Strength of Material1 PDF

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Strength of Material
Syllabus:
1. Introduction
2. Stress-Strain [1 question]
3. a. Principle Stress [1/2 question]
3. b. Moment of Inertia (M. I.) [1/2 question]
4. B.M., S.F. diagram [12 marks, 1 full question]
5. Theory of flexure [1 question]
6. Torsion [1/2 question]
7. Thin walled vessel [1/2 question]
8. Column (succeing of column) [1/2 question]
Direct Stress [1/2 question]
9. Theory of failure [1/2 question]
M.I. α Strength
so,
Section design ubf{ M.I. a9L cfpg] ul/ ul/G5
Depth a9fof] eg] M.I. a9\5 .
M f E
= = Theory of flexure
I y k
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Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Types of Load
(i) Static Load: Load acting on a body in equilibrium is called static load.
(ii) Dynamic Load: The load acting on a body in motion is called dynamic load. Its
effect depends on time.
(iii) Dead Load: It includes the wf of all permanent components of the structure such
as beams, columns, floors, slabs, etc and any other immovable loads that are
constant in magnitude and permanently attached to the structure.
(iv) Live Load: It includes any external loads imposed on the structure during it’s
service such as the wf. Of the stored material, furniture and people.
Dynamic Load: Wind load, earthquake, hydrostatic load, uplift pressure, snow and rain
load.
1.2 Supports
(i) Roller support:
Fx = 0
Fy = acted
m=0
Example : 3/sf] blnt
(ii) Hinge support:

Fx = acted
Fy = acted
m=0
M
Fx
(iii) Fixed support: Fy

Fx , Fy , and m are acted.
(iv) Ball and socket support:

- Fx , Fy and Fz are acted
Rx
- m=0
Rz
Ry
- This is example of hinge support in 3-D.
Rx, Ry & Rz # j 6}5 .

(v) Fixed support: m x,my & m z # j 6}5 .
Fixed Support Hinge Support
Determinant and Indeterminant Structure:
Fig - 1 Fig - 2
Determinate Structure:
If number of unknown = number of equilibrium equation then the structure is called
determinate structure.
Indeterminate Structure:
If number of unknown is not equal to the number of equilibrium equation then the
structure is called indeterminate.
Number of Indeterminacy:
Let,
R = no. of unknown reaction
r = no. of equilibrium equation
Degree of indeterminacy, E = R – r
Here,
no. of unknown reaction, (R) = 7
no. of equilibrium equation, (r) = 3
so,
Degree of indeterminacy, E = R – r = 7 – 3 = 4
Also,
no. of unknown reaction, R = 5
no. of equilibrium equation, r = 3
then,
Degree of indeterminacy, E = R – r = 5 – 3 = 2

Conditions:
When, E = 0 = R – r = 0 (structure is determinate)
E > 0 = indeterminate and stable
E < 0 = Indeterminate and un-stable
Here, Here,
no. of unknown = 2 = R no. of unknown, R = 4
no. of equilibrium equation = 3 =1 no. of equilibrium equation , r = 3
Now, Now,
E = R – r =2 – 3 = –1 E=R–r=4–3=1
Hence, Hence,
E>0 E>0
So, it is determinatre. So, it is indeterminate and stable.
Direct stress and strain:

Stress:
When a body is subjected to any external load then there is a deformation of a body.
During a deformation the percicles of a body exerts resisting force and the deformation stops
when the resisting force becomes equal to the applied external load. This resisting force per
unit area is called stresses.
Resistivity Force F
i.e. Stress = =
Area A
Strain:
Change in length per unit length when applying a force on a obdy.
∆L
i.e. Strain =
L
Normal stress:
When the force acts normal to he surface of a body is called normal stress.
P P P P
Compressive Downloaded
Stress Tangential Stress
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Tangential Stress (Shear Stress):

When the force acts (transverse) i.e. tangentially the surface of the body then the
resulting stress is called shear stress (rf}8f kl6 act x'g] force)
Longitudinally (t/jf kl6) act x'g] force nfO{ axial force elgG5 / beam tail x'bf longitudinal df w/} sd
x'G5 / transverse df Hofbf tail x'G5 .
Hook’s Law:
It states that stress is directly proportional to strain within elastic limit.
So, Stress (σ) α Strain (e)
σ = e.E
where, E = permittivity constant and is called Yong’s modulus of elasticity.
Since,
σ = e.E
P ∆L
= ⋅E
A L
PL  σ Stress 
∴ ∆L = Yong' s modulus or modulus of elasticity, E = e = Strain 
AE
Modulus of rigidity (c):

It is ratio shear stress and shear strain.
Stress Stress
So, c=
Shear Strain
q
∴c=
φ
Shear Strain
Bulk Modulus (K):
It is the ratio of volumetric stress to the volumetric strain.
σV
So, K=
eV
Rasabolic
(Strain hardening)
region Max Limit
U
A B
Stress given by all six (6) directions normally. L
C
Stress and strain diagram of mild steel:

Strain
Mild steel – 250 M Pa (N/mm2)

Tor Steel – 495 M Pa
TMT (Thermo Mechanical Treated) – 500 M Pa
Dutility for earth quake = 16% - 25% desisable.
AB = sd load (stress) df klg Strain a9]sf]
A = elastic limit
B = Yield point (upper) = YUS
C = Lower end point
= YL (stress dropped on const strain)
(load glbPklg of] action x'G5)
UL = pure plastic state (stress const and strain increase)
U = ultimate stress
U = Stress ga9]klg strain a9\5 / meening x'b} x'G5 .
Working load = OA region = elastic limit
Max capacity = ultimate load
Ultimate Stress:
Maximum load per unit original cross-sectional area is called ultimate stress.
Working Stress (or safe load):

It is a safe load within elastic limit.
Ultimate load
working stress =
factor of safely
OR
Yield stress
working stress =
factor of safety
Factor of Safety: F:
Yield stress ultimate stress
F= or
working stress working stress
Factor of safety for,
R.C.C. work = 3
Timer = 4 to 6
Steel = 1.85
Principle of Superposition:
It states that when the no. of loads are acting
t B C
on a body then the resulting strain will be the
algebraic sum of strains caused by the individual
L L L
loads. 1 2 3

3KN B C
Prob Soln: 10KN
A 9KN
2KN
2m 3m 4m
Cross-sectional area of the all body i.e. A, B & C are same.

Now,
10KN
A (3-2+9)=10KN
10-3=7KN 9-2=7 10+2-3=9KN 9KN

B C
Now, for a body A:

PL 10 × 2 20
∆L A = = =
AE AE AE
For body, B:
PL 7 × 3 24
∆LB = = =
AE AE AE
For body, C:
PL 9 × 4 36
∆LC = = =
AE AE AE
Now,
20 + 24 + 36 77
∴ total elongating ∆L = ∆L A + ∆LB + ∆LC = =
AE AE
Bar of Varying Cross-Section:
P
A2 A3
L1 L2 L3
Let, a force P is acting on a body of varying cross-section as shown in figure.

PL1
Extension of bar (I) ∆1 =
A1 E
PL2
Extension of bar (II) ∆ 2 =
A2 E
PL3
Extension of bavr (III) ∆ 3 =
A3 E
PL1 PL2 PL3
Net extension ∆ = ∆ 1 + ∆ 2 + ∆ 3 = + +
A1 E A2 E A3 E
P  L1 L2 L3 
= + + 
E  A1 A2 A3 
If no. bars are these then,
P  L1 L2 L3 L 
∆= = + + + ................... + n 
E  A1 A2 A3 An 
Tapered Section:
dx B
p d
d1 d2
A1
x B1
L
Suppose a uniformly tapered section from diameter d1 to d2 of length L. Consider a strip

of length dx at a distance ‘x’ from face AA|
d 2 − d1
dx = d 1 + ⋅x (from similar ∆ s relation)
L
Extension of δx length of a stress
PL P × δx
δ∆ = =
AE π  d 2 − d1 
2
d + x  ⋅E
4 
1
L 
4 P ⋅ δx d 2 − d1
= where, =k (let )
π (d1 + kx ) t 2
L
Hence, total elongalation,
L
∆ = ∫ δ∆
O

4 Pδx
L
=∫
O π (d1 + kx )2 ⋅ E
( )
L
4P −2
= ∫ d1 + kx 2 ⋅ δx
πE O
( )
−2 +1 L
4 P  d 1 + kx 2 
=  
πE  (− 2 + 1)K 
O
L
4P  1 
= −
πEk  d1 + kx  O
4P  1 1
=−  − 
πEk  d1 + kL d1 
4 PL  1 1
=−  − 
πE (d 2 − d1 )  d1 + d 2 − d1 d1 
− 4 PL  d1 − d 2 
=  
πE (d 2 − d1 )  d1d 2 
=
− 4 PL (d − d1 )
⋅ 2
πE (d 2 − d1 ) d1 d 2
4 PL
∴ ∆=
πE ⋅ d1d 2
Check if it is rectangular section then, (solid cylindrical x'bf)
d1 = d 2 = d
4 PL PL PL
∆= = =
πE ⋅ d 2 πd 2
AE
E
4
PL
∴ ∆=
AE
Q. A specimen of steel 25 mm diameter with gauge length of 200 m is tested to destruction. It

has an extension of 0.16 mm under a load of 80 KN and the load at elastic limit is 160 KN.
The maximum load is 180 KN.
The total extension at fracture is 56 mm and diameter at neck is 180 mm. Find
(i) The stress at elastic limit
(ii) Percentage elongation
(iii) Yong’s modulus of elasticity
180 xN
(iv) Percentage reduction in area
(v) Ultimate tensile stress. 160xN

So|n:
πd 2 π × (25)2
A= = = 490.874 mm 2
4 4
load at elastic limit
(i) The stress at elastic limit =
original cross - sectional area
460 × 10 3 N
= 2
= 325.949 N / mm 2
490.874 mm
Final extension
(ii) Percentage elongation = × 100
original length
56
= × 100
200
= 28%
Stress
(iii) Yong’s modulus of elasticity (within elastic limit only) =
Strain
PL
Since, ∆=
AE
PL 80 × 200 80 × 200 × 10 3 N
E= = =
A ⋅ ∆ π × (25)2 490.874 × 0.16
× 0.16
4
= 2.03 × 10 5 N / mm 2
Initial area - Final area
(iv) Percentage reduction in area = × 100%
Initial area
25 2 18 2
π× −π ×
= 4 4 × 100%
π × 25 2
4
= 48.16%
Maximum load or ultimate load
(v) Ultimate stress =
Original cross - sectional area
180 × 10 3
= = 366.693 N / mm 2
490.874
= 366.693 M Pa
[here, E = 2 × 105 N/mm2 = 200 KN/mm2 always]
In 28 days, 7 days 66% strength 28 days

M15 = 15 M Pa 53 grade cement = characteristics strength of
M20 = 20 M Pa cement i.e. 57% eGbf sd sample n] dfq Tof]
strength gb]vfpbg Test fulfill x'G5 100 j6f
53 grade = quick section sample with c/s ratio 1:13.
53v M Pa load up to 95 sample n] lbg' k5{ .
43 grade = less quick than 53 grade
Q. A steel bar of 25 mm diameter is acted upon by forceless shown in figure. Determine the
focal elongation of the bar if, (i.e. take) 60 xN 20 xN 20 xN 50 xN
1 2 3
E = 200 KN/m2
So|n:
1.5 m 1.0 m 2.0 m
60 xN 50 + 20 - 10 = 60 xN
1
For body (i):
P1 L1 60 × 1.54 600 × 1.5 × 1000 × 1000
∆1 = = = 1.5 m
AE πd 2
490.9 × 2 × 10 5
× 200
4
∴ ∆ 1 = 0.917mm
For body (ii): 60 + 10 = 70 20 + 50 = 70 xN
2
PL 70 × 1000 × 1 × 1000
∆2 = 2 2 =
AE 490.9 × 2 × 10 5
Im
∴ ∆ 2 = 0.713mm
For body (iii):
P3 L3 50 × 10 3 × 2 × 1000
∆3 = =
AE 490.9 × 20 × 10 5
∴ ∆ 3 = 1.019mm
∴ Total elongation (∆ ) = ∆ 1 + ∆ 2 + ∆ 3 = (0.917 + 0.713 + 1.019)mm
∴ ∆ = 2.649 mm
Elongation due to self ωf :

(Bar of uniform section):
Let a bar of length ‘L’ hanging freely. Suppose a strip of dx
length dx, its extension δ ∆ , is given by, L
Wx ⋅ dx
δ∆ =
AE
ωx x
Where, Wx = wf. of portion belone the strip
= Ax
Now,
Ax ⋅ γ ⋅ dx x ⋅ γ ⋅ dx
δ∆ = =
AE E
x. ⋅ γ ⋅ dx
δ∆ =
E
Total elongation of the bar,

