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 page26 page40 page54

ARCHAEOLOGY
AnOfficial oftheArchaeological
Publication 38 Number6 • November/December
InstituteofAmerica• Volume 1985

1 0 Machu Picchu: Conserving an Inca Treasure! by Lynn A. Meisch

Visitors and hikers create a seriqus threat to this important Peruvian site.

OC The Archaeology of Early Paris/ by Philippe Velato Brigitte Fischer, Dominique Morel, and Bailey Young
Nineteenth-century urban renewal reveals this city's Gallo-Roman history.

QQ Galen's Pergamm/ by Lee T. Pearcy

A tour of the Roman town in the footsteps of one of its most famous citizens.

The Manchester Mummy Project/by A.R. David

AQ
The science of paleopathology is advanced by the autopsy of Egyptian mummies.

AO The Protection of Historic Shipwrecks: A New Zealand Case Study/byJ.R. McKinlayand G J. Henderson
Comprehensive protective legislation is a worldwide problem in the field of underwater archaeology.

ARCHAEOLOGY MEWS £ FEATURES

54 Kushan Sculpture: Images from Early 62 About Photography- All New! Improved!
India/ by Stanislaw Czuma Photography 19861/ by Joe Marvullo

58 The Rumble of Distant Thunder/ 65 Passport- How to Fight Jet Lag and Win/
by James P. Delgado by Audrey Allen

60 Science Scope- Ukiyo-e Painting: An Art 78 Newsbriefs

Tradition Under Stress/by Stuart Fleming _ _ _ . _ . ... ...
80 The Fòrum- In Quest of Nuraghi/
by Stephanie Ocko

DEPARTMENTS ^
4 In tMs Issue át Cover:ThesiteofMachuPicchuis thesingle
6 Current Exhibitions m°sti^rtant touristattractioninPeru.Today
IH a# BOOKS theinfluxofhikersandtouriststo theNational
ÊU NOW pg^ threatensboththearchaeological and
10 About the Authors naturalresources.See MachuPicchu:Conserv-
6G The Bookshelf ingan ,ncaTreasure-byLynnA-Meisch> pQ9e18-
68 Archaeology Films
Words to Remember
74 For Further Reading

Credits:
Cover,3,byAlGiese/The StockMarketofNY; 4,courtesy Manchester
Museum; 9,byMikeMouchette,
UniversityofNewMexico; byLynneA.
18-25,
Meisch;26-32,courtesyMuseé
Carnavalet; 26,byAndréRapin,photograph
illustrations, Andrieux;
byPhilippe 28,coin(center)
courtesyMuséedesAntiquites
Nationales,Saint-Germ ; 31,courtesy
ain-en-Laye J. PaulGettyMuseum; 33-39,byLeeT.Pearcy;40,41,42(above, Manchester
leftandright),43,46,courtesy
Museum; 42(center), I. Isherwood;
courtesy 42(below), F.F.Leek;44,courtesy
courtesy theDepartmentofMedicalIllustration,
UniversityofManchester;
45,
courtesyS. Edwards;
47,courtesyA. Curry;illustrations,
49,51,byReinhardt& Cavanagh; 54,
byDirk 55-57,
Bakker; courtesyClevelandMuseum ofArt;58
byJamesP.Delgado;
(above), 60,courtesy theFreerGallery ofArt,Washington,DC;62,JoeMarvullo;
78,byThierryDelrue; maps,21,34,byJoeLeMonnier;
plan,34,byJoeLeMonnier.
November/December1985 3
 ARCHAEOLOGY
ANOFFICIAL
PUBLICATION OFTHE
ARCHAEOLOGICAL
INSTITUTEOFAMERICA
38 Number6
Volume
The of a Mummy 1985
November/December
Anatomy
Publisher/Editor
Pollak
Phyllis Katz
seem to fascinate just about everyone- from the Editor-in-Chief
little kids who press their noses against glass cases in BeaRiemschneider
Design Director
Mummiesmuseums and say "yuck!" to physicians who are endlessly Tom Cavanagh
interested in the anatomical and medical details of ancient bodies. ContributingEditor
RichardA Wertime
And thanks to Hollywood, mystery and suspense surround Egyptian Editor
Associate
mummies in particular. LoisFenichell
BookReview Editor
Scholars are not immune to this fascination with death, and their Stephen L Dyson
FilmReview Editor
curiosity has taken them one step further. All over the world, specialists PeterS Allen
have probed and x-rayed ancient mummies and mummy bundles, ProductionManager
Diane YMichel
but perhaps one of the most famous projects has been accomplished Editorial
Assistant
in Manchester, England. There, teams of researchers literally per- Suzanne Koslowsky
Administration
formed an autopsy of several Egyptian mummies, following in the David G Merrill
ArtAssistant
footsteps of the pioneering Margaret Murray (the first curator of Anthony Teta
Egyptology at Manchester University) who unwrapped a mummy Debbie Caramico
in 1908. Circulation
Director
GabrieleE Margules
Fulfillment
Assistant
EricA Weiss
Director
Advertising
LeslieCampbell
AdvertisingSales
MichaelMDillon III
AdvertisingRepresentative
Waller
Company 1166
Inc., DeKalb
Pike
PA19422
BlueBell, (215)272-6275
Editorial
Advisory Board
George F Bass
LannyBell
Bennet Bronson
LionelCasson
KC Chang
JohnL Cotter
George F Dales
AnnaMarguerite McCann
OscarWhite Muscarella
Winifred
Smeaton Thomas
Homer A Thompson
Elizabeth
LydingWill
Gordon R Willey

Author A.R. David cuts the first bandages of an Egyptian mummy.

Archaeology (ISSN-0003-8113) is published bi-
Today the advancement of medical science has enabled another monthlybytheArchaeological Institute
ofAmerica.
Box1901, Kenmore Station, Boston,MA02215. This
Manchester team, under the direction of author A.R. David, to explore established
Institute, in1879, wasincorporatedbyan
the mysteries of mummification (see page 40). Beyond that, however, ActofCongress in1906 forthepurpose ofpromoting
researchintheUnited Statesandforeign countries
the team has focused on more down-to-earth subjects- the medical bysending outexpeditions forspecial
investigation,
byaidingtheeffortsofindependent explorers,by
problems and general health of the ancient Egyptians. It turns out, publicationofarchaeological andreports
papers, of
theresultsoftheexpeditions whichtheInstitutemay
for example, that some Egyptians suffered from pneumoconiosis, undertake orpromote, andbyanyothermeans which
mayfrom timetotimebedesirable.TheArchaeological
a disease that struck as a result of inhaling quantities of stone dust. Institute
ofAmerica isa non-profit
organizationand
soleownerofArchaeology Magazine. According
These scholarly studies- a process that sometimes seems slow tofederal earnedrevenue
regulations, abovethatof
and ponderous- need not be boring or dry. In fact, the Manchester 1981-82canbeapplied totheNEHChallenge Grant
awarded totheAIA in1983.
Mummy Project so fascinated the British public that a BBC spedai Second classpostage
tionalmailing
paidatNewYork,
offices.
Subscriptions
NYandaddi-
shouldbe ad-
on the topic- also shown abroad- was rebroadcast. The media dressedto Archaeology, SubscriptionService,
P.O.Box928,Farmingdale, NY11737. $20.00per
coverage can only enhance the role of the archaeologist in the eyes volume. Singlenumbers, $3.95.Foreign subscrip-
of the public, for once people get a close-up look of research "in $25.00.
tions, Members oftheArchaeologicalInstitute
ofAmerica maychoose Archaeology asa perquisite
action" it will only lead to a greater understanding of why these studies ofmembership. Allow sixweeksforprocessing new
subscriptions.Noclaimsor refunds after90days.
are undertaken in the first place. The mummies may become less Postmaster Sendaddress changestoArchaeology,
"mysterious" as a result, but there is no doubt that they will remain as SubscriptionService,P.O.Box928,Farmingdale, NY
11737.
captivating as ever. and for
Manuscriptsbooks review should besentto15
ParkRow, NewYork, NY10038. Allmanuscripts are
reviewedbyexperts.Advertisements shouldbesentto
theAdvertising 15ParkRow,
Director, NewYork, NY
10038 (212) 732-5154
Allrightsreserved.
Editor-in-Chief Copyright ©1985bytheArchaeological Institute
of
America.

