CHAPTER II

TITLE: THE CELL

The basic unit of structure and function in the human body is the cell. Each of a cell’s
parts, or organelles, as well as the entire cell, is organized to perform a specific function.
Cells have the ability to metabolize, grow and reproduce, move, and respond to stimuli. The
cells of the body differ in shape, size, and in specific roles in the body. Cells that are similar
in structure and function form tissues, which, in turn, construct the various body organs.
The cells are the smallest living units of the structure and function of the human body.
It has the nucleus which contains the gene known as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), contains
the control center for cellular operations. The plasma membrane which separates the cell
from the surrounding environment. And cytoplasm that lie in between the plasma membrane
and the nucleus. The cytoplasm can be divided into a liquid, the cytosol and intracellular
structures collectively known as organelles.
Organelles are internal structures that perform specific functions essential to normal
cell structure, maintenance and metabolism, membrane enclosed organelles include the
nucleus, mitochondria , endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes and
peroxisomes. The membrane isolates the organelle from the cytosol, so that the organelle
can manufacture or store secretions, enzymes or toxins that might otherwise damage the
cell. The cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia, flagella ribosomes are not surrounded by
membranes, their parts are in direct contact with the cytosol.
Cell membrane or plasma membrane is the outer boundary of the cell. It is extremely
thin and delicate ranging from 6nm-10nm in thickness. It contains lipids, proteins and
carbohydrates. Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes. Phosphate group
serves as a link between a diglyceride (bonded to two fatty acid “tails” and a non-lipid
“head”).
Several types of protein are associated with the cell membrane. The most common of
these membrane one or more times and known as transmembrane proteins. Other
membrane proteins are partially embedded in the membrane’s phospholipid bilayer or
loosely bound to its inner or outer surface. Membrane proteins may function as receptors,
channels, carriers, enzymes, anchors or identifiers
Carbohydrates from complex molecules with proteins and lipid on the outer surface of
the membrane. The carbohydrate portion of molecules, such as glycoproteins and
glycolipids, function as cell lubricants and adhesives, act as receptors for extracellular
compounds, and form part of a recognitions system from attacking the body’s own cells and
tissues.
The permeability of the cell membrane is the property that determines precisely which
substances can enter or leave the cytoplasm. If nothing can cross a membrane, it is desired
as impermeable. If any substance can cross without difficulty, the membrane is freely
permeable. Cell membranes are selectively permeable, permitting the free passage of some
materials and restricting the passage of others. Whether or not a substance’s size electrical
charge, molecular shape, lipid solubility, or some combination of these factors.
Movement across the membrane may be passive or active. Passive processes move
ion or molecule across the cell membrane without any energy expenditure by the cell. Active
processes require that the cell expend energy, usually in the form of adenosine triphosphate(
ATP).
Two types of processes are: Diffusion, including a special type of diffusion called
osmosis and 2. Filtration. There are some types of carrier-mediated transport which includes
both active and passive processes. Facilitated diffusion, a passive carrier-mediated process,
and active transport, an active carrier- mediated process.
 The diffusion of water across a membrane is called osmosis. As osmosis occurs
water molecules cross the membrane until the solute concentrations in the two solutions are
identical. Solutions of various concentrations are describes as isotonic, hypotonic or
hypertonic with regard to their effects on the shape or tension of the plasma membrane of
living cells. Isotonic solution is one that does not cause a net movement of water into or out
of the cell. In other words, an equilibrium exists, and as one water molecule moves out of the
cell, another moves in to replace it. When a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, water will
flow into a cell, causing it to swell up like a balloon. Eventually the cell may burst, or lyse.
Cell in hypertonic solution will loss water by osmosis. As they do they shrivel and dehydrate.
During the time between fertilization and physical maturity, the number of cell making
up an individual increases from a single to roughly 75 trillion cells. This amazing increase in
numbers occurs through a form of a cellular reproduction called cell division. For cell division
to be successful, the genetic material in the nucleus must be duplicated accurately and a
complete copy must be distributed to each daughter cell. The duplication of the cell’s genetic
material is called DNA replication and nuclear division called mitosis. Mitosis occurs during
the division of somatic cells,, which include the vast majority of the cells in the body. Mitosis
is divided into four stages: prophase. Metaphase, anaphase and telophase. The production
of sex cells- sperm and ova – involves a different form of cell division, this process is called
meiosis. Most cells spend only a small part of their life engaged in cell division or mitosis. For
most of their lives, cells are I interphase, an interval of time between cell divisions when they
perform normal functions

OBJECTIVES:

1. Illustrate the structure and morphology of the cell.

2. Identify the organelles of a typical cell and their specific functions.
3. Discuss the functions of the cell membrane and its processes
4. Examine the mechanism that cells use to transport substances across the cell
membrane by osmosis
5. Differentiate all cell processes such as diffusion, osmosis, filtration dialysis and active
transport
6. Identify the cell life cycle.
Activities:

I. A. Identify the organelles in the figure below and color them. Match their functions in the
next column.

Answer box

B. Identify the specified organelle and draw a magnified view of it.

1. 2.
3.
4.