L
x ⋅ γ ⋅ dx γ γ  x2  γ L2
L L L
∆ = ∫δ∆ = ∫ = ∫ x ⋅ dx =   = ⋅
O O
E EO E  2 O E 2
γL2 ρgL2
∴ ∆= =
2E 2E
If w be the total wf of the bar,
w = γ ⋅ A⋅ L
w P w
γ = stress = =
AL L A
wL2 wL PL
∴ ∆= ∴∆ = =
2 EAL 2aE 2 E
wL
∴ ∆= (in terms of area)
2 AE
wf = wf. of the bar [in Newton (N) or Kilo Newton (KN)]
Elongation of bar of tapered shape due to self ωf :

d
Let a tapering bar as shown in figure. Consider an
elementary area of length dx. Let, Ax be the area of cross
section at face x.y.
Total elongation of the strip, x y
dx
wx ⋅ ax
δ∆ = x
L
Ax ⋅ E
Where, wx = wf of the position below the strip
Wx = (x × Ax) × 1/3
Note:
Vol(V) + Vol(VV) + Vol(Vvv) = whole Vol of rectangle
1
∴ Tapered bar Volume = of rectangle volume
3
Now,
1
× Ax × x × γ × dx
δ∆ = 3
Ax × E
xγ × dx
=
3E
∴ Total elongation,
x ⋅ γ ⋅ dx γ
L L
∆=∫ = ∫ x ⋅ dx
O
3 E 3 E O
L
γ  x2 
=  
3E  2  O

γ L2
= ⋅
3E 2
γL2 ρgL2
= =
6E 6E
Let, w = total wf. of the bar
1 πd 2
w= L ⋅γ
3 4
12 w
γ = 2
πd L
12 w L2 2 wL wL
Here, ∆ = ⋅ = 2 =
πd L 6 E πd E
2
πd 2
2 E
4
wL
∴∆ =
2 AE
Temperature Stress:
When the temperature of the body is raised oe lowered and the body not allowed to
expand or contract freely, the stress are setup in the body. This stress is known as temperature
stress.
Single Bar:
Suppose a bar of length L is placed between two rigid
suppose and temperature is raised through tºC then the
extension of the bar,
∆ = L ⋅α ⋅ t L
Where, α = coefficient linear expansion
Also,
P2 σ ⋅ L  P
∆=
AE
=
E  Since, σ = A 
Where, δ = Temp. Stress
Now,
σL
= L ⋅α ⋅ t
E
∴ σ = α ⋅t ⋅ E
Let, the case when the end fields by an amount a, then the stress will be due to
extension of ∆ − a ,
σ=
(∆ − a )t (since Stress = e × E)
L

a
∴ σ = (L ⋅ α ⋅ t − a ) ⋅
E
L
Actual expansion ∆ − a
But strain, e= =
Actual length L
∴ e=
(∆ − a ) & σ=
e
×E =
(∆ − a )E
L L L
Composite Bar:
t p
Ds Ds
Steel, αs
As
Copper, α c, Ac
L x
Dc
D p
Dc
Consider two bar of length ‘L’ of different materials suppose steel and copper as
shown in figure, are composite. Let the composite bar subjected to a temperature. As a result
due to different capacity of expansion of each bar, there is setup opposite kinds of stresses i.e.
(Tensile and compressive in the bar). Then,
Ps = Pc = P
i.e. Tensile force in steel = Compressive force in steel = P
Also, ∆ S = ∆ C = ∆
From figure,
∆ S = ∆tS + ∆PS
∆ C = ∆tC − ∆PC
Where, ∆ S = ∆ C = ∆ = final extension
∆tS = free extension of steel due to temperature
∆tC = free extension of copper due to temperature
∆PS = Expansion of steel due to temperature stress
∆PC = Compression of copper due to temperature stress.
Since,
∆ S = ∆C
∆tS + ∆PS = ∆tC − ∆PC
or , ∆PS + ∆PC = ∆tC − ∆tS
= Lα C t − L α S t

= Lt (α C − α S )
Where, αc = coefiicient of linear expansion of copper
αs = coefficientr of linear expansion of steel
Composite section:
Now, ∆PS + ∆PC = ∆tC − ∆tS = Lt (α C − α S ) (From above proff)
= Lt (α C − α S )
PL PL
+
AS E S AC E C
 1 1 
or , PP +  = Lt (α C − α S )
 AS E S AC EC 
 1 
 = t (α C − α S )
1
P + − − − − − (i )
 AS E S AC EC 
t (α C − α S )
∴ P= − − − − − (ii )
1 1
+
AS E S AC EC
Also we know,
P P
σS = & σC =
AS AC
From equation (i), we get,
σS σC
+ = t (α C − α S ) − − − − − (iii )
ES EC
eS + eC = t (α C − α S ) − − − − − (iv) [From formula]
Equations (ii), (iii), and (iv) are required expression for composite section for
temperature stress.
2.5 compound Bars subjected to axial tension compression:

Consider two bars of different material having
equal lengths are rigidly fixed at one unit and let P is
applied as shown in figure, then the load ‘P’ which equal
to sum of the loads carried by each material. 1 2 L
P = P1 + P2 A1 A2
Also, the extension of each bar is same i.e. B1 = B2
So,
P1 L PL
= 2
A1 E1 A2 E 2 P
A1 E1
P1 = P2 − − − − − (i )
A2 E 2

So, from (i),

A1 E1  AE 
P = P2 + P2 = P2 1 + 1 1 
A2 E 2  A2 E 2 
P
∴ P2 =
AE
1+ 1 1
A2 E 2
Similarly,
P1 = P2
P
∴ P2 =
AE
1+ 2 2
A1 E1
Poisson’s Ratio:
It is the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain.
lateral strain
i.e. µ =
longitudinal strain
Suppose a solid circular bar of length ‘L’ and
D d
diameter D. Due to stress, the length increases by ∆L
and diameter reduces by (∆ − d )
L BL
∆−d
Lateral Strain =
∆
∆L
Longitudinal Strain =
L
If the strain in the direction of load is σ/E then in other two direction is,
σ σ
−µ & −µ
E E
Q. A rod as shown in figure is subjected to poll of 500 KN on the ends. Take E = 2.05×105
N/mm2. Find extension of rod.
120 80 100 80 100 80 120
200 100 250 150 250 150 350 20 0
So|n:
P  L1 L2 L3 
∆=  + +  − − − − − (i )
E  A1 A2 A3 

πd 2 π × 120 2
Now, A1 = = = 11310
4 4
π × 80 2
A2 = = 5027
4
π × 100 2
A3 = = 7854
4
Then, equation (i) written as,
800  200 + 200 100 + 150 + 150 250 + 250 + 200 
∆=  + + 
2.05 × 10 5  11310 5027 7854 
∴ ∆ = 0.796mm
Relation between modulus of elasticity(E), modulus of rigidity(C) and bulk modulus(K):

Relation between E and C: B1 B C1
C
| |
Consider a square element ABCD deformed to ADC B
F
due to stress.
z
Due to pure shear, there is tensile stress along the z
diagonal BD and compressive stress at right angle to the

diagonal. A z D
q  q
Strain of diagonal BD = − µ − 
E  E
=
q
(1 + µ ) − − − − − (i )
E
FB | FB |
Strain in diagonal BD = =
BD AB 2
Since, the deformation is very small so we can take,
∠BB | F ≈ 45º then,
FB| = B|BCos45º -------- (a)
From equation (a), putting the value of FB| in equation (i),
FB | BB | Cos 45º
Strain in diagonal BD = =
AB 2 AB 2
1
BB | |
= 2 = BB
AB 2 2 AB
1 BB |
= ⋅
2 AB
1
= Ø (since Ø is very small)
2

q  Shear Sress (q) 

Since, Ø =  Shear Strain (Ø)  = C (modulus of rigidity)
c  
q
So, Strain in diagonal BD = − − − − − (ii )
2C
Since, equation (i) and (ii) are same,
= (1 + µ )
q q
So,
2C E
∴ E = 2C (1 + µ ) − − − − − (iii )
Which is required relation between E and C.
Relation between E and K:

Consider a cube subjected to three mutually
perpendicular tensile stress along X,Y,Z directions.
σ σ σ
eX = −µ −µ
E E E
σ
= (1 − 2µ )
E
σ σ σ
eY = −µ −µ
E E E
σ
= (1 − 2µ )
E
σ σ σ
eZ = −µ −µ
E E E
σ
= (1 − 2µ )
E
Now,
σ
eV = e X + eY + e Z = (1 − 2 µ ) + σ (1 − 2 µ ) + σ (1 − 2µ )
E E E
3σ
= (1 − 2µ )
E
Since,
Volumetric Stress γ
K= =
Volumetric Strain 3γ
(1 − 2 µ )
E
E
K=
3(1 − 2 µ )
E = 3K (1 − 2µ ) − − − − − (iv)
Which is required relation between E and K.

Putting the value of µ from equation (iii) to equation (iv) then,

  E 
E = 3K 1 − 2 − 1 
  2C 
E E
= 1− + 2
3K C
E E
= 3−
3K C
3EK
E = 9K −
C
3EK
E+ = 9K
C
 3K 
or , E 1 +  = 9K
 C 
9K
E=
 C + 3K 
 
 C 
( KC
∴ E=
C + 3K
Which is required relation between E, C, and K.
Q. A copper rod 25 mm in diameter is inclosed in steel 30 mm internal diameter and 35 mm

external diameter. The ends are rigidly attached. The composite bar is 500 mm long and is
subjected to an axial pull of 300 KN. Find the stresses induced in the rod and the tube. Take
E for steel 2×105 N/mm2 and E for copper as 1×105 N/mm2.
30 KN 25 30 35 30 KN
So|n:
AC = Area of copper in cross-section = (25)2×π/4
∴ AC = 490.9 mm2
AS = cross section area of steel = {(35)2×π/4} – {(30)2×π/4}
∴ AS = 255.25 mm2
Now, PC + PS = P
σ C AC + σ S AS = 30 × 10 3 − − − − − (i )
Elongation in steel = Elongation in copper

σ St σ Ct
or , =
ES EC
σS σC
or , =
ES EC
ES 2 × 10 5
or , σ S = σ C × = σC ×
EC 1 × 10 5
∴ σ S = 26c.
From equations (i),
σ C × 490.9 + 26c × 255.25 = 30 × 10 3
30 × 10 3
or , σ C = = 29.95 N / mm 2
1001.4
∴ σ C = 29.95 N / mm 2
And, σ S = 26c = 2 × 29.95 = 59.91
∴ σ S = 59.91 N / mm 2
Principal stresses:
The planes having no shear stresses are known as principal planes. The normal stresses
acting on a principal plane are known as principal stress.
CASE-I: Stress acting on a plane inclined to the direction of a applied forces:
E G
P
P θ
Consider a rectangular member of unit thickness and of uniform cross-sectional area.

Let, P = Axial force acting on the member
A = Area of cross-section, which is perpendicular to the line of a action of the force P
Here, the area of section EF which is perpendicular to the line action of force, P is,
A = EF × 1
Now, let us consider an oblique plane FG inclined at an angle θ with the section EF.
The area of section FG = FG × 1
EF EF × 1 A
= ×1 = =
Cosθ Cosθ Cosθ
A ⋅ Secθ
Stresses on the section FG,

P  P 
= i.e. Section of FG 
A
P
=
A ⋅ Secθ
= σ ⋅ Cosθ
Since, this stress is not normal to the FG, it is parallel to the axis of the member. So, it
has normal and tangential components on the sections FG.
PX = P Cosθ
Pt = P Sinθ
Hence, normal stress (σn) on the plane FG,
normal force P ⋅ Cosθ Cosθ  P 
= = =σ ×  Since, =σ
area of FG A ⋅ Secθ Secθ A 
= σ ⋅ Cos 2θ
∴ σ n = σ ⋅ Cos 2θ
Tangential Stress (σt) on the plane FG,
Tangential Force P ⋅ Sinθ σ σ

σt = = = σ × Sinθ × Cosθ = × 2 Sinθ × Cosθ = Sin 2θ
area of FG A ⋅ Secθ 2 2
σ
∴ σt = Sin 2θ
2
The normal stress which be maximum when Cosθ = 1 i.e. θ = 0º
Maximum normal stress = σ
Also, the tangential stress which be maximum when Sin2θ = 1
or, Sin2θ = Sin 90º or Sin270º
or, θ = 45º or 155º
Hence, maximum tangential stress = 1×σ/2
= σ/2
For principal plane, σt = 0
σ
Sin 2θ = 0
2
θ = 0º
LEFT A LOT OF PAGES
Case:III:
(Left A Lot Of Lines)
Q2 Sinθ − Q1Cos θ
=
FC × 1
2 × FB × Sinθ − 2 × BC × Cosθ
=
FC