4 Archaeology
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']
 CURRENT EXHIBITIONS
EAST
American Museum of Natural History,
New York, NY: "Vijayanagara: Where
Kings and Gods Meet" (October 23, 1985-
January 26, 1986), is a unique photo-
graphic review of this ancient city in the
hills of southern India. Conceivedas a cos-
mic city 600 years ago, Vijayanagara was
the center of Hindu learning in the 16th
century and was knownthroughout Europe
for its beauty, wealth and power.Included
are maps and city plans, as well as period
sculpture. "Masterpieces of the American
West" (November 29, 1985-February 16,
1986), exhibits 100 paintings chronicling
the exploration, development and growth
of the American West, including work by
GeorgeCatlin, Asher B. Durand and Fred-
eric Remington.
The Jewish Museum,NewYork,NY: "Jews
of India" (through February 15, 1986),
presents a rare glimpse of three Jewish
communities which have flourished in
India for more than 1000 years. Photo-
graphs and ceremonial objects document
how Indian Jews kept the traditions of
Judaism while adapting certain customs
and art forms from the Indian culture. Part
of the "Festival of India."
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York, NY: "India!" (through January 5,
1986),is a comprehensiveexhibition of the
art of India from the 14th to the 19th
century. Part of the nationwide "Festival
of India,"the collectionfeatures 400 works
in a wide variety of media, drawn from
India's great religious and secular tradi-
tions. Catalogue available. "Mimbres
Pottery: Ancient Art of the American
Southwest" (November19, 1985-February
2, 1986), is an outstanding collection of
125 examples of the art of the Mimbres
peoplewho lived in southwest New Mexico
betweenA.D.900through 1150.The painted
pottery bowls provide a glimpse into the
life, beliefs and artistic traditions of this
now extinct culture. "The Costumes of
Royal India" (December 16, 1985-August
31, 1986), presents court costumes, tex-
tiles, furniture, and jewelry of the 19th
and early 20th-century ruling families of
Baroda,Jaipur, Kashmir and other princely
states.
Montclair Art Museum, Montclair, NJ:
"Arctic Vision: Art of the Canadian Inuit"
(December 1-29, 1985),features 38 sculp-
tures and 37 prints by contemporary Inuit
artists that capture the essenceof the Inuit
people and their methods of survival in an
inhospitable climate. Ancient artifacts are
included to illustrate the strong relation-
ship between past and present. Catalogue
available. (See ARCHAEOLOGY,
January/
February 1985).
Museum of Art, Rhode Island School of
Design, Providence, RI: "The Art of the
Dogon: Selectionsfrom the Hans Guggen-
heim Collection" (through November 17,
1985),features sculpture, funerary objects,
architectural elements, and textiles of the
Dogon people of Mali, West Africa. "From
the TVeeWhere the Bark Grows: North
American Basket TVeasuresfrom the Pea-
body Museum" (November 29, 1985-
February 16, 1986), displays some of the
finest and rarest examples of Native
American baskets from the Harvard Uni-
versity collection. Primarily dating from
the 19th century, most of the 61 objects
have never before been exhibited. "Mas-
terpieces of Indian Art" (through March
2, 1986), is an outstanding selection of
paintings, sculpture and textiles from the
Museum's collection, displayed as part of
the "Festival of India."
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA: "Art
for Indian Rulers" (November 20, 1985-
February 9, 1986), explores Mediaeval
courtly life as expressed in Indian secular
painting. Consisting of approximately 100
paintings of Mughal and Rajput rulers,
courtiers and genre scenes, the works de-
pict the more intimate and unusual
aspects of Indian life. Objects and imple-
ments like those in the paintings are dis-
played to underscore the show's theme.
Included are small jade, metal and glass
pieces, as well as jewelry and textiles.
Museum of Our National Heritage, Lex-
ington, MA: "Childhood TVeasures"(De-
cember 15, 1985-May1986),examinestoys
that children from different periods of
American history have owned,played with
and cherished. One item is a child's trunk
filledwith dolls, clothing, shells, and other
trinkets that a little girl saved and assem-
bled in the mid-19th century.
National Museum of Natural History,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington,DC:
"Gifts of Mother Earth: Ceramics in the
Zuni TVadition"(through Summer 1986),
features 90 bowls, jars, cooking pots and
vessels of the Zuni people of the South-
west. Collectedfor the Smithsonian in the
19th and early 20th century, the group
features a variety of canteens,many unique
and elaborately designed.
The NewarkMuseum, Newark,NJ: "TVeas-
ures from the Collections" (through De-
cember 31, 1985), highlights a variety of
objects from the Museum's collection, in-
cluding ethnographic, classical and Orien-
tal art and 18th and 19th-century Chinese
export porcelains.
O.A.S. Building, Washington, DC:
"Comalapa: TVaditionsand Textiles" (No-
vember 26-December 31, 1985), features
100 handwoven textiles from the Guate-
malan Indian town of Comalapa, known
for its bright red traditional blouses or
huípiles. The exhibit is from the Ixchel
Museum in Guatemala City. Catalogue
available.
Peabody Museum of Archaeology and
Ethnology, Harvard University, Cam-
bridge, MA: "Soft Gold: Captain Cook
Discoversthe Northwest Coast" (through
December31, 1985),documents the chang-
ing fur trade relations between Northwest
Coast Native Americans and Europeans
in the 18th and 19th centuries. The fur of
the sea otter was called "soft gold" by the
traders. More than 125 objects, including
masks, baskets and tourist objects, are
included.
Peabody Museum of Salem, Salem, MA:
"China's Influence on American Life"
(through March 31, 1986),exploresthe im-
pact of Chinesetrade and immigration on
American arts, thought and habit. "Yan-
kee TYadersand Indian Merchants, 1785-
1865" (through December 1986), reflects
the impact of Indian civilization on the
lives of New England traders beginning
in the late 18th century.
Arthur M. SacklerMuseum, Harvard Uni-
versity, Cambridge, MA: "Diverse Are
Their Hues: Animals in Islamic Art" (De-
cember 14, 1985-February9, 1986),shows
the delight Muslim artists took in depict-
ing the animal world, with 45 objects in-
cluding ceramics, rugs, metalwork, and
miniature paintings from Egypt, Persia
and Mughal India.
Semitic Museum, Harvard University,
Cambridge, MA: "Mysteries, Ancient
Curses, and Curiosities from the Curator's
Cabinet" (through January 7, 1986), is a
selection of artifacts from the museum's
collection.The wide variety of objects in-
cludes figurines with monsters and curses
fromthe Near East, Romanand Byzantine
glass from the Holy Land, and objects
which are no longer recognizable.Visitors
are invited to guess the function of these
mystery objects.
The Textile Museum, Washington, DC:
"Flowers, Saints and Toads: The Textile
Art of the Chiapas Maya" (through No-
vember 30, 1985), highlights the textile
artistry of the Maya communities of the
central highlandsof Chiapas, Mexico.Over
50 textiles are displayed, illustrating the
design symbols of Mayan cosmology.Dat-
ing from the 19th century to 1984, the
weavings link the past to the present.
The University Museum, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA: "TYadi-
tional Crafts of Saudi Arabia" (through
January 5, 1986), is the first comprehen-
sive exhibition in America of traditional
Saudi Arabian crafts. Rugs, jewelry,cos-
tumes and tent bands are a sample of the
over 150 objects of daily life. Organized
by the Memorial Art Gallery, University
of Rochester, NY. Circulated by SITES.
"The Silent Language of Guatemalan Tex-
tiles" (through January 5, 1986),illustrates
new links between culture and clothing
with an exhibit of 28 colorfulhand-woven
blouses or huípiles designed by the Maya
Indians of the Guatemalanhighlands. (See
Archaeology, July/ August 1985.)"Bud-
dhism: History and Diversity of a Great
Religion"(opens December 10, 1985,per-
manent), is a collection of artifacts from
India, Japan, China and other Asian coun-
tries, exploring the Great TVaditionfrom
the 5th century B.C.to the present.
Worcester Art Museum, Worcester, MA:
"The Art of the European Goldsmith: Sil-
ver from the SchroderCollection"(through
December 8, 1985), is a selection of 79
works dating from the 13th to the 19th
century. Circulated by the American Fed-
eration of Arts.
MIDWEST
The Art Institute of Chicago,Chicago,IL:
"The Sculpture of India, 3000 B.C.-1300
A.D.."(through January 5, 1986),presents
a survey of India's ancient sculptural her-
itage with 110 works of stone, ivory and
bronze, ranging in size from the miniature
to the colossal. This exhibition is part
of the nationwide "Festival of India."
"The Treasury of San Marco" (October 12,
1985-January12, 1986),displaysmorethan
40 major works, chiefly liturgical objects,
from the Basilica repository in Venice,
Italy. Many are Byzantine, but important
Roman, Islamic and WesternEuropean ob-
jects are included. Catalogue available.
The ClevelandMuseum of Art, Cleveland,
OH: "The TwainShall Meet" (through De-
cember 15, 1985),documents the flourish-
ing exchange between China and the West
via the "Silk Routes." Included are Egyp-
tian textiles, Islamic ceramics, European
engravings, and Chinese lacquer, from fif-
teen centuries of contact. "Kushan Sculp-
ture: Images From Ancient India"
(November 13, 1985-January 5, 1986), is
devoted to the art of the Kushan dynasty
dating from the first through the third
century A.D.This era was the formativepe-
riod of Buddhism and the first to produce
human images of Buddha. "Sacred India"
(November5, 1985-January 12, 1986),ex-
plains Indian religious imagery - Bud-
dhist, Hindu and Jain - during the
Kushan period. Included are more than 20
works and photographs of monuments.
Catalogue available."The Basket Makers"
(November 19, 1985-March 16, 1986),
illustrates the basketry art of Native
Americans,whose technical and design so-
phistication makes their work among the
finest in the world. "Needles, Dye-Pots,
and Looms: Textile TVaditionsin India"
(through Spring 1986),displays more than
2 dozen 14th through 20th-century Indian
garments and textiles, used in daily life
and ceremonialoccasions.
Elvehjem Museum of Art, University of
Wisconsin, Madison, WI: "Hagia Sophia
Through Byzantine Eyes" (through No-
vember 23, 1985), portrays through pho-
tographs the imperial church in Istanbul,
constructed between A.D.532 and 537 by
Emperor Justinian. "The Art of Storytell-
ing: Art of India From Wisconsin Collec-
tions" (through January 12, 1986),
examines India's narrative tradition illus-
trated in the visual arts. Mythological
events and poetic allegories are explored
through miniature paintings, sculpture,
coins, ivories and terracottas. Part of the
"Festival of India."
Dane G. Hansen Museum, Logan, KS:
"Native Harvests: Plants in American
Indian Life" (November 10-December 24,
1985), presents a comprehensive look at
the Native Americans' use of plant life,
demonstrating their unique understand-
ing of the environment. The more than 80
objects, both ethnographic and contem-
porary, cover locations throughout the
United States. Circulated by Sites.
IndianapolisMuseum of Art, Indianapolis,
IN: "Recent Acquisitions 1982-1985"
(November 26, 1985-January 19, 1986),
contains 200 of the Museum's newest ac-
quisitions, including ancient Chinese ce-
 ramies, textiles and ethnographic art.
"Visions From the Top of the World: The
Art of Tibet and the Himalayas" (Novem-
ber 5, 1985-January 26, 1986),explores 31
works of the sacred art of the Vajrayana
Buddhist sect, whose art and culture have
been shrouded in mystery because of their
inaccessibility and complexity.The group
consists of scroll paintings, thangkas, and
sculptural metalwork, created in the last
200 years. Catalogue available.
Miami University Art Museum, Oxford,
OH: "Gandharan Sculpture from the Per-
manent Collection"(through December13,
1985),includes30 worksof Buddhist sculp-
ture created ca. 2nd-4th century A.D. in
what is now Pakistan, India or Afghan-
istan. "Indian Miniature Paintings"
(through December 13, 1985),features 40
small paintings on paper from the 17th to
the 19th century illustrating religious
themes and activities of the royal families.
The Oriental Institute, The University of
Chicago, Chicago, IL: "The Quest for Pre-
history: The Oriental Institute and the
Origins of Civilization in the Near East"
(through December 1985),presents the re-
sults of the Prehistoric Project, concerned
with the origins of agriculture and settled
village life in the ancient Near East. The
exhibit includes the reconstruction of a
house excavated at Jarmo, a villagein Iraq
occupied 9,000 years ago.
PhilbrookArt Center,Hilsa, OK: "Objects
of Adornment: Five Thousand Years of
Jewelry from the Walters Art Gallery,Bal-
timore" (through December 8, 1985), in-
cludes approximately250 piecesof jewelry,
from stone amulets of the ancient Near
East to elaborate 20th-century creations
of Lalique and Tiffany. (See ARCHAE-
OLOGY, September/October 1984). Circu-
lated by the American Federation of Arts.
Catalogue available.
Spenser Museum of Art, University of
Kansas, Lawrence,KS: "Japanese Ghosts
and Demons: Arts of the Supernatural"
(through December22, 1985),presents ap-
proximately 100prints, scrolls, paintings,
books, netsuke and sculpture from the Edo
and Meiji periods that depict subjects of
the supernatural. Included are the ghosts
of the kabuki, the Taoist Immortals and
the Demon Queller.Catalogue available.
The Ibledo Museum of Art, Toledo, OH:
"The Amasis Painter and His World:Vase-
Painting in Sixth-Century B.C. Athens"
(November 24, 1985-January 5, 1986),
features 70 signed Attic terracotta vases
and fragments by a single artist called
the Amasis Painter, whose career spanned
from 560 to 515 B.C. The subjects of the
vases reveal the mythology and daily life
of ancient Athens. Catalogue available.