5.

II. Complete the following table to fully describe the various cell parts. Insert your responses
in the spaces provided under each heading.

Cell Structure Location Function

1. External boundary of the cell Confines cell contents,

regulates entry and exit of
materials
Lysosomes 2. 3.
 4. Scattered throughout the cell Control release of energy
from foods; form ATP
5. Projections of the plasma Increase the membrane
membrane surface area
Golgi Apparatus 6. 7.
Nucleus 8. 9.
10. Two rod-shaped bodies near Direct formation of the mitotic
the nucleus spindle
Nucleolus 11. 12.
Smooth ER 12. 14.
Rough ER 15. 16.
17. Attached to membrane Synthesize proteins
systems or scattered in the
cytoplasm
Chromatin 18. 19.
20. Scattered in cytoplasm Detoxify alcohol, hydrogen
peroxide, et.
Inclusions 21. 22.

 
Home Experiment. For this experiment, you need to record and take pictures of your activity.

Tools and materials to prepare:

1. 3 uncooked eggs (1 egg for the experiment; 2 extra)
2. 2 cups of vinegar (may use more depending on the size of the eggs)
3. Blue food coloring, if not available you may use astute/annatto powder or seeds
4. Corn syrup or Highly concentrated sugar solution. To make the sugar solution, add ¼
cup of water to 1 cup of sugar.
5. 1 cup of plain water (may use more depending on the size of the eggs used)
6. Glass container in which the eggs can be submerged
7. Non-corrosive material that can hold the eggs down

Preparation steps:
1. Clean the eggs gently under running water, make sure the eggs that you are using
have no cracks. Pat the eggs dry.
2. In a glass or plastic container with a wide diameter gently place the egg. Use a
transparent container to appreciate the changes.
3. Pour in a cup of vinegar or more. Make sure that the egg are well submerged in the
vinegar solution.
4. Observe the eggs in the vinegar solution. Record, take a picture and write down your
observations.
 5. If the egg floats, make sure that it is pinned down using a non-corrosive material.
You may make use of any wooden material to put over the egg to keep it submerged.
6. Let the egg sit in the vinegar solution for 8-12 hours. Observe what happens to the
egg after 8-12 hours.
7. After 24 hours, replace the vinegar solution. To do this, you may gently pour out the
vinegar from the container and gently strain the eggs using your hands. Make sure
not to break the egg and that it remains intact.
8. Pour again another cup of vinegar or up until the eggs are fully submerged in the
vinegar solution for another 12 hours. The eggs should be submerged in the vinegar
solution for a total of 48 hours.

Experiment:

1. After 48 hours of the eggs being submerged in the vinegar solution, pour out the
vinegar solution. Gently remove the eggs from the container. Cleanse the eggs with
running water. Observe and record your findings.
2. Prepare a cup of corn syrup or concentrated sugar solution. You may prepare your
own DIY sugar solution: 1 cup of sugar in a ¼ cup of water. Make sure the sugar
crystals are well dissolved. Place your eggs in a container. Pour in the corn syrup or
concentrated sugar solution. Let the eggs sit in the solution for 24 hours.
3. After 24 hours, pour out the corn syrup or sugar solution. Record your findings.
4. Gently clean your eggs under a running water.
5. Prepare a cup of water then submerge the egg. Place 4-5 drops of blue food coloring.
If not available, you may use water colored with annatto powder or seeds. When
using annatto colored water, make sure that the annatto powder or seeds are drained
out.
6. Let it sit in the colored solution for 12 hours.
7. After 12 hours. Pour out the colored solution. Observe and record your findings.

C. Diffusion through a membrane 

Refer to your experiment (Steps 5-7).

1. After submerging the eggs in the colored water solution, what have you observed with
the eggs? What about the solution? (5pts)
2. Why it happened? (5pts)

D. Osmosis. Refer to egg experiment (steps 1-4) 2pts each

1. When the eggs are submerged in the vinegar solution, what have you observed?
After 8 hours, what has happened to the vinegar solution? How about after 12 hours?
2. What happened to the egg after being submerged in the vinegar solution for 16
hours? What happened to the shell? What about the size of the egg?
3. After submerging the egg in corn syrup or sugar solution, what happened to the egg?
What about the corn syrup or corn solution, what happened to it?
4. What type of solution is the vinegar solution?
5. What type of solution is the corn syrup or sugar solution?

E. Clinical application
F. Filtration: 
1. What is filtration? 
2. Define hydrostatic pressure 
 

V. Arrange the following images according to the phases of mitosis by writing the letters in the space
provided. Identify the phases of mitosis depicted in the images by inserting the correct name in the
blank under the appropriate diagram.

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.