FB BC
= 2× Sin θ − q Cosθ
FC FC
= −2 Sinθ ⋅ Sinθ − 2Cosθ ⋅ Cosθ
(
= −2 Cos 2θ − Sin 2θ )
σ t = −qCos 2θ
Case-IV:
A member subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular directions
accompanied by a simple shear stress.
D C
2
Q1 Cos θ
θ
P1 Sin θ B1 = q x BC x 1
q P1 = 1 x BC 1
P2 Cos θ q x BC Sin θ
1 q 1 Q2 Sin θ
A F B
F Q2 = Q x BC x Z P1 Cosθ +P2 Sin θ
P2 = 2 x FB x 1
2 Q 1 Cos θ
Consider a rectangular plate ABCD of unit thickness which is subjected to tensile

stresses σ1 and σ2 and shear stresses 1 at their faces as shown in figure.
Suppose oblique plane FC inclined at an angle θ.
Let, P1 = tensile force on face BC due to stresses σ1
= σ1×BC×1
P2 = tensile force on face BF due to stresses σ2
= σ2×BF×1
Q1 = shear force on face BC due to shear stress q
= q×BC×1
Q2 = shear force on face BF due to shear stress q
= q×BF×1
Hence, resolving all forces total normal force on oblique plane FC;
= P1Cosθ + P2 Sinθ + Q1 Sinθ + Q2 Cosθ
= σ 1 × BD × Cosθ + σ 2 × BF × Sinθ + q × BC × Sinθ + q × BF × Cosθ
And, total tangential force on oblique plane FC;
= P1 Sinθ − P2 Cosθ + Q2 Sinθ − Q1Cosθ
= σ 1 × BC × Sinθ − σ 2 × BF × Cosθ + q × BF × Sinθ − q × BC × Cosθ
Hence, total normal stress (σn) on oblique plane FC;

σ 1 × BC × Cosθ + σ 2 × F × Sinθ + q × BC × Sinθ + q × BF × Cosθ

σn =
FC × 1
BC BF BC BF
= σ1 × Cosθ + σ 2 × Sinθ + q × Sinθ + q × Cosθ
FC FC FC FC
= σ 1Cosθ × Cosθ + σ 2 Sinθ × Sinθ + qSinθ × Cosθ + qSinθ × Cosθ
σ1
= (1 + Cos 2θ ) + σ 2 (1 − Cos 2θ ) + 2qSinθ × Cosθ
2 2
σ1 + σ 2 σ1 −σ 2
∴ σn = + Cos 2θ + 2 Sin 2θ
2 2
And, Tangential stress across FC;
σ 1 × BC × Sinθ − σ 2 × FB × Cosθ + q × BF × Sinθ − q × BC × Cosθ
σt =
FC × 1
BC FB BF BC
= σ1 × Sinθ − σ 2 × Cosθ + q × Sinθ − q × Cosθ
FC FC FC FC
= σ 1Cosθ × Sinθ − σ 2 × Sinθ × Cosθ + qSinθ × Sinθ − qCosθ × Cosθ
σ1 − σ 2
∴ σt = Sin 2θ − 2Cos 2θ
2
Major and minor principle stress:

For principle plane;
σt = 0
σ1 − σ 2
Sin 2θ − 2Cos 2θ = 0
2
σ1 − σ 2
Sin 2θ = qCos 2θ
2
Sin 2θ 2q
=
Cos 2θ σ 1 − σ 2
2q p
tan 2θ = =
σ1 −σ 2 b
Hence, diagonal of right angle triangle,
= ± (σ 1 − σ 2 ) + (2q )
2 2
either (σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + (2q )2 or − (σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + (2q )2

Let,
diagonal = (σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + 4q 2
2q
Sin2θ =
(σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + 4q 2
For major principle stress:

σ1 + σ 2 σ1 −σ 2
= + Cos 2σ + qSin 2θ
2 2
σ1 + σ 2 σ1 −σ 2 σ1 − σ 2 2q
= + ⋅ +q⋅
2 2 (σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + 4q 2 (σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + 4q 2
σ1 + σ 2 (σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + 4q 2
= +
2 2 (σ 1 − σ 2 ) + 4q 2
2
σ1 + σ 2
= +
1
(σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + 4q 2
2 2
σ1 + σ 2 σ −σ 2 
2
= +  1  + q2
2  2 
Minor principle stress:
diagonal = − (σ 1 − σ 2 ) + 4q 2
2
Let,
σ1 − σ 2
Cos 2θ = −
(σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + 4q 2
2q
Sin2θ = −
(σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + 4q 2
σ1 + σ 2 σ1 − σ 2
∴ Minor principle stress = + Cos 2θ + qSin 2θ
2 2
=
σ1 + σ 2
+
σ1 − σ 2
⋅
(σ 1 − σ 2 ) +q⋅
2q
2 2 − (σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + 4q 2 − (σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + 4q 2
σ1 + σ 2 (σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + 4q 2
= −
2 2 (σ 1 − σ 2 ) + 4q 2
2
σ1 + σ 2
= −
1
(σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + 4q 2
2 2
σ1 + σ 2 σ −σ2 
2
= −  1  + q2
2  2 
For maximum and minimum shear stress:

The shear stress will be maximum or minimum when,
d (σ t )
=0
dθ
d σ1 −σ 2 
 Sin 2θ − 2Cos 2θ  = 0
dθ  2 
σ1 − σ 2
or , × 2Cos 2θ − (− q 2 Sin 2θ ) = 0
2

or , (σ 1 − σ 2 )Cos 2θ + 2qSin2θ = 0
or , 2qSin2θ = −(σ 1 − σ 2)Cos 2θ
(σ 1 − σ 2 ) σ 2 − σ 1
or , TTa2θ = − =+ also
2q 2q
σ 2 − σ1
Sin 2θ = ±
(σ 2 − σ 1 )2 + 4q 2
2q
Cos 2θ = ±
(σ 2 − σ 1 )2 + 4q 2
Hence, maximum or minimum shear stress is,
σ1 − σ 2
Sin 2θ − qCos 2θ
2
σ1 −σ 2 σ 2 −σ1 2q
=± ⋅ ±q
2 (σ 2 − σ 1 )2 + 4q 2 (σ 2 − σ 1 )2 + 4q 2
(σ 2 − σ 1 )2 2q 2
=± ±
2 (σ 2 − σ 1 ) + 4q 2 (σ 2 − σ 1 )2 + 4q 2
2
(σ 2 − σ 1 )2 + 4q 2
=±
2 (σ 2 − σ 1 ) + 4q 2
2
=±
1
(σ 2 − σ 1 )2 + 4q 2
2
 σ − σ1 
2
=±  2  + q2
 2 
 σ − σ1 
2
Hence, major shear stress =  2  + q2

 2 
 σ − σ1 
2
And, minor shear stress = −  2  + q2

 2 
Left a page
Mohr Circle method:

It is a graphical method of determination of normal tangential and resultant stress. It can
be used for the following cases:
(A) A body subjected to two mutually perpendicular principle tensile stress of unequal
intensities.
(B) A body subjected to two mutually perpendicular principal stress which are unequal
and unlike (i.e. one is tensile and other is compressive).

(C) A body is subjected to two mutually perpendicular tensile stresses accompanied by

simple shear stress. 2
Case (A):
Let, σ1 = major tensile stress
1 1
σ2 = minor tensile stress
θ = angle made by oblique plane with minor stress
Proof:
σ1 −σ 2 2
CO = OB = OE =
2
y
σ1 −σ 2
Now, AD = AC + CO + OD = σ 2 + + OECos 2θ
2 E
σ1 − σ 2 σ1 −σ 2
=σ2 + + Cos 2θ
2 2
θ
2σ 2 + σ 1 − σ 2 σ 1 − σ 2
A
C o D
= + Cos 2θ 2 2
2 2
σ1 + σ 2 σ1 − σ 2
= + Cos 2θ = σ n i.e. normal stress
2 2
σ1 − σ 2
ED = OE × Sin 2θ = Sin 2θ = σ t
2
y
i.e. tangential stress
Now, AD = normal stress on oblique plane
DE = tangential stress on oblique plane
AE = resultant stress
N x
Case (B): C A o B
2 1
σ1 = major tensile stress
σ2 = minor compressive stress
1 = - ve
θ = angle made by oblique plane with minor B 2 = + ve
stress y1 A = origin
AD = Normal stress on oblique plane

DE = Tangential stress on oblique plane
AE = Resultant stress on oblique plane
Case (C):
σ1 = major tensile stress
σ2 = minor tensile stress
q = shear stress
θ = angle made by oblique plane with minor stress
now, AD = normal stress on oblique plane

DE = tangential stress on oblique plane

AE = resultant stress on oblique plane
C.G. whole wf
Centroid whole area
Moment of inertia (M.I.):
Centre of gravity (C.G.) = The point where the whole wf of the body is concentrated.
Centroid = The point where the whole area of the body is concentrated
Centroid of plane lamina:
x1
x2
x3
x4
x5
x6
x7
x8
A X = a1 x1 + a 2 x 2 + a3 x3 + ............... + a n x n
a1 x1 + a 2 x 2 + a3 x3 + ............... + a n x n
X =
a1 + a 2 + a3 + .......... + a n
n
∑a x i i
∫ x ⋅ da
= i =1
n
=
∑a i ∫ da
i =1
Integration = summation of area

Derivative = slope or any inter vol of time
Similarly,

∑a y i i
∫ y ⋅ da
Y= i =1
n
=
∑a i ∫ da
i =1
For line element;

n
∑L x i i
∫ x ⋅ dL
X = i =1
n
=
∑L i ∫ dL
i =1
n
∑L y i i
∫ y ⋅ dL
And, Y = i =1
n
=
∑L i ∫ dL
i =1
y
Moment of Inertia (M.I.):
x A
y
The moment of this plane lamina about Y-axis = Ax

The moment of this plane lamina about X-axis = Ay
The moment of moment of this plane lamina about Y-axis = Ax × x = Ax2
and, The moment of moment of this plane lamina about X-axis = Ay × y = Ay2
so, moment of moment of an area is called moment of inertia. It is represented by I. It is
also called 2nd moment of an area.
[xfdLn] o; subject study ug{] ;a} M.I. for area xf] . of] mass df klg lgsfNf ;lsG5 t/ xfdL oxf+ area sf]
af/]df dfq k9\b5f} .]
Parallel axis Theorem:

I LM = I GG + Ak 2
IGG
A
h
L
M
Statement and Proof:

It states that “the moment of inertia of a plane dA
lamina about any axis in the plane of lamina is equal G y G
to the sum of the moment of inertia of that lamina
A
about centroidal axis and the product of the area and
h
L
Downloaded from www.jayaram.com.np M
square of perpendicular distance between the two axis.”

Proof:
Let a lamina of area ‘A’. Let the centroidal axis GG about which moment of inertia is
known i.e. IGG. Let axis “LM” parallel to axis “GG” about which M.I. is to be found out.
The distance between these two axis be “h”. Suppose an elementary area “dA” which is at a
distance ‘y’ from centroidal axis “GG”.
M.I. of elementary area about axis LM,
dI LM = dA( x + y )
2
(
or, dI LM = dA x 2 + 2 xy + y 2 )
Now, M.I. of whole area about axis LM;
I LM = ∑ dI LM
(
= ∑ dA x 2 + 2 xy + y 2 )
= x 2 ∑ dA + 2 x ∑ y ⋅ dA + y 2 ∑ dA
= x 2 A + 2x × 0 + y 2 A
snce, zy.dA = M.I. of dA about GG i.e.GG = 0
∴ I LM = Ax 2 + Ay 2 = Ax 2 + I GG
Perpendicular axis theorem:

Statement:
It states that “the M.I. of plane lamina about centroidal axis perpendicular to the plane
of lamina is equal to the sum of its M.I. about two mutually perpendicular centroidal axis in
the plane of the lamina.
i.e. I ZZ = I XX + I YY z
Proof:
Let, A plane laminma of Area A, X and Y axis are
its centroidal axis lying ni its plane. Z-axis is its centroidal
axis lying in the plane perpendicular to it. A
Let, elementary area dA at a distance y, x and r from X,
Y, and Z axis respectively.
The M.I. of this elementary area dA about Z-axis, x
r
y
dI ZZ = dA ⋅ r 2
( )
= dA x 2 + y 2 = dAx 2 + dAy 2
x da
M.I. of whole area about Z-axis is

I ZZ = ∑ dI ZZ y
(
= ∑ dAx + dAy2 2
)
= x 2 ∑ dA + y 2 ∑ dA

= Ax 2 + Ay 2
= I XX + I YY
∴ I ZZ = I XX + I YY
LEFT 3 PAGES
(ii) M.I. of triangular section:

x b
Now, = (by the relation of similar triangle)
h− y h
∴x =
b
(h − y ) h
h
x
Area of Strip (dA) = xdy =
b
(h − y )dy
h
Moment of inertia of this strip about base; s
dI b = dA ⋅ y 2
=
b
(h − y ) ⋅ y 2 ⋅ dy
h
M.I. of whole triangular section about its base,
I b = ∫ dI b = ∫ (h − y ) ⋅ y 2 ⋅ dy
h hb
0 0 h
b h
(
= ∫ hy 2 − y 3 dy
h 0
)
h
b  y3 y4 
= h − 
h 3 4 0
b  h4 h4 
=  − 
h 3 4
b h4 
=  
h  12 
C.G.
bh 3
∴ Ib =
12 h/3
M.I. about centroidal axis

We know,
I b = I GX + Ax 2
or , I GX = I b − Ax 2 i.e. A × (dis tan ce ) = A × (h 3)
2 2