SOUTH

Birmingham Museum of Art, Birming-

ham, AL: "Southern Folk Art" (through
December 8, 1985),assembles traditional
objéets from 13 states, produced between
1743 and 1915. The diverse collection in-
cludes pottery, textiles, furniture, sculp-
ture and paintings. Circulated by the
Museum of American Folk Art, NewYork,
NY. Book available.
The Columbia Museum, Columbia, SC:
"ChineseExport Silver: A Legacy of Lux-
ury" (through December 1, 1985), illus-
trates the cultural exchangebetweenChina
and the West with 70 objects made for
European markets, dating from the 18th
through the early 20th century.
DallasMuseumof Art, Dallas,TX: "Maya:
Treasuresof an Ancient Civilization"(De-
cember 15, 1985-February 16, 1986),fea-
tures 275 Maya art objects in a variety of
media including sculpture, ceramics and
metalworks,ranging in age from 2000B.C.
to the 16th century A.D. Some artifacts
are made of gold, jade, wood, and shell.
The serious problem of looting is ad-
dressed. Circulated by the Albuquerque
Museum of Art, New Mexico. Book avail-
able. (See Archaeology, March/ April
1985.)
High Museum of Art, Atlanta, GA:
"Wealthof the Ancient World"(December
10, 1985-February9, 1986),presents over
100 coins, more than 30 bronzes and 15
terracotta Greekvases spanning over 1000
years, from the Archaic period in Greece
through the styles of southern Italy, to
the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Or:
ganized by the KimbellArt Museum, Fort
Worth, TX. Catalogue available.
Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, TX:
"Praise Poem: African Arts from the
Katherine White Collection"(through No-
vember 24, 1985),is a selection of 50 out-
standing worksof Africanart, representing
a wide range of styles, functions, and geo-
graphic.origins. Included are masks from
the Liberian Dan people, two harps from
Zaire carved to resemble a male and fe-
male, and a Yorubamother and child fig-
ure from Nigeria. Catalogue available.
The Frank H. McClung Museum, Knox-
ville, TN: "Burial Practices in Ancient
Egypt" (through November 1986), ex-
plores the intriguing aspects of the an-
cient philosophyof death and the afterlife.
Mural-sizephotographs and original arti-
facts, such as funerary stelae and a finely
preserved mummifiedcat, are some of the
special features.
The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX:
"Ancient Art of the American Woodland
Indians" (December 21, 1985-March 9,
1986),features the art of the Native peo-
ple of North America, encompassing the
greater Mississippi Basin east to the East-
ern Coastal Plain, from the Great Lakes
south to the Gulf of Mexico.The 120works
include beads, pipes, bottles and masks
dating from 3000 B.C.to A.D.1500. Cata-
logue available.
Charles D. Ikndy ArchaeologicalMuseum,
Southwestern Baptist Seminary campus,
Fort Worth, TX: "Timnah, City of Con-
flict" (permanent), features the archaeo-
logical excavation data and the history of
the biblical site of Timnah, Israel where
the 8th excavation season was concluded
in July 1985. Artifacts, maps, photo-
graphs, and models tell the story of the
town from the Middle Bronze Age to the
Persian period.
Tbrpedo Factory Art Center, Alexandria
ArchaeologyLaboratory, Alexandria, VA:
"Artifacts, Advertisements and Archaeol-
ogy" (through Spring 1986), focuses on
the history of Alexandria's business
community in the late 18th and 19th cen-
turies. Over 200 objects, including adver-
tisements from early issues of the Gazette,
the country's oldest newspaper, together
with artifacts from the excavation of early
shops and residences, illustrate the evolu-
tion of this port city's merchants.
A sample of western North American
Indian basketry on viewat the
MaxwellMuseum of Anthropology,
Albuquerque, NM.
WEST
Achenbach Foundation for Graphic Arts
of the California Palace of the Legion of
Honor, The Fine Arts Museums of San
Francisco, CA: "Indian Miniatures from
the EhrenfeldCollection"(through Decem-
ber 8, 1985),presents an overview of the
history of Indian miniature painting with
127 examples from the 16th to the mid-
19th century. Part of "The Festival of
India." Catalogue available. Circulated by
the American Federation of Arts.
Arizona State Museum, University of Ar-
izona, Ttacson,AZ: "Kula: A Bronislaw
continued on page 14
1985
November/December 9
 NEW BOOKS
EUROPE
Bradley, John, editor, VikingDublin Ex-
posed: The WoodQuay Saga. 184 pages,
85 black-and-whitephotographs, 32 text
figures, 3 plans, 7 maps, notes. The
O'BrienPress, Dublin, Ireland 1985£11.95
Dennell, ROBIN,European Economic
Prehistory: A New Approach, xii, 217
pages, 29 text figures, 12 tables. Academic
Press, Inc., Orlando, FL 1985$27.00
Herteig, Asbjorn E. and Arne E.
Christensen, The Bryggen Papers . 280
pages, 1 color photograph, 83 black-and-
white photographs, 170 text figures, 21
tables, 3 plans, bibliography.Universitets-
forlaget, Oslo, Norway (distributed in the
United States by Columbia University
Press, New York, NY) 1985 $25.00 paper
(Main Series, Volume1)
Naismith, Robert J., Buildings of the
Scottish Countryside . 224 pages, 131
black-and-whitephotographs, 30 text fig-
ures, 3 plans, glossary. Victor Gollancz
Ltd., London, England (distributed in the
United States by David & Charles, Inc.,
North Pomfret, VT) 1985$24.00
STEAD,I.M., Celtic Art in Britain Before
the Roman Conquest. 72 pages, frontis-
piece, 36 color photographs, 51 black-and-
white photographs,9 text figures. Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, MA 1985
$6.95paper (British Museum Series)
Tourtellot, Jonathan B., editor, Dis-
covering Britain and Ireland. 448 pages,
frontispiece, 435 color photographs, 28
maps, glossary. National Geographic So-
ciety, Washington, DC 1985$22.95
Wymer, John, The Palaeolithic Sites of
East Anglia. x, 440 pages, 7 black-and-
white photographs, 117 text figures, 30
maps, indexes. Geo Books, Norwich,Eng-
land 1985£29.50 cloth £19.50 paper
GREECE & ROME
Johnston, Paul Forsythe, Ship and
Boat Models in Ancient Greece, xiv, 187
pages, frontispiece, 36 black-and-white
photographs, 22 text figures, 1 map, ap-
pendices, notes, glossary, bibliography.
Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD
1985$28.95
Marinatos, Nannô, Art and Religion in
Thera: Reconstructing a Bronze Age So-
ciety. 128 pages, 10 color plates, 55 color
photographs, 15 text figures, 4 tables, 11
plans, bibliography.D. & I. Mathioulakis,
Athens, Greece(distributed outside Greece
by Wasmuth KG, West Berlin, Germany)
198419,80DM
SÊFÊRIADÈS, Michel, TroieI: Matériaux
Pour L'Étude des Sociétés du Nord-Est
Êgéen au Début du Bronze Ancien. 316
pages, 24 black-and-whiteplates, 1 black-
and-white photograph, 30 text figures, 4
tables, 25 plans, 12 maps, bibliography.
Associationpour la Diffusionde la Pensée
Française, Paris, France 1985 111F paper
10 ARCHAEOLOGY
NEAR EAST
Dani, Ahmad Hasan, Karl Jettmar,
and VOLKER Thewalt, Zwischen
Gandhãra und Den Seidenstrassen: Fels-
bilder am Karahorum Highway. 60 pages,
frontispiece, 24 color plates, 60 black-and-
white photographs, 3 maps. VerlagPhillip
Von Zabern, Mainz Am Rhein, West Ger-
many 1985
Morris, Desmond, The AH of Ancient
Cyprus. 368 pages, frontispiece, 107 color
photographs, 225 black-and-white photo-
graphs, 1300 text figures, bibliography.
Phaidon Press, Oxford, England 1985
£60.00
NORTH AMERICA
Harris, Arthur H., Late PleistoceneVer-
tebrate Paleoecology of the West. 292
pages, appendices, bibliography. Univer-
sity of Texas Press, Austin, TX 1985
$25.00
Haury, EMILW.,MogollonCulture in the
Forestdale Valley,East-Central Arizona.
xix, 454 pages, 84 black-and-whitephoto-
graphs, 65 text figures, 12 tables, 43 plans,
7 maps, appendices.University of Arizona
Press, T'icson, AZ 1985$27.50
KlNTlGH,Keith W., Settlement , Subsis-
tence, and Society in Late Zuni Prehistory.
x, 132 pages, frontispiece, 11 black-and-
white photographs, 9 text figures, 23 ta-
bles, 42 plans, 9 maps, appendix,references.
The University of Arizona Press, Hicson,
AZ 1985$14.95paper
Knack, Martha C. and Omer C. Stewart,
As Long As The River Shall Run: An Eth-
nohistory of Pyramid Lake River Reser-
vation. xviii, 433 pages, frontispiece, 14
black-and-whiteplates, 5 text figures. Uni-
versity of California Press, Berkeley, CA
1985$28.50
Maxwell, Moreau S., Prehistory of the
Eastern Arctic, xiv, 327 pages, 75 black-
and-whitephotographs, 74 text figures, 12
tables, 8 plans, 5 maps. Academic Press,
Inc., Orlando, FL 1985$49.00(NewWorld
ArchaeologicalRecord)
Minnis, Paul E., Social Adaptation to
Food Stress: A Prehistoric Southwestern
Example, x, 239 pages, 9 black-and-white
photographs, 24 text figures, 25 tables,
appendix, bibliography.University of Chi-
cago Press, Chicago, IL 1985$20.00cloth
$8.00 paper (Prehistoric Archaeology and
Ecology Series)
Olsen, Nancy H„ HovenweepRock Art:
An Anasazi Visual Communication Sys-
tem. xvi, 153pages, frontispiece,50 black-
and-white photographs, 40 text figures, 9
tables, 2 maps. Institute of Archaeology,
University of California,Los Angeles, CA
1985 $15.00 paper (Occasional Paper 14)
Otto, John Solomon, Cannon's Point
Plantation, 1794-1860:Living Conditions
and Status Patterns in the Old South, xvii,
217 pages, frontispiece, 7 black-and-white
photographs, 19 text figures, 33 tables,
appendix, bibliography. Academic Press,
Inc., Orlando, FL 1984$42.00(Studies in
Historical Archaeology)
Reid, Bill and Robert Bringhurst,
The Raven Steals the Light. 91 pages, 10
black-and-white plates. University of
Washington Press, Seattle, WA 1985
$19.95
SWANTON, JOHNR., Final Report of the
United States De Soto Expedition Com-
mission. lxxxvi, 400 pages, 2 text figures,
10 tables, 12 maps, appendices, bibliogra-
phies. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington, DC 1985$19.95paper
Thomas, David Hurst, editor, The Ar-
chaeology of Hidden Cave, Nevada. 430
pages, 50 black-and-whitephotographs, 77
text figures, 86 tables, 2 maps, appendi-
ces. American Museum of Natural His-
tory, New York, NY 1985$41.00paper
Ullman, Kyle L., in collaboration with
Oriol Pi-Sunyer, Ceramics from the
Kramer Village Site, Ross County, Ohio.
82 pages, 11 black-and-whitephotographs,
4 text figures, 11 tables, 1 plan, appendi-
ces. The Kent State University Press,
Kent, OH 1985$8.00 paper
Zimmerman, Larry J., Peoples of Prehis-
toric South Dakota, viii, 143 pages, 14
black-and-whitephotographs, 63 text fig-
ures. University of Nebraska Press, Lin-
coln, NB 1985$16.50
SOUTH & CENTRAL AMERICA
HASSIG,ROSS,Tirade,Ih*bute, and Trans-
portation: The Sixteenth-Century Politi-
cal Economy of the Valleyof Mexico, xvi,
364 pages, 30 text figures, 20 tables. Uni-
versity of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK
1985$22.95
Hyslop, John, Inkawasi, The New Cuzco:
Cañete, Lunahuaná, Peru, xii, 147 pages,
61 black-and-whitephotographs, 6 text fig-
ures, 3 tables, 7 plans, 1 map, bibliogra-
phy. B.A.R., Oxford, England 1985£14.00
paper (B.A.R. International Series 234)
Miller, Robert Ryal, Mexico: A His-
tory. xiv, 414 pages, frontispiece,70 black-
and-white photographs, 10 text figures,
6 tables, appendix, glossary, bibliography.
University of Oklahoma Press, Norman,
OK 1985$19.95
SPORES,Ronald, The Mixtees in Ancient
and Colonial Times, xiv, 263 pages, fron-
tispiece, 45 black-and-whitephotographs,
47 text figures, 9 tables, 6 plans, 2 maps,
bibliography. University of Oklahoma
Press, Norman, OK 1985$27.50
Zantwijk, Rudolph van, The Aztec
Arrangement: The Social History of Pre-
Spanish Mexico,xxvi, 345 pages, 25 black-
and-white plates, 25 text figures, 14 ta-
bles, 1 map, appendices. University of
OklahomaPress, Norman, OK 1985$29.50
VARIOUS
Ferrill, Arther, The Origins of War:
From the Stone Age to Alexander the
Great. 240 pages, 61 text figures, 7 maps,
bibliography. Thames and Hudson, New
York, NY (distributed by WW. Norton,
New York, NY) 1985$19.95
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']
 Green, Stanton W. and Stephen M.
Perlman, editors, The Archaeology of
Frontiers and Boundaries. xviii, 344pages,
2 black-and-whitephotographs, 38 text fig-
ures, 28 tables, 3 maps. Academic Press,
Inc., Orlando, FL 1985 (Studies in Ar-
chaeology)
Heiser, Charles B., Jr., Of Plants and
People. xiv, 237 pages, 65 black-and-white
photographs, 1 text figure, 1 table. Uni-
versity of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK
1985$24.95
JORDAN, Paul, The Face of the Past. 151
pages, 57 black-and-whiteplates. Universe
Books, New York, NY 1985$25.00
Langley, Susan B.M. and Richard W.
UNGER,editors, Nautical Archaeology:
Progress and Public Responsibility. 219
pages, 14 black-and-whitephotographs, 7
text figures, 2 tables, 3 plans, 2 maps.
B.A.R., Oxford, England 1984 £10.00
(B.A.R. International Series 220)
Lauber, Patricia, Thles Mummies Tell.
118 pages, 76 black-and-white photo-
graphs, 3 text figures. Thomas Y. Crowell,
New York, NY 1985$11.95
Olsen, Stanley J., Origins of the Do-
mestic Dog: The Fossil Record. xiv, 118
pages, frontispiece, 34 black-and-white
photographs, 4 text figures. The Univer-
sity of Arizona Press, T'icson, AZ 1985
$19.95
PlGGOTT,STUART,WilliamStukeley: An
Eighteenth-CenturyAntiquary. 191pages,
32 black-and-whiteplates, 12 text figures,
appendices. Thames and Hudson, New
York, NY (distributed by W.W. Norton,
New York, NY) 1985$19.95
Price, T. Douglas and James A. Brown,
editors, Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers: The
Emergence of Cultural Complexity, xviii,
450 pages, 20 black-and-white photo-
graphs, 55 text figures, 9 tables, 2 maps,
3 plans. Academic Press, Inc., Orlando,
FL 1985$60.00
Reese, Thomas F., editor, Studies in An-
cient American and European Art: The
CollectedEssays of GeorgeKubler. xxxvi,
449 pages, frontispiece, 408 black-and-
white plates, 11 text figures, 15 tables,
bibliographies.YaleUniversity Press, New
Haven, CT 1985$60.00
Schiffer, Michael B., editor, Advances
in ArchaeologicalMethod and Theory,xiv,
306 pages, 24 black-and-white photo-
graphs, 11 text figures, 7 tables, 2 plans.
Academic Press, Inc., Orlando, FL 1985
$49.50
SCHRIRE, CARMEL, editor, Past and Pres-
ent in Hunter Gatherer Studies, xvii, 299
pages, 3 black-and-whitephotographs, 25
text figures, 5 tables, 6 maps. Academic
Press, Inc., Orlando, FL 1984$45.00
Stein, Julie, K. and William R. Far
LAND,editors, Archaeological Sediments
in Context, xii, 147 pages, 13 black-and-
white photographs, 54 text figures, 4 ta-
bles. Center for the Study of Early Man,
Orono,ME 1985(Peoplingof the Americas,
Volume1)
Vaughan, Patrick C., Use-WearAnaly-
sis of Flaked Stone lb ols. viii, 204 pages,
170black-and-whiteplates, 22 text figures,
appendices,bibliography,glossary.Univer-
sity of Arizona Press, Hicson, AZ 1985
$49.50

