechanics of Solid
Materials An Introduction”. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Singapore.
5. Beer, F.P., Johnston, E.R. and DeWolf, J.T. (2002). “Mechanics of
Materials” McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.