2
bh 3 1 h
= − ×b×h× 
12 2 3
bh 3 bh 3
= −
12 28
bh 3
∴ I GX =
36
M.I. of circular section:

y
R
r
dr
x x
Let, a circular section of radius r and diameter D. Suppose an elementary ring of

thickness dr and radius ‘r’.
Now, area of elementary strip ring = 2πr×dr
M.I. of this elementary ring (dIzz) = 2πr×dr×r2
or, dIzz = 2πr3×dr
M.I. of whole circular area about 2-axis:
R
I ZZ = ∫ dI ZZ
0
R
= ∫ 2πr 3 ⋅ dr
0
R
r4  πR 4
= 2π   =
 4 0 2
Since, R = D 2
π ( D 2 )4 πD 4
∴ I ZZ = =
2 32
πD 4
∴ I ZZ =
32
We know,
I ZZ = I XX + I YY
Since, IXX and IYY are symmetrical,
So, IXX = IYY

∴ I ZZ = I XX + I XX
1 1 πD 4
or , I XX = I ZZ = ⋅
2 2 32
πD 4
∴ I XX = I YY =
64
Q-1. The flanges and web of a 15cm × 7.5cm is classed section are 9mm and 6mm
respectively. Find the position of C.G. of section and its IXX and IYY.
7.5 cm
9 mm
1
1.5 cm 2
3
9mm
6mm
n
So| :
fig (1): A1 = 75×9 = 675mm2
x1 = 75/2 = 37.5
fig (2): A2 = (150-2×9)×6
x2 = 6/2 = 3mm
fig(3): A3 = 675mm2 (since A1 and A3 are symmetrical)
x3 = 37.5mm
A1 x1 + A2 x 2 + A3 x3 675 × 37.5 + 792 × 3 + 675 × 37.5
∴x = =
A1 + A2 + A3 675792 + 675
∴ x = 24.7mm
Now, for fig(1);
bd 3
I GX = + Ax 2
12
75 × (9 )
3 2
 150 9 
= + 75 × 9 ×  −  i.e.(75 − 4.5)
12  2 2
= 506.25 + 47587.5
= 48093.75
For fig(2);
6 × (150 − 18)
3
I GX = + Ax 2 [since, h = 0, Ax2= 0]
12
= 1149984
For fig(3);

I GX =
75 × (9 )
+
3
[
75 × 9 − (75 − 4.5)
2
]
12 A h
= 506.25 + 47587.5
= 48093.75
Again for fig(v);
9 × (75) 9 × 75 (37.5 − 24.7 )
3 2
I GY = +
12 A h2
∴ I GY =
For fig(v);
I GY =
(150 − 18) × 6 3 + (150 − 18) × 6 × (24.7 − 3)2
12 A h2
∴ I GY =
For fig(3);
db 3
I GY = + Ax 2
12
9 × 75 3
= + 9 × 75[− (37.5 − 24.7 )]
2
12
∴ I GY =
Product of inertia:
Strength of Material
2
3 cm
y y
1 3 4
30mm 30mm
Find the centroidal M.I. of shaded area as shown in figure:

So|n: Since, the figure is symmetrical in the Y-axis,
So, y=
∑ ay = 15748 = 15.8mm
∑ a 996.8
I LM = I GG + Ax 2
Component Area Distance from L-L ay
1) ½ ×15×30 225 10 2250
2) 30×30 900 15 1550

3) π ×(15)2/2 353.40 6.37 (-)2251.2

4) ½ ×15×30 225 10 2250
Σa = 996.8 Σay =
15748
∴y =
∑ ay = 15748 = 95.8mm
∑ a 996.8
I XX = I XX 1 + I XX 2 + I XX 3
15(30 ) 30(30 )  π (30 )4 2

3 3
= + 225 × (15.8 − 10 ) + + 900(15.8 − 15) −  + 353.4(15.8 − 6.37 ) 
2 2
6 12  428 
= 68691mm 4
30 × 10 3 30 × 30 3  (30 )  30 × (15)
4 3
= + 225(15 + 5) + − + + 225(15 + 5)
2 2
Also, I YY
3 .6 12  428  30
= 233244.6mm 4
# Find the centroidal M.I. of the given figure:
yI C.G
15
3 30mm
4 2 xII
xI
1
15mm 20mm 40mm 30mm
So|n:
1
Fig(1): a1 = × 30 × 30 = 450mm 2
2
30
x1 = 15 + 20 + 40 + = 85mm
3
1
y1 = × 30 = 10mm
3
Fig(2): a 2 = 60 × 30 = 1800mm 2
x 2 = 15 +
1
(20 + 40 ) = 45mm
2

30
y2 = = 15mm
2
π (15)2
Fig(3): a 3 = = 176.71mm 2
4
x3 = 15 + 20 = 35mm
y3 = 15mm
1 π (15) 2
Fig(4): a 4 = × πr 2 = = 353.43mm 2
2 2
4R 4 × 15
x 4 = 15 − = 45 − = 8.63mm
3π 3π
y 4 = 15mm
a1 x1 + a 2 x 2 − a3 x3 + a 4 x 4
Now, x= = 47.84mm
a1 + a 2 − a3 + a 4
a1 y1 + a 2 y 2 − a3 y 3 + a 4 y 4
y= = 14.07mm
a1 + a 2 − a3 + a 4
so, coordinate of C.G. = (47.84 , 14.07)
I GG + Ax 2 =
Now, for fig(2)
I X | X | = I X | X | + I XX 2 + I XX 3 + I XX 4
1
Now, I XX 1 =
bh 3
36
+ Ax 2 =
30 × 30 3
36
+ a1 × y − y1 ( )
2
30 × 30 3
= + 450 × (44.07 − 10 )
2
36
=
For fig(2);
bd 3
I XX 2 =
12
+ Ax 2 =
60 × 30 2
12
+ 60 × 30 × y − y 2 ( )
2
60 × 900
= + 1800 × (14.07 − 15)
2
12
=
For fig(6);
πD 4
I XX 3 = + Ax 2
64
π × 15 4
= + a3 × (14.07 − 15)
2
64
π × 15 4
= + 176.71(15 − 14.07 )
2
64

=
For fig(4);
πD 4
I XX 4 = + 353.43(15 − 14.07 )
128
So, I XX = I XX 1 + I XX 2 − I XX 3 + I XX 4 =
Again, I y | y | = I yy1 + I yy2 − I yy3 + I yy4
I yy1 =
30 × 30 3
36
(
+ 450 x1 − x =
36
)
30 × 30 3
+ 450(85 − 47.85) =
I yy2 =
30 × 60 3
12
+ 1800 x − x ( ) 2
=
30 × 60 3
12
+ 1800(47.85 − 45) =
2
π (15)4
I yy3 = + 176.71(47.85 − 35)
2
64
π (30)4
2
 4R 
I yy4 = + 353.43 47.8515 +  [due to half circle]
128  3π 
LEFT A LOT OF PAGES
Q-1. Find the product of inertia (POI) for the plane hatched area about the axes XX and YY
as shown in figure.
So|n: For figure (1);
Y
I ( xy )1 = I ( XgYg )1 + Aa1b1 10mm
= 0 + 40 × 60(30)(20)
1
= 144 × 10 mm 4 4
20
Since, I xy = I XgYg + Aab 60mm
3
∑ a = a1 + a 2 a3 = 2676.69 2
X = 29.33 and y = 27.75

x
For fig (2); 10mm
I ( xy )2 = I ( XgYg )2 + A2 a 2 b2
b2h2
=− + Aa 2 b2
72
=−
(30 ) (60 )
2 2
+
1
× 30 × 60(20 )(50 )
72 2
= 85.5 × 10 4 mm 4
For fig (3);
I ( xy )3 = I ( XgYg )3 + A3 a 3b3

π × (20)2   4R  
= 0+ ×  3010 +  [since, R = 20mm]
2   3π  
= 34.85 × 0 4 mm 4
Now, I xy = I ( xy )1 + I ( xy )2 + I ( xy )3
= 144 × 10 4 + 85.5 × 10 4 − 34.85 × 10 4
∴ I xy = 194.65 × 10 4 mm
Since,
I X |Y | = I XY + A x y
= 194.65 × 10 4 + ∑ a × x × y
= 194.65 × 10 4 × 2671.69 × 29.33 × 27.75
= 42.1 × 10 4 mm 4
Q-2. Find principle moments of inertia and directions of principal axes for angle section
shown in figure.
So|n: Since,
2 I XY I XX + I YY (I YY − I XX )
2
tan 2θ = I UU = + + (I XY )
2
and
I YY − I XX 2 2
Now, a1 = 12 × 2 = 24cm 2
12 M
x1 = = 6cm
2
2 40mm 12 cm 30mm
y1 = − = −1cm
2 1 2 cm
And, a 2 = (20 − 2 ) × 2 = 36cm 2
x 2 = 1cm
C.G
 18 
y 2 = −2 −   = −11cm 30 cm 2
2
a1 x1 + a 2 x 2
Now, x= = 3cm
a1 + a 2
2 cm
a y + a2 y2
y= 1 1 = −7cm
a1 + a 2 M
Now, I XX = I ( XX )1 + I ( XX )2
 bd 3 2  bd 3 
= + Ax  +  + Ax 2 
 12  1  72 2
12 × (2 )3 2  2 × (18)3 2
= + 24(7 − 1)  +  + 2 × 18(11 − 7 ) 
 12   12 

= 2420cm 4
And, I YY = I (YY )1 + I (YY )2
 2 × (12 )3 2 18 × (2 )3 2
= + 2 × 12(6 − 3)  +  + 2 × 18(3 − 1) 
 12   12 
= 660cm 4
Now, I ( XY ) = I ( XY )1 + I ( XY )2
= [0 + Aa1b1 ] + [0 + Aa 2 b2 ]
= [2 × 12(7 − 1)(6 − 3)] + [2 × 18(4)(2)]
∴ I XY = 720cm 4
2 I XY 2 × 720
now, tan 2θ = = = −0.810
I YY − I XX 660 − 2420
or , tan 2θ = −.810
or , 2θ = tan −1 (− 0.810 )
tan −1 (− 0.810 )
or , θ =
2
∴ θ = −19.7 º or 70.3º
I + I YY  I − I XX 
2
= XX +  YY  + (I XY )
2
Again, I UU
2  2 
= 2677cm 4
I XX + I YY  I − I XX 
2
I VV = −  YY  + (I XY )
2
And,
2  2 
= 403cm 4
I XX + I YY I YY − I XX
Also, I X |X | = − Cos 2θ − I XY Sin 2θ
2 2
Since, θ = -19.7º
I X | X | = 2677cm 4
B.M.D., S.F.D. and A.F.D:

Bending Moment (B.M.):
Turning effect of a force is called moment (B.M.). It is represented by M.
It is also defined as product of force and perpendicular distance.
Shear force (S.F.):

Algebraic sum of vertical force is called S.F.
Axial force = Normal force
Shear force = Tangential force

In cruss, generally,
Bottom member = Tensile
Top member = compressive x'G5.
aLrsf] member calculation ug'{ k5{ / dfq yfxf x'G5
Axial Force (A.F.):

The force acting longitudinal axis of the beam is called axial force (A.F.)
In Beam for S.F. calculation:
From left (+)ve and (-)ve (to right)
From right (-)ve and (+)ve (to left)
Draw B.M. and S.F. for given figure.
10KN 10KN
10XN
0.5 0.5M
2M 2M 2M 2M
10×0.5=5KN-M sf] moment

2 KN/M
A
C E
5KN-M
CA
2M 2M 2M 2M
n
So| : ∑M B =0
R A × 8 − 2 × 2 × 7 − 10 × 4 + 5 − 10 × 2 = 0
or , 8R A = 28 − 40 + 5 − 20 = 0
88 − 5
or , R A =
8
83
∴ RA = = 10.37
8
Now, ∑ dy = 0 (i.e. vertical load)
R A + RB − 4 − 10 − 10 = 0
83
R3 + − 24 = 0
8
192 − 83 109
∴ RB = = = 13.63
8 8
∴ R A = 10.37