1? ARTHAFm
new
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']
 continued from page 9
Malinowski Centennial Exhibition"
(through January 31, 1986),focuseson the
Kula complex, a traditional and ancient
trading expedition of the people of the
Trobriand Islands and the Massim area of
Papua New Guinea. The heart of the exhi-
bition is made up of artifacts from Malin-
owski's collection.
Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, The
AveryBrundage Collection,San Francisco,
CA: "Japanese Fan Paintings" (through
January 5, 1986),features 45 fans and two
screens of the Edo period, 1615-1868.Cat-
alogue available."The Art of Wine in East
Asia" (November 3, 1985-January 21,
1986),presents over 50 objects related to
wine and its uses. Included are ritual wine
vessels from the Chinese Shang dynasty
(ca. 21st-16th century B.C.),sake bottles
from Japan and storage containers from
Korea. "Kawari Kabuto: Spectacular Hel-
mets from Japan" (December 17, 1985-
February 9, 1986),displays 75 helmets of
late 16th- 19th century Japan. Part crown
and part heraldic totem, they were sym-
bols of status among the ruling military
elite. Catalogue available.
Denver Museum of Natural History, Den-
ver, CO: "Ebla to Damascus: Art and Ar-
chaeology of Ancient Syria" (November
30, 1985-February16, 1986),presents over
300 treasures from Syria, including pot-
tery, jewelry,cuneiformtablets, ivory carv-
ings and funerary monuments, which
illustrate the country's cultural heritage
from 8000 B.C. to A.D. 1700. Catalogue
available. (See ARCHAEOLOGY, Septem-
ber/October 1985.)
M.H. de Young Memorial Museum, San
Francisco, CA: "Te Maori Art from New
Zealand Collections" (through December
1, 1985), features nearly 200 sculptures
and carvings in wood, stone, bone, ivory,
and shell, dating from ca. 800 to 1900A.D.
Included are architectural elements, mu-
sical instruments, monumental sculpture,
canoe prows, weapons, and objects of
personal adornment. Circulated by the
American Federation of Arts. Catalogue
available. (See ARCHAEOLOGY, Novem-
ber/December 1984.) "Eloquent Hands:
California Indian Baskets" (through De-
cember 1, 1985), is a selection of Native
American baskets, including the variety
of designs by the Yokut people of the San
Joaquin Valley.
The Heard Museum, Phoenix,AZ: "Under
the Green Canopy: Indians of the Ama-
zon Rain Forest" (November 14, 1985-
Spring 1986),examines the adaptation to
life in the tropical rain forest environment.
Included are clothing, ceramics, basketry,
objects used for trapping and preparing
food and ceremonialmaterial.
Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los
Angeles, CA: "Netsuke: Japanese Sculp-
ture from the Bushell Collection"(through
January 1986), is a second exhibition of
150 netsuke, intricate Japanese carvings
used as toggles during the Edo period.
Made of wood, ivory or stag antler, net-
suke represent a wide variety of subjects,
from daily life to animal motifs and leg-
endary and imaginary figures. Reflecting
the culture and social life of the Edo pe-
riod, this collection dates from the early
18th century.
Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, The
University of New Mexico, Albuquerque,

14 ARCHAEOLOGY
NM: "From the Weaver'sView"(through
March 1986), examines the complicated
art of western Native American basketry.
Over 200 baskets and 70 photographs an-
alyze the subtle differences and complex
cultural patterns of basketry.
Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena, CA:
"ChinaTVadeExhibition"(through Decem-
ber 30, 1985),features paintings and ship
modelsfrom the mid-1800s,and commem-
orates the Bicentennialof American-China
trade. "Chinese Jade: The Image From
Within" (through February 23, 1986),is a
collectionof over 200 fine objects of jade,
includingpi discs used for ritual and burial
purposes and everydayobjects such as pa-
perweightsand imperialjewelry.The pieces
date from the 3rd millennium B.C.to the
18th century A.D.
San Diego Museum of Man, San Diego,
CA: "Water: Liquid of Life"(through Feb-
ruary 23, 1986),documents the crucial role
of water in the ritual and economic lives
of the native people of the Americas with
more than 200 artifacts, photographs and
dioramas. Conch shell trumpets used to
call the rain gods and jade ornaments sym-
bolizingwater and fertility reflect the rev-
erence held for water and its bounty. "The
Cannon Collection" (through November,
1985),features nearly 200 Kumeyaay In-
dian baskets, donated by the heirs of Lucia
M. and Walter D. Cannon. The baskets
are the products of the final period of
basketmaking in southern California.
Seattle Art Museum, Seattle, WA: "Amer-
ican FolkArt: Expressionsof a NewSpirit"
(through January 5, 1986),features more
than 130 objects from the Museum of
American Folk Art in NewYork.Included
are some of the finest examples of 17th to
20th-century folk paintings and sculpture,
painted and decorated furniture, quilts,
toys and trinket boxes. Catalogue availa-
ble. Circulated by the American Federa-
tion of Arts. "Northwest Coast Indian Art
from the Hauberg Collection" (through
March 16, 1986), demonstrates the rich-
ness and complexity of the Native Ameri-
can cultures of the Northwest,with objects
dating from the pre-contact period to the
early 20th century.
Southwest Museum, Los Angeles, CA:
"People of California" (permanent), is a
new exhibition of the art and artifacts of
the first Californians,emphasizingregional
differences between Northern, Central,
Southern Coastal and Desert lifeways.
Included are a full-sizedPomo acorn gran-
ary, a rockart site facsimileand a Northern-
style house.
Frederick S. Wight Art Gallery, UCLA,
Los Angeles, CA: "The Eloquent Dead:
Ancestral Sculpture from Indonesia &
Southeast Asia" (through November 24,
1985), explores the art and rituals that
placate the dead and engage them actively
in the events of the present. Included
among the 180objects are figurative sculp-
tures, puppets, masks and charms in ivory
and wood.Catalogue available.
CANADA
Royal Ontario Museum^Toronto,Ontario,
Canada: "The Precious Legacy: Judaic
TVeasuresfrom the Czechoslovak State
Museum" (through November 24, 1985),
includes nearly 300 objects Torah adorn-
ments, synagogue furnishings, alms boxes
and many other treasures from the State
Jewish Museum in Prague. Catalogue
available. Circulated by SITES.
FOREIGN
Castel San Angelo, Rome, Italy: "Vaults
of Memory:Jewish and Christian Imagery
in the Catacombs of Rome" (November
6-December 5, 1985),exhibits rare photo-
graphs of frescoes, epitaphs, sarcophagi,
graffiti, and ritual objects displaying
Judaeo-Christian symbols recoveredfrom
a lost Jewish catacomb in Rome. Included
are objects from the collections of the
Vatican Museum and other state muse-
ums of Italy. Catalogue available. Circu-
lated by the International Catacomb
Society,61 BeaconSt., Boston, MA 02108,
(tel) 617-742-1285.
Museum of Mankind, London, England:
"The Hidden Peoples of the Amazon"
(through January 1986),examines the tra-
ditional way of life of the Indian people of
the South American rainforest, whoserap-
idly disappearing environment has pro-
vided material necessities and spiritual
inspiration over thousands of years. The
collectionincludes pottery, musical instru-
ments, weapons, ceremonial masks, cos-
tumes and smoking equipment. Featured
is a reconstruction of a typical l'ikano
Indian maloca or communal house of the
Vaupes region of Colombiaand Brazil.
1985
November/December 15
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Henderson Young David