∴ RB = 13.63 x
B.M.D. (+)ve A
Span AC: C
KA
x
M X = RA × x = 2x ⋅ 2M
2
2x 2
= 10.37 × x −
2
or , M X = 10.37 x − x 2
Since, this equation is quadratic, so, its shape is parabolic.
At, x = 0, M0 = 0
At, x=1, M1=9.37 x
At, x=2, M2=16.74 A
Span CD: C D
M X = R A × x − 2 × 2(x − 1)
2M 2M
= 10.37 x − 4 x + 4
= 6.37 x + 4
At, x=2, M2=16.74 [Same as above. Hence checked.]
At, x=4(left), M4=10.37×4-4(4-1)=29.48
x
Span DE:
M X = C A x − 2h( x − 1) − 10( x − 4) + 5 A
C D E B
= 10.37 x − 4( x − 1) − 10( x − 4) + 5
2M 2M 2M 2M 2M
Now, at x=4(right) M4=29.48+5=34.48
At, x=6, M6=10.37×6-4(6-1)-10(6-4)+5=27.22
x
Span EB:
M X = 10.37 × x − 4( x − 1) − 10( x − 4) + 5 − 10( x − 6) A
C D E B
At, x=6, M6=27.22
x=8, M8=82.96-28-40-20+5=87.96-88=-0.04 ≈ 0 2M 2M 2M 2M
A
C D E B
34.48
27.22
16.14 29.48
9.37
o
x
10.37
RD 6.37 6.37
2M
-3.37 3.36
13.63
For S.F.
Span AC:
FX = R A − 2 × x = 10.37 − 2 x x
At, x=0(right), F0(right)=10.37
X=2, F210.37-2×2=6.37
Span-CD: A C D
FX = R A − ×2 = 10.37 − 4 = 6.37
2M 2M
At, x=2, F2=6.37
x=4(left), F4(left)=6.37 x
Span DE:
FX = R A − 2 × 2 − 10 = −3.63 A C
At, x=4(right), F4(right)=-3.63
X=6(left), F6(left)=-3.63 2M 2M 2M
Span EB:
x
FX = R A − 2 × 2 − 10 − 10 = 10.37 − 24 = −13.63 Io Io
At, x=6(right), F6(right)=-13.63
B
x=8(left), F8(left)=-13.63 A C D E
Ra RB
Now, at x=8(right)
2M 2M 2M 2M
F8 (right ) = R A − 2 × 2 − 10 − 10 + RB
= 10.37 − 24 + 13.63 = 0
LEFT 3 PAGES
Draw B.M.D and S.F.D for given figure:
2 XN/m
Internal
10 KN HInge
2 XN/m
D C
A
B E
2m 2m 2m 2m 2m
4.67
3.67 3.67
parabilic
+ + 0.67
-
A D B E - C
1.33
S.F.D
6.33 6.33
0.532
0.4625

So|n:
∴ R A = 3.67
∴ RB = 11
∴ RC =
For bending moment diagram (B.M.D.):

10 KN
Span AD: x
M X = R A x = 3.67 x A D
at , x = 0, M 0 = 0 RA
at , x = 2, M 2 = 7.34
Span DB: x
M X = R A × x − 10( x − 2)
11 KN
A
D
at , x = 2, M 2 = 7.34
RA B
at , x = 4, M 4 = −5.32
2
Span BE: x
M X = R A × x − 10 × ( x − 2 ) + R B × ( x − 4 ) − 2 × ( x − 4 ) ×
(x − 4) A
10 KN
2 D B
or , M X = 3.67 x − 10( x − 2 ) + 11( x − 4 ) − ( x − 4 )
2
RA
RB
at , x = 4, M 4 = −5.32
2M 2M
at , x = 5, M 5 = −1.65
x
at , x = 6, M 6 = 0
10 KN 2 KN/m
A
D B E
2M 2M 2M
RA RB
Span EC:
  2  1
M X = R A x − 10( x − 2 ) + R B ( x − 4 ) − 2 × 2 x −  2 + 2 +  − × ( x − 6 ) × ( x − 6 ) × × ( x − 6 )
1
  2  2 3
= 3.67 x − 10( x − 2 ) + 11( x − 4 ) − 4( x − 5) − ( x − 6 )

1 3
6
at , x = 6, M 6 = 0
at , x = 7, M 7 = 0.523
at , x = 7.5, M 7.5 = 0.4625 y 2

x-6
2
at , x = 7.9, M 7.9 = 0.1498

at , x = 8, M 8 = 0.026 ≈ 0
For S.F.D:
Sign Convention:
From left (+)ve and from right (-)ve
From left (-)ve and from right (+)ve
Now, S.F. at lrft of A = 0

Span AB:
FX = R A = 3.67 [(+)ve due to upward]
at , x = 0(right ), F (right ) = 3.67
at , x = 2(left ), F2 (left ) = 3.67
Span DB:
FX = R A − 10 = 3.67 − 10 = −6.33 x
at , x = 2right , F2 right = −6.33 10 KN
at , x = 4left , F4 left = −6.33
Span BE: A
FX = R A − 10 + R B − 2×( x − 4 )
FX = 3.67 − 10 + 11 − 2( x − 4) = 4.67 − 2( x − 4) 2 2
at , x = 4right , F4 right = 4.67 x-4
at , x = 6, F6 = 0.67
Span EC:
x
FX = R A − 10 + R B − 2 × 2 − × ( x − 6 ) × ( x − 6 )
1
2
= 3.67 − 10 + 11 − 4 −
( x − 6 )2 A
D E
2
∴ FX = 0.67 −
( x − 6)
2 RA RB
2 2 2 2 x-6
at , x = 6, F6 = 0.67 10KN
at , x = 6.5, F6.5 = 0.545 B D
at , x = 6.75, F6.75 = 0.388 D 2 KN
at , x = 8left , F8 left = −1.33

at , x = 8right , F8 right = −1.33 + RC = −1.33 + 1.33 = 0 4m
FRAME:
A E
Downloaded from www.jayaram.com.np 2M 2M
RA V RE V
So|n: ΣME = 0
4
R AV × 4 − 10 × 2 − 2 × 4 × =0
2
20 + 16
or , R AV = =9
4
∴ R AV = 9
Now, ∑F Y = 0; then,
R AV − 10 + REV = 0
or , REV = 10 − 9 = 1
∑F X = 0; then,
R AH − 2 × 4 = 0
∴ R AH = 8 RAH RAV
Now,
Span AB:
M X = − R AH × x = −8 x
Since, M X = −8 x
at , x = 0, M 0 = 0 x
at , x = 4, M 4 = −32
B
Span BC: 4m
M X = R AV × x − R AH × 4 = 9 x − 8 × 4
RAH
∴ M X = 9 x − 32 A
at , x = 0, M 0 = −32 RAV=9
at , x = 2, M 2 = −14
x
Span CD:
M X = R AV × x − R AH × 4 − 10( x − 2 ) 2
∴ M X = 9 x − 32 − 10( x − 2)
at , x = 2, M 2 = −14 (x-2)
4m
at , x = 4, M 4 = −16 10
B D
Span ED: (+)ve C
2 KN
x
M X = −2 × x × = − x 2
2 4M
x
at , x = 0, M 0 = 0
A
Downloaded from www.jayaram.com.np E
RAH
RAV = 9 REV 21
at , x = 2, M 2 = −4
at , x = 4, M 4 = −16
-32
-16
-14
-
-
-32 -16
- -
parabolic
B.M.D
2KN/m 2KN/m
Internal
HInge
C E
Q Draw B.M., S.F. and A.F. diagram D
2M
[Hint or clue: 10KN
A F 2M
When hinge is not given i.e. as internal hinge then,
no. of unknown = 4
R FH = 2.84
no. of equilibrium = 3 2M 2M
R AV=3
∴ Degree of indetermacy = 4 – 3 = 1 RFV = 7
If internal hinge is given then,
no. of unknown = 4
no. of determacy = 3+1 =4
∴ Degree of determacy = 4 – 4 = 0
Hence structure is determinate.]
Internal hinge cfpbf hinge af6 left / right port equilibrium u/]/ So|n ug]{ .
Now, ΣMF = 0
Sign Convention:
And force is (+)ve
And force is (-)ve
So, ΣMF = 0
1 2  1 1 
R AV × 4 + 10 × 2 − × 2 × 2 ×  × 2 × 2  − × 2 × 2 ×  × 2  = 0
2 3  2 3 
or , 4 R AV + 20 − 20.33 − 4.33 = 0

− [+ 20.30 − 8] 12
∴ R AV = = = −3
4 4
∴ R AV = −3 i.e. downward direction.
Now, ΣFY = 0;
1 1
− 3 − × 2 × 2 − × 2 × 2 + RFV = 0
2 2
or , RFV = 4 + 3
∴ RFV = 7 i.e. upward direction.
For horizontal force calculation:
Let, left of internal hinge is in equilibrium and moment about D;
ΣMD = 0
1 1 2 
− 3 × 2 + R AH × 4 − 10 × 2 − × 2 − × 2 × 2 × 2  = 0
2 2 3 
8
or , − 6 + R AH − 20 − =0
3
2×3+ 8
or , R AH = = 7.16
4×3
∴ R AH = 7.16
Now, ΣFX = 0;
R AH − 10 + RFH = 0
7.76 − 10 + RFH = 0
∴ RFH = 2.84 [(+)ve , direction] x
B.M. calculation:
Sign convention: RAH
RAV
& (+)ve
& (-)ve
Span AB:
x
M X = R AH × x = 7.16 x
at , x = 0, M 0 = 0
at , x = 2, M 2 = 14.32 C
2
For Span BC: B
M X = R AH × x − 10( x − 2 ) = 7.16 − 10( x − 2) 2
A
at , x = 2, M 2 = 14.32
at , x = 4, M 4 = 8.64 RAH
RAV

For Span CD:

2KN/m 2KN/m
C E A3
x D
10KN x
B
A F
RFH
C D 3
2
B RAH RAV
A RFV
g
x 2-x
2
 x 1 x
M X = − R AV × x + R AH × 4 − 10 × 2 − 2 × x × − × x × x × 
 2 2 3
 x3 
or , M X = −3x + 7.16 × 4 − 20 −  x 2 − 
 6
at , x = 0, M 0 = 0 + 28.64 − 20 − 0 = 8.64
8
at , x = 2, M 2 = −6 + 28.64 − 20 − 4 + = −30 + 28.64 + 1.33 = −30 + 29.97 = −0.02 ≈ 0
6
D x
C
D
x 2-x
2 anti clockwise
B direction
F
(x-2)
A RFH= 2.84
(x-2) 3
RAH= 7.16
RFN
For Span DE:

 1  1  x −2
M X = − R AV × x + R AH × 4 − 10 × 2 − × 2 × 2 x − × 2  − × ( x − 2 ) × ( x − 2 ) × 
1

2  3  2  3 
2  (x − 2 )
3

or , M X = −3 x + 28.64 − 20 − 2 x −  −
 3 6

at , x = 2, M 2 = 0
at , x = 4, M 4 = 12 + 8.64 − 6.67 − 1.33 = −11.36
Span FE:
M X = − RFH × x = −2.84 x
at , x = 0, M 0 = 0
at , x = 4, M 4 = −2.54 × 4 = −11.36
8.64
Dflysf calculation at Pt. E / ofxf+sf] calucaltion at PT. E
value same ePsf]n] calculation correct 5 .
8.69 + -11.36
E
After dia plot: C D -
(+)ve aflx/ / dfly / +
14.32 11.36
(-)ve nfO{ eLq / tn plot ug]{ . -
+ B
A F
For S.F.
S.F. at bottom
Span AB:
S.F. at bottom of A = 0 from left (+)ve
FX = R AH = 7.16
at , x = 0top, F0 top = 7.16
at , x = 2bottom, F2 bottom = 7.16
Span BC:
FX = R AH − 10 = 7.16 − 10 = −2.84
at , x = 2top, F2 top = −2.84
at , x = 4, F4 = −2.84
Span CD:
 1 
FX = − R AV − 2 × x − × x × x 
 2 
 x2 
= 3 2 x − 
 2 
at , x = 0, F0 = −3
at , x = 2, F2 = −34 + 2 = −5
Span DE:
FX = − R AV − 2 × 2 − × ( x − 2 ) × ( x − 2 ) = −3 − 2 −
1 1 (x − 2) 2
2 2 2
at , x = 2, F2 = −5
at , x = 4, F4 = −5 − 2 = −7

[Since, FE ≠ EF ]
Span FE:
At bottom of F, FF bottom = 0
FX = RFH = 2.84
RFH
F RFH
2.84
10
A 7
3
3 7
7.15
3
2.824 - 2.824
+ -
3 7
2 2
10

LEFT MANY PAGES
Q. A beam of rectangular section 20cm wide and 40cm deep is simply supported over a span
of 5m. It is loaded with a point load od 10KN at the centre. Calculate the maximum shear
stress.
So|n: Given,
b = 20cm, d = 40cm
10
F= = 5 KN (due to symmetrical) 40 cm
2
bd 3 20 × (40 )
3
I= = = 106666.67cm 4
12 12
FA y 5 × (20 × 20 ) × (20 2 ) 20 cm
Now, shear stress(q ) = = =
I ⋅b 106666.67 × 20
Since, For maximum shear in section, take neutral axis unless specified.
Now,
Q. A timber beam 100mm wide and 250mm deep is simply supported over a span of 4m.
Find the uniformly distributed load that can be applied over the whole span so that the
deflected of the centre may not exceed 6mm. Take E = 1.12×104N/mm2.
5wl 4
n
So| : Since, y= w/unit legk
384 EI
Now, given,
y = 6mm
l = 4m = 4×1000 = 4000mm
E = 1.12×104N/mm2
I=?
bd 3 100 × (200 )
3
Now, I = = =
12 12
So, we know,
5wl 4
y=
384 EI
w × (4000 )
4
or , 6mm =
384 × 1.12 × 10 4
or, w =
Q. A timber contilever beam 200mm wide and 300mm deep is 3m long. It is loaded with udl
of 3KN/m over the entire length. A point load of 2.7KN is placed at the free end of
contilever. Find the maximum bending stress (σmax) produced.
So|n: given, 2.7 KN
b = 200
3 KN/m
4d= 300mm
3m
b = 200mm
d = 300
w = 3KN/m
D = 2.7KN
σmax = ? (bending Stress)
bd 3 200 × (300 )
3
now, I = = = 4.510 8 mm 4
12 12
∴ I = 4.5 × 10 8 mm 4
3
M max = 2.7 × 3 + 3 × 3 × [Since, B.M. maxm & always at fixed end for
2
contilever]
∴ M max = 21.6 KN = 2.26 × 10 4 N
M max σ max
Now, =
I y
M max × y
σ max =
I
300
2.16 × 10 4 ×
= 2 [since, y = d/2]
4.5 × 10 8
∴ σ max = 7.2 × 10 −3 N / mm
Q. A beam of size 25mm × 25mm is carrying the maxm contrd load of 20KN as a simply
supported span of 600mm. The beam of same material but of size 25mm wide and
100mmdecs.
So|n: Given,
30 KN
l=600
l = 600mm d = 25 mm
For simply supported beam,

M max σ max
= b = 25 mm
I y
wL L w L wL
But, M max = Since, B.M.max = S .F × = × =
4 2 2 2 4
σ max = ?
w
WL d
×
M max × y
Now, σ max = = 4 2
I I
∴ σ max = ?
l = 1200

For contilever,
σ max = same [Since, σmax is same for same material for both simply and contilever
beam]
M max = w × L = w × 1200
25 × (100 )
3
I=
12
y=d 2
M σ
Now, =
I y
w ×1200 σ
or , =
I I
σ ×I
w × 1200 =
y
Derive pure bending, elastic bending and plastic bending.