Pearcy Delgado Czuma

LYNN A. MEISCH has written articles
on the archaeology and anthropology of
the Andean countries for numerous pub-
lications and is author of A Traveler's
Guide to El Dorado and the Inca Empire
(Penguin Books, New York, NY, revised
edition 1984). As a trekking guide on
the Inca Trail in the early 1980s she
documented conditions on the trail first-
hand and took part in the Machu Picchu
conservation effort.
PHILIPPE VELAY of the Musée Car-
navalet, a museum devoted to the his-
tory and archaeology of Paris, highlights
the early Roman years of Paris in his
article. With his colleagues BRIGITTE
FISCHER, Chargée de Recherches, Cen-
tral National de la Recherche Scien-
tifique, DOMINIQUE MOREL, and
BAILEY YOUNG, of the University of
Lille III and the University of Paris XII,
Velay has worked with Patrick Perin,
archaeological curator at the Musée
Carnavalet, to decipher all of the archae-
ological phases of the city's history. The
museum has been modernized and ex-
panded over the last decade, and new
permanent archaeological exhibits are
being planned. An exhibit, which opened
in 1984, highlighted Roman Paris, or
Lutetia, and will remain on exhibit until
the end of the year.
LEE T. PEARCY teaches Greek and
Latin at the Episcopal Academy in
Merion, Pennsylvania. He is the author
of numerous articles on Latin, Greek
and English literature and Mediated
Muse : English Translations of Ovid,
1560-1700 (Archon Books, Hamden,
CT 1984). He has also published several
articles on the philosophical and rhe-
torical background of ancient medicine.
"Galen's Pergamm" grew out of this
research, which took him to Turkey in
the summer of 1984.
Pearcy would like to thank the Uni-
versity Research Institute, University
of Texas, Austin, for supporting his
work, and Deena Berg for help in draft-
ing maps.
ROSALIE DAVID received her PhD
degree from the University of Liverpool,
England, in 1971, having previously
studied Egyptology at University Col-
lege, London. Since 1972 she has curated
the Egyptology collection in the Man-
chester Museum at the University of
Manchester, where she also lectures in
the Department of Comparative Re-
ligion. As Director of the Manchester
Egyptian Mummy Project since 1973
she has organized symposia on "Science
in Egyptology." Her publications in-
clude a number of articles and twelve
books on aspects of Egyptology, among
them A Guide to Religious Ritual at
Abydos ( 1981); The Ancient Egyptians :
Their Religious Beliefs and Practices
(1982); and Cult of the Sun: Myth and
Magic in Ancient Egypt (1980). She has
acted as consultant and presenter for
several BBC television films about an-
cient Egypt, and has carried out many
broadcasting activities in this field, par-
ticularly on the subject of the Man-
chester mummy research.
J.R. McKINLAY is Senior Archaeolo-
gist of the New Zealand Places TVust,
called as an expert witness in the Thupo
case. GRAEME HENDERSON is Cu-
rator in the Department of Maritime Ar-
chaeology at the Western Australian
Museum. He has worked on excavations
in Ireland, England and Africa, and has
directed several archaeological projects
in Australia. In Australia, Henderson
has also developed a program of the ex-
cavation of Colonial period shipwrecks
at the Western Australian Museum.
STANISLAW CZUMA, Curator of
Indian and Southeast Asian Art at The
Cleveland Museum of Art, received his
BA and MA degrees in Western Art at
Jagiellon University in Cracow, Poland
and his PhD in Oriental Art at the Uni-
versity of Michigan. He has studied the
history and culture of India at Calcutta
University, Benares Hindu University
and the Sorbonne, has published and lec-
tured on Indian and Southeast Asian art,
and teaches Oriental art at Case West-
ern Reserve University in Cleveland.
JAMES P. DELGADO, Historian for
the Golden Gate National Recreation
Area and author of several articles on
various aspects of western and mari-
time history and archaeology, is
completing graduate studies at East
Carolina University, North Carolina, in
Maritime and Underwater Research.
His most recent field assignment was
supervising a survey of environmen-
tally exposed shipwreck remains on the
beaches of Cape Hatteras, North Caro-
lina's "Graveyard of the Atlantic."
Delgado wishes to express a debt of
gratitude to colleagues Edwin C. Bearss,
Robert J. Chandler, Gordon S. Chappell,
J. Edward Green, Roger E. Kelley,John
H. Martini, and Martin T. Mayer.

16 ARCHAEOLOGY
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']
 Machu Picchu:

Conservine an Inca Treasure

by Lynn A. Meisch

1911 an American, Hiram Bingham, led an ex-
pedition into the Andes of southern Peru in
In search of Vilcabamba, the last refuge of the Incas.
From this remote region in the Cordillera Vilca-
bamba, remnants of the Inca army waged a guerrilla
war against the Spanish from A.D. 1537 until the
death of the Inca Tbpac Amaru in 1572. Instead of
Vilcabamba, Bingham found Machu Picchu, an
Inca city of exceptional beauty perched high above
the Urubamba River. While Indian farmers were
growing crops on the terraces, the site was never
reached by the Spanish and had been lost to the out-

The impressive site of Machu Picchu,

an Inca settlement dating to the fif-
teenth century , is today in danger of
destruction by the influx of tourists and
hikers. More damage has been reported
in the last ten years than in the last 500
years. The site of Wayna Picchu is in
the background.
side world for centuries. After his initial discovery,
funding from Yale University and the National Geo-
graphic Society allowed Bingham to return and
explore the region more thoroughly, including part
of the Inca road system leading from Cuzco to
Machu Picchu.
Bingham was fully aware of the significance of
his find, an entire city constructed of white granite
with mortarless stonework as fine as any in Cuzco.
He also realized that the Spanish never reached the
site because its int iwatana- the post to tie up the
sun used for astronomical observations and rituals
-was intact. The Spanish destroyed as heathen any
they found. The Quechua names Macchu and Wayna
Picchu (grandfather and lover peak), intiwatana,
and the names of the Inca ruins along the Inca TVail
are all post-Conquest. There is no record of what the
Incas themselves called these sites.
In his account of his adventure, written in 1948,
Bingham noted that "this marvelous Inca sanctuary,
which was lost for three hundred years, has at last
become a veritable Mecca for tourists. Everyone
who goes to South America wants to see it." Today,
Machu Picchu is the single most important tourist
attraction in Peru. Located in a National Park, it
extends approximately 22 miles south along the
Urubamba River and five miles west, encompassing
seven other major Inca ruins, ten smaller ones, the
Inca road system, and an extraordinary number of
rare flora and fauna. Each year more than 100,000
visitors from around the world take the four-hour
train ride from Cuzco to the site. An additional
6,000 people make the three to five day hike over the
Inca road, beginning at the boundary of the Park.
The influx of train visitors and hikers, however, has
created a serious threat to the archaeological sites
and natural environment- including damage to
Machu Picchu itself.
In response, an international conservation effort
has been launched. Named the Machu Picchu Sanc-
tuary Project, it is led by Peruvian Alfredo Ferreros,
founder and owner of Explorandes, the largest
Peruvian adventure travel outfitter, and an Advisor
to the Special Project for Tourism Reserves, part of
the Peruvian National Parks System. Co-Director
of the Sanctuary Project, in charge of the archae-
ological aspects and organizational efforts in North
America, is Margaret MacLean, a PhD candidate
in archaeology at the University of California at
Berkeley, and a 1985-86 research fellow at Dum-
barton Oaks, Washington, DC in Precolumbian
Studies and History of Landscape Architecture. The
Sanctuary Project is attempting to reconcile the
conflicting demands of tourism with the protection
of the environment, including the archaeological
sites, which hold vital clues to the organization of
the Inca Empire.
any functions have been suggested for Machu
Picchu, some of them romantic and others mys-
terious. The truth in no way diminishes the beauty
and importance of the site. Rather than the last
refuge of the Incas, or a secret hideaway for the
Chosen Women connected to the Coricancha, the
great temple in Cuzco, Machu Picchu was one of a
chain of outposts constructed in the mountains
above the Urubamba River Valley during the reign
of the Inca Pachacuti (a.D. 1438-1463). The site
was abandoned around the time of the Spanish Con-
quest (a.D. 1532-33) although archaeologists don't
know exactly when or why.
Located just 100 miles by air northwest of the
Inca capital, Cuzco, it isn't hard to understand why
the Spanish never found Machu Picchu when one
sees the land. Cuzco is high and cold, set in a bowl
at 11,445 feet above sea level. Thirty miles to the
east the land falls off 2,000 feet to the warm, fertile
valley of the Urubamba River (called the Vilcanota
in its upper section). The Urubamba drains north-
ward into the Amazon, losing altitude rapidly in a
Nm/ûmkar
/rW^ûmKûr
1QÖR 1û
 series of white water rapids between Pisaq and
Machu Picchu.
The Urubamba Valley, today called the Sacred
Valley of the Incas, was important to the Incas be-
cause its warmer climate permitted the cultivation
of maize, a sacred crop made into chicha (beer)
which was essential for religious rituals. Many of
the Incas had royal estates in the Sacred Valley at
such places as Pisaq and Yucay. While some early
archaeologists believed the valley towns were forti-
fied to prevent incursions of jungle Indians, the
Urubamba is too swift and its canyons too narrow
to permit passage upstream by boat or on foot. And
Ollantaytambo, for example, is fortified on the up-
stream, not downstream, side. Any Indians attack-
ing Cuzco would take the high route over the
mountains. Here the Pachacuti Inca constructed a
series of secured towns, not only to prevent inva-
sions, but to control the lucrative and important
trade in jungle products, including feathers, fruits,
medicinal plants, and coca leaves.
Trees cover the mountains beyond Ollantay-
tambo. The Urubamba gorge has sheer cliffs 2,000
feet high, and the mountains have a number of
permanent snowcaps over 18,000 feet high. Yet the
Incas linked the towns and outposts in this region
and throughout their empire with a road system
that dazzled the Spanish and still awes visitors to-
day. The system rivaled that of ancient Rome. The
20 Archaeology
coast road, for example, extended 2,500 miles from
T'imbes, Peru to Tklca, Chile, while the Andean
road was even longer. There were numerous east-
west connecting links and auxiliary roads, such as
the one between Cuzco and Machu Picchu.
Since the Incas had no wheeled vehicles and
because of the precipitous terrain, the mountain
roads were meant for travel on foot or for llama
caravans. The roads are up to four feet wide, graded,
banked and paved with flagstones, with stone gut-
ters to keep water off the road. Steep sections have
stone steps, and rivers were spanned by suspension
bridges. Thmpus (rest houses for travelers) were
established every eight to 12 miles. As part of their
labor tax to the Inca state, communities along the
roads maintained the tampus, roads and bridges in
their vicinity and supplied chasquis , relay runners
to carry messages. Chasquis could relay news from
Quito, Ecuador to Cuzco in five days- faster than a
modern airmail letter. In the chaos following the
Spanish conquest the system of local maintenance
collapsed and centuries of rainy seasons, landslides
and earthquakes have taken their toll. It's a tribute
to Inca engineering that so much of the road system
still exists.
Even in Inca times the easiest route to the
lower Urubamba Valley and the jungle was by an
Inca road through the mountains northwest of
Cuzco, which joined the Urubamba River 25 miles

downstream from Machu Picchu. When Bingham
found the site he followed a road that the Peruvians
had recently blasted through the Urubamba gorge,
opening this stretch of the valley to traffic and pro-
viding a more direct route to the coca plantations on
the lower Urubamba. Later a railroad was laid on
the trail, extending past Machu Picchu to Quilla-
bamba. There is still no automobile road into the
area.
Today Machu Picchu National Park is under the
joint jurisdiction of the National Institute of Culture
(N.I.C.), the Ministry of Agriculture and the Min-
istry of Industry and Tourism. Fully 50 percent of
the walls of Machu Picchu had fallen when Bingham
found the city. They have since been rebuilt by the
N.I.C. In 1982 Machu Picchu was again in the news
when resident archaeologist and site director Wil-
fredo Yépez Valdez and his crew discovered two
more large ruins just three miles from Machu Picchu.
Named Quillapata (Moon Terrace) and Chaskapata
(Venus Tferrace) these sites contain buildings, agri-
cultural terraces and 30 unopened Inca tombs.
Yépez hopes to have these sites open to the public in
the future. In 1983, an N.I.C. crew clearing vegeta-
tion from the terraces at Phuyupatamarca (Town in
the Clouds) uncovered a stone staircase leading
several thousand feet down the mountain to Wiñay
(Far left) This two-story Inca
house still stands at Pancar-
cancha . (Left) Peruvians live in
the Machu Picchu area and serve
as porters for hikers on the Inca
trail. Here young Peruvians
watches hikers at the village of
Wayllabamba.
Wayna (Growing Lover). Undoubtedly there are
more ruins and roads hidden in the dense vegetation
and just outside the boundaries of the park.
No one anticipated that the annual number of
visitors to Machu Picchu would top 100,000. This
figure is expected to double when the new interna-
tional airport is built near Cuzco. Restoration work
and excavations at Machu Picchu and the new sites
are often halted to repair damage caused by visitors.
Almost everyone enters Machu Picchu from one
entrance near the Tourist Hotel and restaurant.
Vibrations from thousands of pounding feet are
loosening walls. Tourists venturing off the paths
erode the soil and tumble walls. In 1982 Yépez roped
off the intiwatana to prevent tourists from climbing
on it to have their pictures taken. Tourists have
even tried to carve their initials in the rocks and to
chip pieces from the stonework for souvenirs. Al-
though food is prohibited in the ruins and the site
is cleaned daily, it isn't unusual to find garbage
on the ground or soft drink cans in the trapezoidal
Inca niches.
The Inca Trail (El Camino Inca) as the road to
Machu Picchu is called, became popular with back-
packers and organized trekking groups in the mid
1970s. These two kinds of hikers affect the environ-
ment in different ways. Since there is no policing of
the trail, anyone who shows up can hike. Most back-
packers take the train from Cuzco to kilometer 88
November/December
19R5 21
 and cross the Urubamba River near the remains of
an Inca suspension bridge at Qoriwayrachina. A
small Park use fee is collected here.
The trail climbs from 8,198 feet at the river,
past the major Inca site of Patallacta, to 13,776 feet
at Warmi Wañuska Pass, a gain of more than a mile
in elevation over 12 miles- two days of solid uphill
hiking. This would be strenuous at sea level, but it
is punishing for those unaccustomed to the altitude.
From Warmi Wañuska Pass there are still 23 miles
to go, and there are no latrines, shelters, trash
receptacles, or treated water within the Park. The
general unpreparedness of many backpackers results
in an environmental disaster. Not only do back-
packers leave behind mounds of rubbish, but they
build fires against the walls in Inca structures, caus-
ing stones to crack, use the ruins for latrines, pollute
the streams, and even dismantle Inca walls to make
shelters.
Organized treks enter the park by a number of
alternate routes, relieving pressure on the lower part
of the trail, and join the main trail at Wayllabamba.
These groups dig latrines at night and pack their
garbage out, but they affect the environment
through sheer size. The support team of guides,
cooks and porters for a group of 15 trekkers can
number 50 people. Until 1984 the porters gathered
firewood for their own cooking. Alberti Miori, owner
22 Archaeology
of Cuzco-based Apu Expeditions, has guided groups
on the Inca TVailsince 1971 and notes that the en-
vironment has changed. There are fewer queñoa trees
because the porters have cut them for firewood. In
1984 the owners of the major Cuzco area trekking
companies agreed to provide their porters with kero-
sene stoves and fuel and to discourage campfires in
an effort to protect the woods in the park.
In 1980 volunteers began to deal with the most
immediate problem: trash. The Club Andino Peru-
ano and the Lima-based South American Explorers
Club cleaned the trail. Tom Jackson, Explorers Club
manager, and three other volunteers picked up ap-
proximately 880 pounds of tin cans, equivalent to
16,000 tuna fish cans. The paper waste was burned
and the cans hauled out. Ibm noted that the labels
on the garbage were from virtually every country in
the non-Communist world. The clean-ups, sponsored
by various organizations, have been repeated every
year since 1980, and Explorandes supplied these
groups with food and porters beginning in 1981.
Just cleaning the trail involved cutting through an
amazing amount of red tape since a permit was
needed just to take garbage out of the Park. Be-
cause the Inca TYailis in a national park there is a
prohibition on construction, so the volunteers have
been thwarted in their efforts to build latrines, trash
receptacles and shelters.

(Far left) The destination of every hiker on the
Inca Trail is Machu Picchu , pictured here in a
photograph taken from Wayna Picchu. The trail
itself can be seen in the upper left corner. (Clock-
wise from above, center) Hiking the Inca Trail is
rigorous and will often include crossing bridges
such as this one connecting Wiñay Wayna and
Machu Picchu. Unfortunately, some campers
leave evidence of their visit. Here (above, right)
a fire-damaged wall and litter damage the site of
Runcurakay. Restoration and conservation ef-
forts are underway, however,such as the newly-
roofed hut at Sayacmarca (left, center), which
was recently constructed by National Institute
of Culture volunteers.
In 1982, Alfredo Ferreyros, owner of Explor-
andes, was appointed Advisor to the Special Project
for Tburist Reserves, and decided to focus on the
Inca TVail.He began to enlist help and to look for
funding. Reports are being written on the human
impact on the local ecology and one on the biological
composition of the park, which includes 120 plant
species per kilometer, many species of birds, deer,
viscachas (a rodent-like animal related to the chin-
chilla), and the rare Andean Spectacled Bear, which
is being studied by Bernard Peyton of the New York
Zoological Society. In the summer of 1983 Ferreyros
met archaeologist Margaret MacLean, who was in
Cuzco on a grant from the American Museum of
Natural History to research Inca architecture and
landscape. Ferreyros invited MacLean to work with
him on the Project. She made five trips on the Inca
lYail that summer, covering various routes leading
into the park and mapping the ruins, and ultimately
documenting the ravages of uncontrolled camping.
Restricting tourism is not an option. Tourism
brings Peru an average of 460 million dollars annually,
badly needed foreign exchange to pay Peru's debt
to banks abroad. If anything, Peru would like to
increase tourism, which means, of course, increasing
visitors to Machu Picchu National Park.
Besides outside visitors, there is damage to the
Inca sites from Peruvian farmers, who have lived in
the region for centuries. The area is not as densely
inhabited as it was in Inca times, when extensive
irrigation and political organization supported a
larger population. One of the functions of archae-
ologist Ann Kendall's work at Patallacta, the Cusi-
chaca Project, was to clean and re-open the Inca
irrigation canals for use by contemporary farmers.
The prohibition on construction in the park does
not apply to residents, who have removed stones
from Inca ruins to build fences and buildings, and
have allowed their animals to graze on archaeologi-
cal sites. The competing pressures of an expanding
population and the need for tourist dollars versus
the conservation of a fragile natural environment is
not unique to Peru, and the resolution is not simple.
Ferreyros and MacLean agree that the first step
is modifying the behavior of hikers. To this end
MacLean has drawn a map of the Inca TVail, de-
signed for use as the official N.I.C. trail map with a
list of rules on the back. These include no wood fires,
no fires against Inca walls, no digging in the ruins,
no climbing on the walls or moving stones. Hikers
must use areas well away from the ruins for camping
and latrines, and pack out all refuse.
The attraction of the sites, both for hikers and
archaeologists, is two-fold. First, they are pristine.
Almost no research has been done on the Inca ruins
in the park. An expedition funded by Axel Wenner-
Gren and led by Paul Fejos entered the area in 1940-
42, discovered several unknown ruins, and cleared
destructive vegetation from the new sites and those
uncovered by Bingham 30 years earlier. Shortly after
the Fejos expedition some work was done at Wiñay
Wayna by Peruvian archaeologists Julio Tello and
Manuel Chávez Ballon. In 1941 archaeologist John
Rowe, now at the University of California at Berke-
ley, dug small test pits at Choquesuysuy on the
banks of the Urubamba River below Wiñay Wayna,
and at Sayacmarca on the Inca TVail. Other than the
work at Machu Picchu and the Cusichaca Project,
the ruins are unexcavated.
Second, the sites are part of an extraordinary
road system. The fact that they're so close to Cuzco
places them within the royal zone, with great impli-
cations for understanding the organization and
administration of the Inca Empire. They offer an
exceptional opportunity for study because they're
not confused by pre-Inca foundations, cultural mix-
ing or post-Conquest habitation.
Just outside the boundaries of the park, but
part of the same system, are a number of sites, two
of which are especially impressive. At 9,100 feet in
elevation, up the Cusichaca River from Patallacta,
lies Paucarcancha. The well-preserved buildings sit
on a series of terraces now used by local farmers.
One two-storey building needs only a roof to be
habitable. In fact, the entire site gives one the im-
pression that the Inca families living there just
stepped out for a visit with their neighbors.
Farther up the Cusichaca River Valley is a superb
example of Inca water channeling. For a distance of
several miles the river passes through a dressed
granite channel about six feet wide. The paved Inca
road which ran between Patallacta, Paucarcancha
Nnupmhpr/rWpmhpr
IQVS 23
 and Salcantay (a 20,564-foot snowcap considered
sacred by the Incas), follows the east bank of the
channel. A large washout on the west bank, which
occurred within the past five years, shows the force
of the runoff from Salcantay and the necessity for
maintenance.
At the town of Wayllabamba (9,000 feet), the
trail from Kilometer 88 meets the route coming in
from the south and hikers pick up the main Inca
Trail to Machu Picchu. Wayllabamba is a modern
town, with traces of Inca structure, whose men are
frequently hired as porters. Since the trekking sea-
son (May through September) coincides with the
off-season agriculturally, trekking provides a much
appreciated cash income for the porters.
The paved Inca road is visible on the ascent from
Wayllabamba to Warmi Wañuska Pass, although it
has deteriorated in some places. The road is used
not only by hikers, but by local residents and their
sheep, cattle and horses. Hikers resting at the pass
are sometimes treated to an aerial ballet by condors
soaring from the nearby peaks. Beyond the pass the
vegetation changes to that of "la ceja de la montaña"
(the eyebrow of the mountain), with thick, dense vege-
tation. The Inca stairs descending from the pass to
the Pacamayo River Valley are nearly gone because
of runoff. An alternate Inca roadway curves around
the mountain side to the south, but has fallen in
several places and is dangerous. Bernard Peyton
urges hikers not to use this route because it disrupts
the feeding patterns of the Spectacled Bear.
Hikers frequently camp in the Pacamayo Valley,
which has several tiny Inca structures nearly hidden
by vegetation. The next large site is Runcurakay,
situated at 12,464 feet halfway up the mountainside croached. At one point the trail enters a 30-foot
to the second pass. This oval structure, with rooms tunnel, with stairs leading into it carved from the
radiating from a central patio, is often used by hikers living rock. Near the tunnel is a small lookout plat-
and damage from fires against the walls increases form, but the next major ruin is Phuyupatamarca
every season. Bingham wrote of bar-holds in the (Town in the Clouds) at 11,906 feet, with a spec-
entrance for securing a gate; these have disappeared tacular view over the Urubamba River Valley and
with the collapse of walls at the doorway. The Inca the Cordillera Urubamba. The most impressive fea-
road from Runcurakay over the pass and on to ture of this site is a series of six fountains or baths,
Sayacmarca is in good condition, although a 12-foot fed by a spring in the mountainside, and still in
section fell away during the 1983 trekking season. working order. In 1983 an Explorandes crew cleaned
The next major site is Sayacmarca (Standing or the silt and vegetation clogging the channels. The
Waiting Town), set on a rocky promontory at 12,234 fountains are the only water source at the ruins, and
feet, overlooking the Aobamba River Valley. Built the lower ones are sometimes used as latrines by
of local stone, Sayacmarca is almost invisible hikers. Since the only level land is the Inca ruins,
against the surrounding hills. Some walls have fire tents pitched here and latrines dug on the terraces
damage, but as MacLean reports, erosion and vege- break the archaeological seal and sometimes damage
tation are the main problems here. Sayacmarca is walls.
large- 25 rooms, several courtyards, a large plat- Two roads lead out of Phuyupatamarca, one of
form that overlooks the valley, and a stone aqueduct which was rediscovered by the N.I.C. crew in 1983.
for the water system (no longer functioning). Bing- This first road is a stone stairway which descends
ham believed this site to be one of the important several thousand feet to Wiñay Wayna. Open to
fortified outposts subsidiary to Machu Picchu. hikers in 1984, this trail became the preferred route
In 1984 the N.I.C. sent a crew to clear vegetation for hiking. The other road goes northwest around
and rebuild Sayacmarca, causing consternation the mountain and is paved until the descent to
among the archaeologists, who hoped no reconstruc- Wiñay Wayna. There it branches out into a number
tion would be done until careful excavations and of dangerous, steep, deeply eroded paths.
studies had been carried out. At Sayacmarca the Wiñay Wayna is a beautiful site, situated almost
Inca Trail enters the high jungle, where lianas and directly below Phuyupatamarca at 8,856 feet above
bromeliads cover the trees and a profusion of wild- sea level. The ruins are built on two levels linked by
flowers can be seen. The road is paved with granite a stone stairway and a series of ten baths. The baths
flagstones and is in good repair except for spots no longer work because the terrace supporting the
where decaying vegetation and mosses have en- feeder channel has eroded, but they were reported