Elastic Bending = Elastic Limit leqsf] load g} x'g] bending nfO{ g} Elastic Bending elgG5 .
Plastic Bending = Plastic Stage df x'g] Bending x?n] laser df x'g] bending stress same x'G5 .
Elastic B. Stress diagram

Plastic Stress B. Stress diagram
Q. Three equal loads of 52KN have been supported by a simply supported beam of 12m
dividing the beam in four equal parts. Does the beam support the load is the allowable
bending stress is 50N/mm2 and section is 100mm(b) and 5 KN 5 KN 5 KN
50mm(d).
So|n:
100 × (50 )  bd 3 
3
I= i.e.  7.5
12  12 
d = 50
∴I =
b = 100
d 30
And, y = = = 15
2 2

M C = 7 .5 × 2 − 5 × 3 (moment at centre i.e. Mmax)

∴MC =
M σ
Now, =
I y
M×y
σ=
I
σ=
If σ < 50 then support
If σ > 50 then not support
Q. A cast iron 540mm dia & 80mm wall thickness is running full of wqater and supported
over a length of 8m. Determine the maxm stress intensity in the metal if the density of C.I. is
72KN/m3 and that of water is 10KN/m3 w KN/m
n
So| : σ = ?
πd 4
I= =
64
y=D 2=
wl 2
M max = =
8
M σ
=
I y
d = 540 = 0.54 (dia)
D = 0.57
π (0.54)2
M W = SW (mass of water)
4
π π 2
m P = ρW  (0.57 ) − (0.54 ) 
2
4 4 
= 1.88
w = M W + m P = 4.17
Q. A rectangular beam 100mm wide and 200mm deep and 4m long is simply supported at
ends. It carries a UDL of 5KN/m run over the entire span. If this load is removed and two
loads wKN each are placed at 1 meter from each end, calculate the greatest value which may
be assigned to the load so that the maxm B.S. (bending stress) remain same as beam.
wl 2
So|n: B.M max = Part- I
100
8
200
bd 3
I= =
12 Part- II
w N
W Rent W Rent
1M 2M 1M
d 200
y= =
2 2
M σ
∴ =
I y
σ max =
Part-II
B.M. maxm at centre = w × 2 − w × 1 = w KN / m =
bd 3
I= =
12
σ = (known from above) =
M σ
∴ =
I y
w σ
or , =
I y
σ ×I
∴w = =
y
Determine the equation of elastic curve of (i.e. deflection curve line) contilever beam
supporting a UDL of intensity w over its port of length as shown below.
Solution: L
dy
At x = L, =0
dx w/units
A
d2y
EI = 2 = M x [∴ M x = EI ] x
dx (L-a)
3m
M x sf] 1st integrant → slope
Slope sf] integrant → deflection
TORSION:
Torque/ Twisting moment/ Turning moment/ Torsion/ Process Torsion:
Assumptions:
(i) plane normal section of shaft remain plane twisting i.e. no wrapping or distortion
of parallel plane normal to the axis of the member takes place.
(ii) Torsion is uniform through the length i.e. all the normal cross-sections which are
at the axil distance suffer equal relative rotation.
(iii) Radia remain straight after torsion.
(iv) A stress is proportional to strain i.e. all the stresses are within the elastic limit.
(v) The material is homogeneous and isotropic.

Relation between twisting moment, twist and shear stress:
A1
B1
Torque
A1 θ
D B
T C O θ o B
O B T
A A
Note: D & B line are joined so that DB//CA. Also DB=CA
L
Let a torque T applied at the free end of shaft. So, balancing torque of equal magnitude
but opposite in direction in induced at the other end.
Due to the torque the radial ive OA shifts to OA1 and CA shift to CA1.
Let, ∠AOA1 = θ
∠ACA1 = φ
∠BDB1 = φ1
Let, qs = intensity of shear at the surface of the shaft.
Then, φ = q S c
Where, c = modulus of rigidity
AA1 OA1 ⋅ θ Rθ Rθ
And, φ= = = =
CA CA CA L
q S Rθ shear stress q S
Hence, = − − − − − (i ) Since, c = =
c L shear strain φ
Similarly,
Let, ‘DB’ shift to ‘DB1’
Let, ‘DB’ is at radius ‘r’ from the axis of shaft.
Let, ‘q’ be the shear stress at layer of radius ‘r’, then,
q
φ=
c
BB1 rθ
& φ1 = =
DB L
q rθ
So, =
c L
q cθ
= − − − − − (ii )
r L
From equation (i) and (ii),

q S q cθ
= =
R r L
Maximum torque transmitted by a solid circular shaft:

Suppose a solid circular shaft of radius ‘R’. Let an elementary ring of thickness ‘dr’ at
radius ‘r’.
Let, qs = shear stress at outer most surface i.e. at layer R dr
q = shear stress at radius r. R
r
Area of elementary ring = 2πr × dr
qS q
Since, =
R r
qS ⋅ r
∴q =
R
Turning force this elementary ring = shear stress (q) × Area of ring (A)
qS ⋅ r
= × 2πr × dr
R
qS
× 2πr 2 × dr
=
R
Turning moment of this elementary ring about centre of the shaft = Turning force × r
qS
= × 2πr 2 × dr × r
R
qS
× 2πr 3 × dr
=
R
Hence, Turning moment (or Torque) on the whole circular shaft;
R
qS
T =∫ × 2πr 3 × dr
0
R
qS R 3
= 2π
R ∫0
r dr
R
2πq S r 4 
=  
R  4 0
2πq S R 4
=
R×4
qS R 3
=
2
πq S R 3
∴T = for radius of shaft
2
q S πD 3
∴T = for diameter of shaft
16

Torque transmitted by a hollow circular shaft:

Consider a hollow circular shaft of inner radius ‘Ri’ and outer dr
radius ‘Ro’ subjected to a Torque ‘T’. Let, an elementary strip of
thickness ‘dr’ at a radius ‘r’.
Let, qs = maxm shear stress at the outer most surface r
Ri
q = shear stress on a surface of radius ‘r’
now, Area of elementary strip ring ‘dr’ = 2πr × dr
Ro
q
Turning force on this ring = 2πr × dr × q = 2πr × dr × S × r
RO
Hence, Turning moment on the whole hollow circular shaft,
Ro
qS
T= ∫Ri RO 2πr dr
3
2πq S Ro
= ∫r
3
dr
RO Ri
Ro
2πq S  r 4 
=  
RO  4  Ri
2πq S  (RO )4 − (Ri )4 

 
4  RO 
πq S  (RO )4 − (Ri )4 
∴T =  
2  RO 
DO Di
Since, RO = & Ri =
2 2
πq S  (DO )4 − (Di )4 
∴T =  
16  DO 
Torque in terms of polar moment of inertia:

Polar M.I. of a plane area is M.I. of the area about an axis perpendicular to the plane of
the figure and passing through the ‘C.G.’ of the area and it is denoted by j.
Turning moment on the ring;
qS
= 2πr 3 dr
R
∴ Total torque (or twisting moment);
R
qS
T =∫ 2πr 3 dr
0
R

q S R 2 2πr × dr
R ∫0 (dA also)
= r
qS R 2
R ∫0
= r dA
∫r
2
where, dA = Polar moment of inertia (J)
0
for circular shaft,

πD 4
J= [in Z-axis]
32
qS
Now, T = J
R
T qS
or , =
J R
q S q cθ
Since, = =
R r L
T q S q cθ
Hence, = = =
J R r L
Polar modulus:
It is defined as ratio of polar M.I. to the radius of the shaft. It is also called for sional
section modulus and is denoted by ‘zp’.
(a) For solid circular shaft:
πD 4
J=
32
R=D 2
J πD 4 32 π 3
∴ZP = = = D
R D2 16
(b) For a hallow circular shaft:
π
J=
32
[D 4
O − Di4 ]
R = DO 2
J π 32 DO4 − Di4
∴ZP = = =
π [ ]
R DO 2 16 DO DO4 − Di4 [ ]
π
∴ZP =
16 DO
[D 4
O − Di4 ]
Perpendicular axis theorem = Polar axis theorem

Torsional rigidity:
T cθ
Since, =
J l
Tl
or , c × J = where, c × J = Torsional rigidity
θ
L=L
TL
∴ Torsional rigidity, c × J =
θ
Expression of strain energy stored in a body due to torsion:

Let a solid circular shaft of radius ‘R’ in which torque (T) is applied. Let an elementrary
ring of radius ‘r’ and thickness dr,
Let, D = Dia. of shaft dr
l = length of shaft r R
c = modulus of rigidity
U = total strain energy stored in shaft.
qS q
Now, =
R r
qS × r
∴q =
R
Area of ring, dA = 2πr ⋅ dr
Vol. of ring, dV = 2πr ⋅ dr × l
Shear strain energy =

(Shear stress )2 × volume
2c
Hence, shear strain energy in the ring,
2
 qS 
 r
du = 
R 
× 2πr ⋅ dr × l
2c
q S2 l
= × 2πr ⋅ dr
2cR 2
R
∴ Total strain energy, U = ∫ du
0
R
q S2 × l × r 2 × 2πr ⋅ dr
=∫
0 2cR 2
q S2 l R 2
2cR 2 ∫0
= r ⋅ dA
q S2 l  R

= = ∫0 ⋅
2
J  where, J r dA
2cR 2  

For solid circular shaft,

πD 4
T=
32
q S2 l πD 4
∴U = ×
2cR 2 32
q S2 l π (2 R )4
or , U = ×
2cR 2 32
q S2 l π × 16 R 2
= ×
2cR 2 32
q S2
= × πR 2 l
4c
q S2
= ×V
4c
Where, V = volume of shaft
q S2
∴U = ×v for solid shaft
4c
For hollow circular shaft;
U=
qS
cDO 2
[
× v DO2 + Di2 ]
Q. The shearing stress in a solid shaft is not to exceed 40N/mm2 when the torque transmitted
is 2000N-m. Determine the diameter of the shaft.
So|n: Given,
qs = 40N/mm2
Torque (T) = 2000N-m
π
Now, T qS D 3
16
π
or , 2000 = × 40 × D 3
16
1
 2000 × 16 3
∴D =  40 × π  m = 136.2mm
 
Q. A solid circular shaft and hollow circular shaft whose inside dia is ¾ th of the outside dia,
are of same material of equal lengths and are required to transmit a given torque. Compare
the weights of these two shafts if the maximum shear stress developed in the two shafts are
equal.
So|n: Given,
Din = ¾
30
Di
D
Hollow Solid
Dout = 0.75DO
Torque transmitted by solid circular shaft,
π
T= qS D 3
16
Torque transmitted by hollow circular shaft,
π DO4 − Di4
T= qS
16 DO
π DO4 − (0.75 DO )
4
= × qS ×
16 DO
π
× q S × 0.6836 × DO3
16
Now, Torque transmitted by solid circular shaft = Torque transmitted by hollow circular shaft
π π
i.e. qS D 3 = q S D 3 × 0.6836
16 16
∴ D = 0.8809 DO
Now, wf. of solid shaft = ρgv since, ρg = m & wf = m × v
πD 2
= ρg × ×L − − − − − (i )
4
π
wf. of hollow circular shaft = ρg ×
4
(D 2
O )
− Di2 × L
π
= ρg × DO2 × 0.4375 L − − − − − (ii )
4
Dividing equation (i) by (ii):
πD 2
w3
ρg × ×L
= 4 = 1.7737
w4 π
ρg × × D × 0.4375 × L
2
O
4
w3
∴ = 1.7737
w4
Q. Calculate the maxm intensity of shear stress induced and the angle of twist in degrees for a
length of 10m for a solid shaft of 100mm dia. transmitting 112.5KW at 150R.P.M.. Toxe c =
8.2×104N/mm2 for material of shaft.
60 P
Hint: since, Torque(T ) =
2πN
Where, N is in R.P.M.
P = Power in watt
N = R.P.M.
T = Torque