?A Apthafoinr.v

(Left) The most impressive feature at Machu Picchu
is its fine Inca stonework . Early explorers marveled
at the tightly constructed structures and walls found
untouched by the Spaniards. (Above) Porters and
trekkers on the Inca Trail near Patallacta represent
just one of many groups that trek the trail annually.
Although camping is allowed in the Park , such as
this campsite at the Inca site of Phuyupatamarca,
campers have damaged many Inca sites.
working in 1942. Here, too, there is damage from
careless camping. At this altitude orchids and wild-
flowers proliferate, and encroaching jungle vegeta-
tion is a major threat to archaeological sites. In
1983 the N.I.C. sent in a crew to remove the over-
growth in a never-ending battle against the jungle.
A number of complexes, situated about an
hour's walk apart, are located off the Inca Trail be-
tween Wiñay Wayna and Machu Picchu. These in-
clude agricultural terraces and the new discoveries
of Quillapata and Chaskapata, as well as a stone
stairway with 52 steps, leading up to the remains of
several buildings. Roughly midway is a tiny tampu,
or waystation, which is slowly being consumed by
the jungle. The trail hugs the mountainside and
crosses log bridges which offer glimpses of the Uru-
bamba River a dizzying 2,000 feet below. Suddenly
another flight of stairs leads to the Inti Punku, or
Sun Door, to Machu Picchu. Although camping is
illegal here, backpackers frequently pitch their tents
because guards rarely make the hour climb from the
main part of Machu Picchu to check the site.
At the Inti Punku hikers stop to have a snack
and look down on Machu Picchu, then wind their
way down the terraces to enter the city the way
people did in Inca times, on foot, over the Inca road.
But given the damage to the ruins in the park, how
many generations will have this experience?
The Directors of the Machu Picchu Sanctuary
Project agree that conservation and the impact of
tourism on the environment are very new ideas in
Peru. Education is necessary at all levels. To con-
vince the Peruvian government of the seriousness
of the problem, Ferreyros and MacLean organized
an Inca TVailtrek for high-level officials in July 1984.
Participants included Raul Ortiz de Zevallos, Vice
Minister of Tourism; Ernesto Paredes Arana, Direc-
tor of the Special Project for Tourist Reserves;
Ramiro Valdez, Executive Director of Copesco (the
Peruvian branch of Unesco); Roberto Zegarra
Alfaro, Chief of Works for the N.I.C./Copesco pro-
gram for the restoration of Inca and Colonial monu-
ments; Carlos Aranda, Coordinator of Apeco, the
Peruvian Conservation Organization; Nico Moscoso,
Director of Cenfor, the Ministry of Agriculture's
Division of Flora and Fauna; a reporter from El
Comercio, one of Peru's major newspapers; and
several North American and Peruvian university
students, scholars connected with the project, wives
and children.
The event began in Cuzco with a slide lecture by
Bernie Peyton on the wildlife in the Park, which is
also an official wildlife sanctuary. Supplied and
outfitted by Explorandes, the group then trekked
from Kilometer 88 to Machu Picchu to see conditions
on the trail first-hand, with talks by Ferreyros and
MacLean. Because the Park has been declared part
of the world's cultural patrimony by the United
Nations, and because foreigners are responsible for
so much of the damage, Ferreyros and MacLean are
rallying international support for the project.
Ferreyros conceived the idea of sponsors: people,
institutions and organizations around the world
which would contribute time, money or expertise.
Sponsors outside Peru include the major American
adventure travel agencies which offer treks in the
park; British archaeologist Ann Kendall, Director
of the Cusichaca Project; the guides who lead treks
in the park; and Fundación Jatari: Andean Educa-
tion and Research Foundation of San Francisco,
California, which is handling financial contributions
to the project.
Several times within the past two years Ferrey-
ros made trips to the United States to meet with
officials from the National Park Service, the Nature
Conservancy, the Fisheries and Wildlife Service,
and the World Wildlife Fund, all of whom offered
help when the project presents a final plan. In Peru
various organizations and individuals have become
sponsors of the project. The government agreed that
an emergency plan for the park was in order, under
the direction of the Ministry of Tourism. Carlos
Aranda, of Apeco, volunteered to coordinate the
emergency plan and present recommendations to a
government commission. In Cuzco, the trekking
agencies have stepped up their training of personnel.
For instance, Tom Hendrickson, co-owner of Peru-
vian Andean TVeks, reports that all staff is informed
on trail ecology and watched to see that they
comply with the rules when dealing with refuse,
bathroom pits, fires, and other related practices.
Ferreyros and MacLean hope that the new trail map,
listing the rules for camping, will improve the im-
mediate situation on the Inca Trail. All the inter-
national efforts, in fact, are geared for more awareness
and better conservation efforts so that future
generations can marvel, too, at the ingenuity of the
Inca builders.
/
Nnuomhor 10QC
The of
Archaeology
by Philippe Velay, Brigitte Fischer, Dominique
as we know it, is the prod-
uct of a complex urban evolu-
Paris, tion beginning with Julius
Caesar, who in 52 b.c. used the
power of his legions to crush a revolt
among the Gauls that left Lutetia-
ancient Paris- in burning ruins.
The rebuilding of the devastated
city in the generations that followed
laid the foundations for the Roman
city at Paris which would grow, over
the course of many centuries, into
the flourishing metropolis so famil-
L iar to us today.
k How early Paris was destroyed
WL and subsequently refounded is
a story which is told, and
mm has been retold for a
HA hundred years, now, at
"id Arv»u*cru
AT-v
Paris
Early
morel, and Bailey Young
the Musée Carnavalet, one of the
major urban museums of the world.
Indeed, it is difficult to separate the
history of Parisian archaeology
from the growth of the museum, for
the two go hand-in-hand. The city
has been the subject of great histori-
cal fascination ever since the Renais-
sance, when scholars sought to
locate some of the city's great an-
cient monuments; but in truth the
written record has never been very
adequate to tell the whole story.
Only when the modernization of
Paris was undertaken during the
reign of Napoleon III (1851-1870)
did the very old city begin to come
seriously to light- and only then in
the form of impressive archaeologi-
cal finds. Under Napoleon Ill's
direction, wide new boulevards were
created, and all the principal streets
(Left) Reconstruction of a Gallic warrior.
His iron weapons haue been found in a
third-century B.C.grave in Rungis,
south of Paris. (Above) Model of the
city of Lutetia during the Early Empire.
(Right) "The Coopers of the Palace of
the Thermal Baths of Julian" was
painted in about 1785 by Hubert Robert
(1733-1808).
crisscrossing the ancient city were
modernized. This massive undertak-
ing opened up sites where the
different phases of Gallo-Roman
settlement and construction, as well
as extensive cemetery areas, could
be observed.
Fortunately for Paris, there was
a person on hand- Theodore Vac-
quer- to observe the old building
sites and to proceed with scientific
excavation where it was appropriate.
An engineer by training, Vacquer
was appointed by the city in 1844 to
survey the worksites opened during
modernization for material of his-
toric interest. In essence, he served
as municipal archaeologist, certainly
the first in such a major world capi-
tal. For half a century until his
retirement in 1889, he followed the
transformation of Paris, sometimes
excavating, and making precise and
meticulous notes. Some of these
invaluable records were destined to
be destroyed by fire when the Hotel
de Ville burned in the insurrection
of 1871; but at least 10,000 manu-
scripts survive and are conserved
today in the Bibliothèque Historique
de la Ville de Paris.
These documents formed the
basis of a remarkable study of
Gallo-Roman Paris published by a
young historian, Felix-George de
Pachtere, in 1902. Pachtere's work
was of great importance because the
large majority of Vacquer's papers
had remained unpublished. Together
with later discoveries, they also
served Paul Marie-Duval in writing
Paris Antique , which has become a
basic reference in the use of archae-
ological resources to reconstruct the
past of the Roman town.
This is not to say that no schol-
arly work whatever preceded Vac-
quer's efforts. Scholars like Sauval,
Jaillot and especially the Abbé
Lebeuf sought to explain the origins
of various monuments and quarters
of Paris with reference to the writ-
ten sources. Renaissance writers
sought the locations of such monu-
ments as the "Palace of the Em-
peror Julian," as it was called. In
reality this was the remains of a
Roman bath, on whose site the
powerful Abbey de Cluny would later
be built. From the beginning of the
nineteenth century, periodic excava-
tions took place here and there,
notably in the Luxembourg Gardens,
where many Gallo-Roman objects
were found. But it was not until
Vacquer undertook his massive ef-
forts that archaeological study of
Paris began in earnest.
It was one thing, however, to
save a considerable part of the city's
archaeological heritage from out-
right destruction, and another to
conserve it and present it to the
general public. Through an irony of
history, many of Vacquer's material
finds were buried again- in storage
-and are only now beginning again
to see the public light. After the de-
struction of the old City Hall, the
Hotel de Ville, the city authorities
created a Museum of the History of
Paris. Tb that end they chose the
Hotel Carnavalet located in the old
Marais district, both because it was
one of the oldest and handsomest of
the noble mansions of the city, with
its Renaissance façade and decor,
N.I 1 /r' 1 moc "k-ï
but also because the house had be-
longed to that great lady of letters,
Madame de Sevignée, actually the
Marquise de Sevignée. Vacquer was
named as one of the curators of the
new museum, which opened its doors
to the public just over a century
ago, in 1880.
Archaeology thus has acquired
a position of prestige in the cultural
hierarchy of Paris of the Belle
Époque. New finds were added to the
collection after Vacquer's retirement
by his successors on the Commission
Archaeological fieldwork in Paris
yielded a variety of artifacts including
(above) a first or second-century A.D.
glass bottle; (right) a gold stater, the
obverse of which shows the profile of
the Gallic prince Vercingetorix. Diam-
eter, approximately two centimeters;
(below) white terracotta animal figu-
rines and a Venus figurine imported
from central Gaul during the Early
Empire; an important Roman stone pil-
lar monument, recently reconstructed
and standing in the Musée Carnavelet;
(right, below) a collection of first-
century Celtic gold coins minted by the
Parisii tribe and a bronze belt pendant,
partly gilded and with niello.
IO Anru*rrurtrv
de Vieux Paris, founded in 1899 and
still functioning today as the group
which oversees archaeology in the
city. But by the 1920s the cultural
climate had changed, and the Mu-
seum put its archaeological collec-
tions in storage to make space for
more modern exhibits. The situation
remained unchanged for 50 years.
Not until 1972 did these treas-
ures begin to come again before the
public eye. In that year, Patrick
Perin was appointed archaeological
curator of the Museum, and he made
plans to put this collection once
again before the public. The first
stage of this process consisted of
temporary exhibits, each accom-
panied by a thorough catalogue, and
each devoted to a different historical
phase of the city's history: first
came Mediaeval Paris in 1978; then
came Merovingian Paris in 1982;
and most lately came Lutetia or
Roman Paris in 1984-85. At the
moment an ambitious program of
modernization and expansion is
under way at the Museum.
rJLhe Gallic peoples of Paris, the
Parisii defeated by Caesar in 52 b.c.,
were already city dwellers with a
well-developed network of commer-
cial trade routes along the rivers and
a much-respected currency based on
gold. It is surprising how silent the
historical sources are on the Parisii,
because Lutetia was exceptionally
well situated. The island on which
their city was established lay at a
major conjunction of trade routes
between the points of confluence
where two river systems, the Marne
and the Oise, pour their waters into
the Seine. In contrast to other Gallic
peoples and regions abundantly de-
scribed by Greek and Roman writers
like Posidonius or Livy, we find that
Caesar is the first to mention the
Parisii at all.
It is clear, however, that Caesar
had developed a healthy respect for
the Gauls in general and the Parisii
in particular by the time he stormed
the city in the chill pre-dawn hours
of that early spring day. But who
were the Gauls and what was meant
by "Gaul"? First, we must banish
our modern tendency to equate
"Gaul" and "France." When he be-
gan his career as governor of the
Gallic regions subject to Rome in 59
b.c., Caesar's "Gaul" was a vast
area including the Po Valley in
northern Italy as well as the area
across the Alps which he liked to
call Provincia .
The Gauls were a people who al-
ready inspired a healthy respect in