So|n: Given, P = 112.5KW = 112.5×103

N = 150 R.P.M.
c = 8.2×104N/mm2
60 P 60 × 112.5 × 10 3
now, Torque(T ) = = = 7.162 KN − m
2πN 2π × 150
π
again, Torque(T ) = qS D 3 (for solid circular shaft)
16
16 × 7.162 × 10 6
or , T = = 36.5 N / mm 2
3.1416 × (100 )
3
q S cθ  D
Now, = Since, D is given then, R = 2 
R l
q S l 36.5 10 × 1000
θ= × = ×
R c 50 82 × 10 4
∴ θ = 0.089radian
Q. Select a suitable dia. of solid shaft of circular section is transmit 112.5KW of power at
200R.P.M.. If the allowable shear stress is 75 N/mm2 and allowable twist is 1º in a length of
3m. Take c = 0.082×106N/mm2.
So|n: Given,
P = 112.5KW
N = 200R.P.M.
c = 0.082×106N/mm2
θ = 1º (maxm)
l = 3.0m
qs = 75N/mm2
now, we know,
60 P 60 × 112.5
Torque(T ) = =
2πN 2π × 200
∴ T = 2.37 KN − m = 5.37 × 106 N − mm
Again, for strength;
π
τ= qS D 3 (for solid circular shaft)
16
π
or , 5.37 × 10 6 = × qS × D 3
16
π
= × 75 × D 3
16
1
 5.37 × 10 × 16  6 3
∴D =   = 71.4mm
 π × 75 
Again, we know,

T cθ T πD 4
= =
J l J 32
Where, T, c, θ, l are known by this relation, D is known.
Now, 180º = π c
π
∴1º =
180
T cθ
Since, =
J L
TL 5.372 × 10 6 × 3 × 1000
J= =
cθ π
0.082 × 10 6 ×
180
πD 4
or , = ..........
32
∴ D = 103.5mm
Hence, this diameter is greater than diameter from strength criteria. So,
Diameter, D = 103.5mm
Q. A hallow circular shaftof external diameter 150mm and transmits 200KW power at
200R.P.M.. Determine maxm internal diameter if the maxm stress in this shaft is not to exceed
60N/mm2
So|n: Given:
N = 100R.P.M.
P = 200KW
qs = 60N/mm2
DE or DO = 150mm
Now, we know,
60 × D 60 × 200
T= = = 190.95 KN − m
2πN 2π × 100
∴ T = 190.98 × 10 6 N − mm
π
DO4 − Din4
Now, T = q S [for hollow circular shaft]
16 DO
π  (150 )4 − Din4 
or , 190.98 × 10 6 = × 60 ×  
16  150 
or, Din =
= 209.473
Q. A hollow shaft 3mm outer dia rans at 400R.P.M. against a power of 50KW. Find the inner
diameter of the shaft so that shear strain does not exceed 1/1000 . Take c = 8×106N/cm2.
So|n: Given,

1
φ=
1000
c = 8 × 10 6 N / cm 2 = 8 × 10 N / mm 2
60 D
Now, T =
2πN
60 × 50
T=
2π × 400
Again, q S = c × shear strain i.e. q S = c × φ
1
or , q = 8 × 10 6 ×
1000
∴ q = 8 × 10 3 N / mm 2
π
DO4 − Di4
Now, T = q S
16 DO
∴ Din =
Q. A shaft of dia 5m and length 40m by power 200KW at 20R.P.M.. Does the shaft transmits
the power safely if the permissible stress is 50N/mm2.
60 D 60 ×
So|n: T = =
2πN 2π × 20
π
Now, T = qS D 3
16
 π   60 D 
Is T  = q S D 3  > T  =  then the shaft is safe otherwise non-safe.
 16   2πN 
i.e. Applied T should be less than design T.
π
i.e. Desgin, T = × qS × D 3
16
60 D
and, applied, T =
2πN
Q. A solid shaft of 150mm diameter is to be replaced by hollow shaft of the same

material.The internal diameter equal to 60% external diameter. Find the saving in material if
the maxm allowable shear stress is the same for both the shaft.
So|n: Given,
π
Now, T = q S D 3 (for solid shaft)
16
or, TS =
π DO4 − Di4
And, TH = q S (for hollow shaft)
16 DO

or, D =
π
m solid = ρv = ρ × D 2l =
4
 πd 2 πd 2 
And, mhollow = ρ ×  O − i  =
 4 4 
Now, solving material, m = msolid – mkollow
=
* Thickness < (1/15 to 1/20) of diameter (internal)

The vessel which has its thickness less than 1/15 to 1/20 of internal diameter is called thin
walled vessel. It is used to keep the fluid under pressure. Due to the pressure of the fluid the
stresses in the wall of the cylinder on the cross-section along axis and cross-section
perpendicular to the axis are set up. These stresses are tensile and called as:
- circumferencial stress or hoop stress
- longitudional stress
The stress acting along circumference of the cylinder is called circumferential stress where as
the stress acting along the length of the cylinder is calleds longitudinal stress.
Expression for circumferential stress:
Let us consider a thin cylindrical shell under fluid pr..Let the circumferential stress developed
in the cylinder as in figure.
Let, p = internal fluid pr.
d = internal dia. of the cylinder
t = thickness of the cylinder
σ1 = circumferential stress

Force due to fluid pressure = pressure × area on which pressure is acting

= p×d × L − − − − − (i )
Now, Force due to circumferential stress
= σ 1 × (L × t + L × t )
d L
= σ 1 × 2tL
= 2σ 1tL = 2σ 1tL
L
pd
∴σ 1 =
2t
Expression for longitudinal stress:
Let us consider a thin cylindrical vessel under fluid pressure.

Let, longitudinal stress developed in vessel as shown in figure.
Now, Force due to fluid pressure,
= p × area on which pressure is acting
πd 2
= p× − − − − − (i )
4
Again, Force due to longitudinal stress,
= σ 2 × πde ee − − − − − (ii )
Since, equation (i) and (ii) are same,
πd 2
So, p× = σ 2 × πdt
4
pd 1 1 pd pd
∴σ 2 = s i.e. σ 2 = of σ 1 = × =
4t 2 2 2t 4t
Effect of pressure on the dimension of a thin cylindrical shell:

Let us consider a thin cylindrical shell, having internal fluid pressure ‘P’
Let, σ1 = circumferential stress = pd/2t
σ2 = longitudinal stress = pd/4t
L = length of cylinder
t = thickness of cylinder

E = modulus of elasticity
µ = Poisson’s ratio
δd = change in diameter
δL = change in length
δv = change in volume
now, e1 = strain along circumferential
e2 = strain along longitudional
σ1 σ2
then, e1 = −µ
E E
pd 2t pd 4t pd  1 
= −µ = 1− µ − − − − − (i )
E E 2tE  2 
σ2 σ1
Now, e2 = −µ
E E
pd pd
= −µ
4tE 2tE
pd  1 
∴ P2 =  − µ − − − − − (ii )
2tE  2 
But, circumferential strain,
Change in circumference
e1 =
original circumference
π (d + δd ) − πd
=
πd
δd
= − − − − − (iii )
d
Longitudinal strain;
Change in length δl
e2 = =
original length l
δl
∴ e2 = − − − − − (iv)
l
Now, equating (i) & (i) and (iii) & (iv), then,
δd pd  1 
= 1− µ
d 2tE  2 
 1 
pd 2
∴ δd = 1 − 2 µ 
2tE
Similarly from equation (ii) and (iv),
δL pd  1 
=  − µ
L 2tE  2 
pdL  1 
∴ δL =  − µ
2tE  2 

Now, volumetric strain:

δv
Volumetric strain =
V
πd 2
We know, v = ×L
4
π
Now, Final volume, = (d + δd )2 × (L + δL )
4
=
π
4
[d 2
+ (δd ) + 2d ⋅ δd × (L + δL )
2
]
=
π
4
[d 2
L + L(δd ) + 2d ⋅ δd × L + d 2 × δL + (δd ) × δL + 2d ⋅ δd ⋅ δL
2 2
]
Neglecting smaller quatities,
π
Final volume =
4
[d 2
L + 2dL ⋅ δd + d 2 ⋅ δL ]
π πd 2
Now, change in volume, (δv ) =
4
[d L] + 2dL × δd + d
2 2
⋅ δL −
4
×L
π
or , δv =
4
[2dL ⋅ δd + d 2
⋅ δL ]
π
[2dL ⋅ δd + d 2
⋅ δL ]
Now, volumetric strain, eV = 4
πd 2
×L
4
2dL ⋅ δd d 2 ⋅ δL
=
+ 2
d 2L d L
2δd δL
= +
L L
2δd δL
∴ eV = + = 2e1 + e2
L L
eV = 2e1 + e2
2 pd  1  pd  1 
Also, eV = 2 × 1 − µ  +  − µ
2tE  2  2tE  2 
pd  1 
=  2 − µ _ µ
2tE  2 
pd  5 
∴ eV =  − 2µ 
2tE  2 
Q. A cylindrical shell, 90cm long 20cm internal dia. having thickness of metal as 8mm in
failed with luid at atmospheric pressure. If 20cm3 of fluid is pumped in to the cylindewr find;
(i) the pr. exterted by fluid on the cylinder

(ii) The hoop stress induced.

Take, E = 2×105N/mm2 and µ = 0.3
So|n: Given,
L = 90cm
d = 20cm
t = 8mm
µ = 0.3
E = 2×105N/mm2
πd 2
Now, volume of cylinder = L = 28274.33cm 3
4
Change in volume = 20cm3
µ = 0.3
E = 2×105N/mm2 = 2×103N/cm2
δv pd  5 
Now, (i) =  − 2µ 
V 2tE  2 
P=? P=
pd
(ii) σ1 =
2t
A boiler is subjected to an internal pr. of 20Kg/cm2. The thickness plate is 2cm.

So|n: p = 20Kg/cm2
t = 2cm
σt = 1200Kg/cm2
nl = 90%=0.9
σnc = 40% = 0.4
pd
since, σ 1 =
2tnl
σ n 2tnl
d=
p
Since, σ 1 = 1200 Kg / cm 3
1200 × 2 × 2 × 0.9
So, d= = 216cm
20
Similarly,
pd
σ2 =
4tnc
σ 2 × 4 × nc 1200 × 4 × 2 × 0.9
d= =
p 20
∴ d = 192cm

Q. A cylindrical shell is 3M long, 1.5m internal dia and 20mm metal thickness. Calculate the
intensity of maxm shear stress incuced and also the change in dimension of the shell if it is
subjected to an internal pressure of 2N/mm2. Take E = 0.2×106N/mm2 and µ = 0.3.
pd
{hint: maxm shear stress, q max = ]
8t
So|n: Given,
L = 3m = 3000m
D = 2N/mm2
d = 1.5m = 1500mm
E = 0.2×106N/mm2
t = 20mm
µ = 0.3
pd 2 × 1500
now, q max = = = 18.75 N / mm 2
8t 8 × 20
now, for change in dimension;
for dia change,
pd 2  1 
δd = 1 − µ 
2tE  2 
2 × (1500 )
2
 1 
= 6 
1 − × 0 .3 
2 × 20 × 0.2 × 10  2 
= 0.478mm
∴ δd = 0.478mm
Change in length:
pdL  1 
δl =  − µ
2tE  2 
2 × (1500 ) × 3000  1 
= 6 
− 0 .3 
2 × 20 × 0.2 × 10  2 
∴ δl = 0.225mm
Also, volumetric strain,
δv pd  5 
 − 2 µ  = 7.125 × 10
−4
eV = =
V 2tE  2 
πd 2
Since, V = × l = 2.3 × 10 9 mm 3
4
∴ δv = eV × V = 7.125 × 10 −4 × 5.3 × 10 9 = 3776250mm 3
Column:
According to analysis, the type of column are,
(i) short column
(ii) long column

(i) short column:

If slenderness ratio is less than 12 then the column is short column
(ii) long column:
If slenderness ratio is greater than 12 then the column is long column.
Slenderness ratio:
It is ratio of affection length of the column to the least lateral dimension. The side
which is less among a and b is called least lateral dimension.
p Pe Pe y
σ= ± x ± b
A 2 2
Type of column according to support condition:

(1) Both ends, effectively held in position and rest against in ratio.
Left = 2l
(2) Both ends hinged
l(left) = l
(3) One ends fixed and other end free
Left =
(4) One ends fixed and other ends hinged:
(i) (iv)
Left = (ii) (iii)
Fixed ends: no deflection, no slope

Hinge ends: no vertical and horizontal deflection but slope occurs
Roller: no vertical deflection but there occurs horizontal deflection and slope
Free end: horizontal deflection, vertical deflection and sloe occurs.

Introduction to Buckling
Column:
A structure vertical member whose two ends are fixed which subjected to a axial
compressive load is called column.
Struts:
A structure member which is not vertical and one or both of its ends are hinged or pis-
joined is called struts.
Failure of column:
Column fails due to any one of the following stresses:
(i) Direct-compressive stresses
(ii) Buckling stresses
(iii) Combined of direct compressive and buckling stresses
Failure of short column: P
Let, a short column subjected to a compressive load ‘p’, then

compressive stresses is given by,
σP A
When the load is increased, the column reaches at a point of
failure by crushing. The load at this stage is called crushing at this
stage is called crushing load and the stress is called crushing stress.
Pc
So, σc =
A
Where, Pc = crushing load
σc = crushing stress
Failure of long column:
Let a long column subjected to a compressive load P. This

column fails by combine action of crushing and bending stress.
Let, σo = Stress due to direct load.
σb = stress due to bending at the centre of the column M σ
=
Pe I y
= My M Pe
Z ⇒σ = = =
I I y z
Where, e = maxm bending of the column at the centre
Z = section modulus about axis of bending

D tensile = - Ve
compressive = + Ve
e Conpression zone
tensile zone
σo-σ b σo+σb
At mid span,
maxm stress = σo + σb
minimum stress = σo - σb
The failure of the column occurs when maxm stress (σo + σb) will be more than crushing
stress σc. In the case of long column, the direct compressive stresses are negligible as
compared to the buckling stresses so the very long column is only subjected to buckling
stress.
Assumptions of Euler’s column theory:

(1) The column is initially perfectly straight and load is applied axially
(2) The cross-section is uniform throughout its length
(3) The material of the column is perfectly elastic, homogeneous, isotropic and obeys
Hook’s law
(4) The length of the column is very large as compared to the lateral dimension.
(5) The column will fail by buckling alone
(6) The self wf. of column is negligible.
Sign Convention:
concave
convex
- The moment which bends the column convexity towards the original position is taken
as (+)ve
- The moment which bends the column concavity towards the original position is taken as
(-)ve.
Expression for cripping load when both ends of column are hinged:

Let, ‘P’ be the cripping load. Let ‘y’ be the deflection at a section x from A. The
moment due to cripping load at this section;
m = − Py (Since, (-)ve sign is due to concavity)
P
d2 y B
or , EI 2 = − Py
dx
d2 y
or , EI + Py = 0 l y
dx 2
x
d 2 y Py
or , + =0 A
dx 2 EI
The so|n of above differential equation.
 P   P 
y = C1Cos x  + C 2 Sin x
  EI 

 EI   
At, x = 0, y=0
C1 = 0
At, x = l, y=0
 P 
So, 0 = 0 + C 2 Sin l 

 EI 
 P 
or , C 2 Sin l =0

 EI 
 P 
So, either C2 = 0 or Sin l =0

 EI 
If C2 = 0 and C1 is already zero, then column will not but but at all which is not true.
 P 
Hence, Sin l =0

 EI 
 P 
Sin l  = Sin0, Sinπ, Sin2π, ……….

 EI 
Taking least practical value (i.e. Sinπ)
 P 
Sin l  = Sinπ

 EI 
P
l =π
EI
π 2 EI
∴P = which is Euler’s required equation.
l2
Expression for crippling load when one end of the column is fixed and other end is free:

Let, a crippling load is acting on the column. The point B shifts to B| due to crippling
load. Let ‘y’ be the deflection at a section ‘x’ from A and ‘a’ be the deflection at the free end
B.
The moment at this section due to crippling load;
m = + P(a − y ) (Since, (+)ve sign due to convexity buckling)
d2 y
= P(a − y ) = Pa − Py
p
or , EI a
dx 2
d2y B1
EI + Py = Px B
dx 2
y
d2y P P l
2
+ y= a
dx Ey EI
x
The so|n of this differential equation is,
 P   P  A
y = C1Cos x  + C 2 Sin x


 EI  + a − − − − − (i )
 EI   
 P   P   P 
= C1 (− 1)Sin x
dy P
×  + C 2 Cos x × =0
dx     
 EI   EI   EI  EI
P  P  P  P 
= −C1 Sin x  + C2
 Cos x 
 EI  − − − − − (ii )
EI  EI  EI  
At, x = 0, y=0
So, from equation (i);
0 = C1 + C 2 × 0 + a
∴ C1 = − a
dy
At, x = 0, =0
dx
So, from equation (ii);
P P
0 = −C1 Sin0º +C 2 Cos 0º
EI EI
∴C 2 = 0
So from (i);
 P 
y = − aCos x +a
 − − − − − (iii )
 EI 
Since, at, x = l, y = a,
So from equation (iii)
 P 
a = − aCos l +a

 EI 

 P 
aCos l =0

 EI 
Since, a ≠ 0 so,
  P 
Cos l  = 0

  EI 
 P 
Cos l  = Cos π 2 , Cos 3π 2 , Cos 5π 2, ..........

 EI 
Taking least practical value,
 P  π
Cos l  = Cos

 EI  2
P π
l =
EI 2
π 2 EI π 2 EI
∴P = =
4l 2 (2l )2
∴ L = 2l
Expression for crippling load when both ends of the column are fixed:
Let a crippling load ‘P’ as the column. Let y be the deflection at a section ‘x’ from A.
Let mo be the fixed end moment then, D
Moment at the section, = mo – Py MG
d2y
EI = mo − Py
dx 2 l
y
2
d y
EI + Py = mo x
dx 2
d 2 y Py mo
+ =
dx 2 EI EI
d2y P m P P mo
2
+ y= o× = ×
ax EI EI P EI P
The solution of above differential equation is,
 P   P  mo
y = C1Cos x ⋅ + C Sin  x ⋅ + − − − − − (i )
EI   EI  P
2
 
 P   P  P
= C1 (− 1)Sin x
dy P
Now,  × + C 2 Cos x 
dx  EI  EI  EI  EI
dy  P  P  
∴ = −C1 Sin x × + C Cos x P  P
dx  2  EI  EI
 EI  EI  
At, x = 0, y=0

So, from 1st equation i.e. (i)

mo
0 = C1 × 1 + C 2 × 0 +
P
mo
∴ C1 = −
P
dy
At, x = 0, = 0 also, then from above expression
dx
P
0 = −C1 × 0 + C 2 ×
EI
∴C 2 = 0
Hence, from (i),
mo  P  mo
y=− Cos x +

P  EI  P
Now, at, x = l, y = 0, then above expression also written as
mo  P  mo
0=− Cos l +

P  EI  P
mo
 P 
Cos l = P

 EI  mo
P
 P 
Cos l  =1

 EI 
 P 
Cos l  = Cos 0º , Cosπ , Cos 2π , ..........

 EI 
Now, taking least practical value i.e. Cos2π, then
 P 
Cos l  = Cos 2π
EI 
 
P
l = 2π
EI
4π 2 EI
∴P =
l2
Expression for crippling load when one end of the column is fixed and the other end is
hinged:
Proof:

Let a crippling load ‘P’ on the column. Let ‘y’ be the deflection at the section ‘x’ from
‘A’. Let mo be the fixed end moment at ‘A’ and ‘H’ be the horizontal refn at ‘B’ to balance
mo.
So, the moment at a section ‘x’,
m = − Py + H (l − x )
d2y
= − Py + H (l − x )
D
EI H
dx 2 B
d2y
EI + Py = H (l − x ) l
dx 2 y
d2y P H
(l − x )
x
2
+ y=
dx EI EI
A Mo
=
H
(l − x ) × P p
EI P
d2y P P H (l − x )
2
+ y = ⋅
dx EI EI P
n
The sol of the above differential equation,
 P   P  H
y = C1Cos x  + C 2 Sin x  + (l − x ) − − − − − (i )
  
 EI   EI  P
Now, differentiating the equation (i) then we get,
  P   P H
= C1 (− 1)Sin x
dy P P
 + x 
dx  EI C 2 Cos  EI  EI − P
 EI   
dy  P  P  P  P H
= −C1 Sin x 
 + C 2 Cos x 
 − − − − − − (ii )
dx  EI  EI  EI  EI P
At, x = 0, y = 0, then from equation (i),
0 = C1Cos 0º +C 2 × 0 + (l − 0 )
H
P
H
∴ C1 = − l
P
dy
Again, at x = 0, = 0 , then from equation (ii),
dx
P H
0 = C1 Sin0º +C 2 Cos 0º − (Since, Cos0º = 1)
EI P
H P
C 2 ×1 =
P
EI
H EI
∴ C2 =
P P

Hence, from equation (i),
+ (l − x )
H P H EI P H
y=− × l × CosCx + SinCx × − − − − − (iii )
P EI P P EI P
now, at, x= l, y = 0, hence from (ii),
 P  H  P  H
 + (l − l )
H EI
0=− l × Cos l +
 P Sin l  P
P  EI  P  EI 
H EI  P  H  P 
Sin l  = lCos l
 P

 EI 
P P  EI   
 P  P
tan  l =l

 EI  EI
now, The total so|n of above differential equation is,
P
l = 4.5radian
EI
P
l2 = 20.5
EI
P
l2 = 2π 2
EI
2π 2 EI
∴D = {Since, 2π2 ≈ 20.25]
l2
Effective length:
End condition of the column Effective length(L)
(1) Both ends hinged L=l
(2) One end fixed and other end free L = 2l
(3) Both ends fixed L = l/2
(4) One end is fixed and other end is hinged L=l 2
Q-1. A column oftimer section is 15cm × 20cm is 6m long, both ends being fixed. If the
young modulus of elasticity for timber = 17.5KN/mm2 determine:
(i) crippling load y
(ii) safe load for the column if factor of safety (i.e. F.S. = ?) 15
n
So| : Given,
b = 15cm x 20 x
d = 20cm
l = 6m
y
E = 17.5KN/mm2
bd 3 15 × (20 )
3
now, I XX = = = 1000cm 4 = 10000 × 10 4 mm 4
12 12
db 3 20 × (15)
3
and, I YY = = = 6525cm 4 = 5625 × 10 4 mm 4
12 12
Since, IYY is less than IXX so column buckles towards Y axis
e 6
Now, effective length (L) = = = 3m = 3000mm
2 2
π 2 EI π 2 × 17.5 × 5625 × 10 4
Now, P = =
L2 ( Left ) (3000)2
∴ P = 1079.48 KN
P 1079.48
Hence, for (ii), safe load, = = = 359.8 KN
F 3
∴ Safe Load = 359.8 KN
∴ Cripling Load , P = 1079.48
Q-2. Determine the crippling load of a T-section of dimension 16cm × 10cm ×2cm of length
5m. When it is used as strut with both of it’s endhinged. Take yong modulus, E = 2
×105N/mm2.
So|n:
10 cm
Since the column is symmetrical in Y-section. So, we only found out 2cm
the y .
y = 3.23
Now, Let C.G. gets at a distance y from top fibre then, 10 cm
(10 × 2 + 2 × 8) y = 10 × 2 × 1 + 2 × 8 × 6 6.77
y = 3.23cm
10 × (2 )3 2  2 × (8)3 2
Now, I XX =  + 10 × 2(3.23 − 1)  +  + 2 × 8(6 − 3.23)  = 314.21cm 4
 12   12 
 2 × (10 )3 8 × (2 )2 
And, I YY = +  = 172cm
4
 12 12 
Since, IYY is less than IXX hence, the column buckles towards y-axis.
Now, L(eft) = l = 5m = 5000mm [Since, both ends hinges then Left = l]
πEI π 2 × 2 × 10 5 × 172 × 10 4
So, P= =
(left )2 (5000 )2
∴ P = 135805.7 N

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(ii) Hinge support:

(iii) Fixed support: Fy

(iv) Ball and socket support:

- This is example of hinge support in 3-D.

Rx, Ry & Rz # j 6}5 .

Fixed Support Hinge Support

Determinant and Indeterminant Structure:

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Direct stress and strain:

Tangential Stress (Shear Stress):

Modulus of rigidity (c):

Stress and strain diagram of mild steel:

Mild steel – 250 M Pa (N/mm2)

Working Stress (or safe load):

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Cross-sectional area of the all body i.e. A, B & C are same.

10-3=7KN 9-2=7 10+2-3=9KN 9KN

Now, for a body A:

Bar of Varying Cross-Section:

Let, a force P is acting on a body of varying cross-section as shown in figure.

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Suppose a uniformly tapered section from diameter d1 to d2 of length L. Consider a strip

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Q. A specimen of steel 25 mm diameter with gauge length of 200 m is tested to destruction. It

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In 28 days, 7 days 66% strength 28 days

43 grade = less quick than 53 grade

Elongation due to self ωf :

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Elongation of bar of tapered shape due to self ωf :

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2.5 compound Bars subjected to axial tension compression:

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So, from (i),

120 80 100 80 100 80 120

200 100 250 150 250 150 350 20 0

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Relation between modulus of elasticity(E), modulus of rigidity(C) and bulk modulus(K):

diagonal BD and compressive stress at right angle to the

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q  Shear Sress (q) 

Relation between E and K:

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Putting the value of µ from equation (iii) to equation (iv) then,

Q. A copper rod 25 mm in diameter is inclosed in steel 30 mm internal diameter and 35 mm

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Consider a rectangular member of unit thickness and of uniform cross-sectional area.

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Tangential Force P ⋅ Sinθ σ σ

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Consider a rectangular plate ABCD of unit thickness which is subjected to tensile

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σ 1 × BC × Cosθ + σ 2 × F × Sinθ + q × BC × Sinθ + q × BF × Cosθ

Major and minor principle stress:

either (σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + (2q )2 or − (σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + (2q )2

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For maximum and minimum shear stress:

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