the Romans generally. The Romans
still had vivid memories of the Gallic
invaders who in 385 B.c. had burned
Rome itself before settling down to
dominate the rich plains of northern
Italy. Generations of warfare had
been necessary to get them to accept
Roman tutelage, or at least accede
to it, and even then their warlike
cousins over the Alps gave grounds
for nervousness. The true begin-
nings of the "conquest of Gaul" lie
with the victories of the Roman
general Sextus, who in 133 b.c.
broke the power of the Salyans and
founded the colony of Aix-en-
Provence at the foot of the Salyans'
devastated citadel, which today is
being re-excavated. Sextus's vic-
tories succeeded in disrupting the
balance of power among the diverse
Gallic nations, until then dominated
by the powerful Arverni of the
Massif Central, implacable enemies
of Rome.
We must speak then of the
"Gauls" both in the geographic and
tribal, or even ethnic, sense; for the
Gauls were not only an aggregate of
diverse peoples, but they must also
be clearly distinguished from the
Celts. The Celtic-speaking peoples
were groups dominated by a warlike
upper caste whom we find living in
fortresses in Bohemia ánd southern
Germany around 500 b.c. During
the ensuing centuries, the Celts were
to spread their power in every direc-
tion, dominating at one time or an-
other regions as distant as Galatia
in modern l'irkey and Galicia in
modern Portugal. By Caesar's day,
their might was much diminished
from what it had been 200 years
earlier. But it was still such that the
name of the Celts was associated
with much of Europe between the
Rhine and the Pyrenees, the Alps
and the English Channel- which is
to say, much of Europe.
Essentially, then, the story of
Gallic relations with Rome was far
from being one of unremitting hos-
tility. For the Gauls were divided
among themselves into over a hun-
dred nationes or gentes , big, little
and middle-sized; their political
relationships were dominated by
alliances, hegemonies and client-
relationships, each Gallic civitas or
tribal state being internally divided
as well by different aristocratic fac-
tions competing for power. The sup-
port of a powerful neighbor, then,
could be worth its weight in gold,
if not more.
Caesar's own first military ex-
ploit in Gaul was to defeat the inva-
sion of the Sueve Ariovistus from
Switzerland, a campaign which he
undertook at the request of the
Aedui, one of the richest and most
powerful of the Celtic peoples and
long-time enemies of the Arverni.
The Aedui were linked to Rome by a
special treaty, and in the years after
he had saved them from invasion,
Caesar often visited or resided in
their mountain stronghold at
Bibracte in central Burgundy. At
most stages of his "conquest" of
Gaul, Caesar had the active support
of Gallic allies only too happy to
gain glory and booty with the
Romans while striking a blow at
some rival people. Yet it would be a
mistake to overstate the case and to
maintain that a feeling of "Gauls
against Romans" did not develop at
all. By no means were the Aedui all
Caesar's friends; and as Rome
grew more powerful, some of them
changed their minds.
The broad-based revolt against
Rome which was led by Vercingetorix
resulted in the destruction of pre-
Roman Gallic Paris and was in-
spired by a growing feeling that
Gallic patriots had to unite before it
was too late. Once Vercingetorix
had been beaten, however, and the
Parisii were definitively crushed, the
vast majority of the Gauls accepted
the verdict without evident diffi-
culty ; the ranks of Caesar's army
were swelled by bands of Gallic war-
Excavation of the Arena , with an esti-
mated seating capacity of 12,000, was
carried out in the nineteenth century.
Nmmmhor/rWAmhor
1QÄR 9Q
riors who helped him, and then his
successor Octavian Augustus, con-
quer the whole Roman Empire. It
was these men, returning laden with
booty taken in the campaigns of
Egypt, Africa and Spain, who
turned their old tribal civitates into
something more like the "cities"
whose pleasures they had come to
appreciate in the Mediterranean
world. They did not think of them-
selves as "Romans"- they were
Aedui or Sequani or Arverni or
Parisii first off, and then they were
Gauls- but they knew that their lot
was thrown in with Rome's for bet-
ter or for worse.
Many mysteries surround the
emergence of Paris whose early his-
tory was relatively modest. Lutetia
was not located near a bustling
frontier area, like Cologne, TVierand
Mainz, where the constant demands
of a numerous garrison and the civil
bureaucrats created a boom econ-
omy. TVue,it was a rather convenient
stopping point on the way to Britain.
Once this island was added to the
empire and garrisoned in the middle
years of the first century, a natural
measure of prosperity was restored
to the city. The fact that the city of
the Parisii was indeed politically
and strategically important is evi-
dent from when Caesar summoned
the tribes of Gaul to a general as-
sembly on Parisian territory on the
eve of Vercingetorix's rebellion. Celt
and Roman alike may have sensed
the potential of the site; and perhaps
the virtual disappearance of Parisii
for a generation or so after that re-
pression is a sign that the con-
querors distrusted that potential.
At any rate, by the time the city re-
emerges as Roman Lutetia, it is al-
ready displaying an energy and
sense of civic pride, even if it cannot
compete with the capitals of more
favored peoples like Bordeaux or
Orange, Vienne or Autun. But the
day would come when the political,
military and economic fundamentals
would alter radically, and the change
would find the capital of the Parisii
waiting in the wings, ready to as-
sume its prestigious destiny.
Ironically, the archaeological record
of Lutetia's Celtic background is al-
most as sparse as the historical rec-
ord. There is one notable exception
and this consists of a remarkable
series of gold coins struck by the
Parisii prior to the Roman devasta-
tion, beginning about 100 b.c. Were
it not for this series and what it tells
"Vi AprwAFHi rvr;v
us about Parisian commerce, we
would have scarcely any hard evi-
dence that the commercial and
strategic advantages of that island
of the Seine were appreciated at
this early date.
Gallic coins are much less well-
known than Greek or Roman issues.
They betray little direct information
about themselves: since they are
never dated, relative chronologies
only can be derived from them, and
the inscriptions they may bear are
often hard to interpret. Famous
people rarely appear on them, and
rarely do they mention the names of
places or peoples which would allow
us to identify them with a region or
a particular city. All the coins in this
Parisii series observe a fair degree
of stylistic consistency. The obverse
shows a head in profile looking right,
with a hairstyle composed of two
rows of regular curls. S-shaped mo-
tifs occur before the face in most
cases, and the neck is decorated dif-
ferently according to the series. On
the reverse a horse is presented,
turned to the left on all but a few of
the later coins ; he has a sinuous
body, a mane made up of tiny dots,
and the legs look like sticks jointed
by round balls, like tinker toys.
Above his back a net, usually
pointed, has been engraved (occa-
sionally replaced by a kind of wing
motif); between his legs is a sort of
flower made up of large dots; from
his mouth a wavy line mounts to-
ward the top of his head.
Like most Gallic coins, these de-
rive from the stater struck by Philip
of Macedón, Alexander's father. The
earliest imitations seem to date from
around the beginning of the third
century b.c., and were issued by the
Arverni in central Gaul. The series
in question, however, is of mixed
parentage, and borrows much from
the coins of the Belgie Ambiani,
even though Philip's stater was the
distant prototype. From the Belgie
influence comes most notably the
feeling of lithe movement rendered
by the sweeping lines defining the
horse on the reverse. There is a deep
significance to this duality, as we,
shall see shortly, for aesthetically
speaking it fuses Mediterranean
realism with the Celtic penchant for
free movement. Politically and eco-
nomically, it implies that the Parisii
belonged to each of the two cultural
spheres more or less separated by
the Seine- Gaul on the one hand,
Rome on the other. From their island
center in the midst of this river val-
ley, the merchants and boatmen of
the settlement, soon to be known as
Lutetia, acted as brokers between
these two different worlds.
Colbert de Beaulieu's studies of
coinage have shown that these coins
-all found within 100 kilometers of
Paris, almost certain to be of Pari-
sian origin- can be broken down
into seven distinct groups by weight,
stylistic features and gold content.
What the progression of these seven
types tells us is a sad political tale
of a commercially strong people,
In this scene from a 1874publication by
Gourdon de Genouillac, the warriors
swear on their weapons that they will
do their duty.
who for many years resist involve-
ment in the political forces which
threaten their prosperity, but who
at last are drawn into the tide of
affairs and are finally defeated
by an overwhelming force-
Caesar's Rome.
The third-century b.c. coins is-
sued by the Arverni had begun as
faithful copies both iconographically
and technically of Philip's stater;
but as time went on, weight and gold
content began to diminish as the
engravers took more and more sty-
listic liberties. The first four of the
seven classes belong to an early
phase of coin issue characterized by
a remarkable consistency in weight
and fine metal content; this series,
stretching over a considerable
period of time, argues for political
stability and long-term economic
prosperity. Further, it implies a
period of peace during which the
Parisii reaped the benefits of active
trading. Caesar gives hints of how
important boat traffic was on the
rivers when he indicates that Labie-
nus requisitioned some 50 vessels
to make his attack in 52 B.c. None
of these coins, moreover, has been
cut by sceptics fearful of base coins
coated with gold: all of their users
trusted implicitly to their gold
content.
With the appearance of the wider,
thinner coins of Class V, the gold
content diminishes, a sure sign of
recession and a probable indication
that the beginning of the Gallic
wars was at hand. The large number
of coins found in this class indicate
that the Parisii needed a larger
monetary mass, but that their gold
supply was insufficient to sustain
intrinsic value. By Class VII, the
signs of profound crisis become un-
mistakable: the gold content has
been halved. In 53 b.c. when Caesar
ordered that the assembly of the
Gauls be held in Parisian territory,
he noted "this people dwelt next to
the Senones but appeared to be un-
involved in the plot." Only the next
year did they in fact send a troop
of 8,000 men to aid Vercingetorix,
an enormous financial effort which
must explain the cheaper staters.
This poor production is indeed a sad
swan song for a people so recently
prosperous, who had created one of
the most splendid numismatic tra-
ditions in all Gaul.
So the end of the Parisii was des-
tined to be both abrupt and violent.
The attack of Caesar's troops came
in the first light of day; despite the
savage shock the Gauls held up
valiantly under the eye of the fierce
old chief Camulogenus until the
Seventh Legion outflanked and en-
circled them. Even then, as Caesar
informs us, they fought to the last,
the survivors fleeing to safety in the
mist-filled marshes only after the
Romans had routed their number
and put the torch to their modest
island fortress.
Yet only some 70 or 80 years
later, during the reign of Tiberius
Caesar, an impressive four-tier stone
pillar carrying 16 sculpted scenes
was raised somewhere in the center
of Lutetia, as the Parisii were now
proudly calling their capital in Latin.
The devastation and following va-
cancy had not ended the settlement
on the Seine: the history of modern
Paris had effectively begun.
One of the most important of
the Roman monuments, and only re-
cently reconstructed in a convincing
way, this stone pillar was paid for
by the Nautes, a corporation grow-
ing wealthy from the river-borne
trade stimulated by the Pax Romana
achieved during the time of Augus-
tus. The pillar proclaims the Nautes 1
loyalty to the emperor and to Jupiter
Maximus, the chief of the Roman
gods, who is depicted grasping his
familiar attributes of power, the
thunderbolts. On the highest tier,
however, above even Jupiter, the
citizens of the new city placed the
image of their own Celtic deity-
Cernunnos- who is seated cross-
legged with two handsome tores
adorning his dramatically horned
head.
The other sculpted panels pre-
sent a similar mixture of Celtic and
Roman divinities, as well as soldiers
bearing Celtic and Roman arms,
dramatic proof that the two cultures
had found a new community of in-
terest based on mutual respect. First
found in the eighteenth century, this
monument was originally erected
after Rome's abortive failure to con-
quer Germany, and helps to proclaim
the citizens' sense that they now be-
long to the "civilized" world. Housed
now in the place of honor in the
Carnavalet Museum, the Pillar of
the Nautes symbolizes the opening
of an era of unprecedented peace
and prosperity when the first urban
civilization of Western Europe was
to take form and flourish.
As the Roman city of Lutetia
grew, it expanded from its original
location on the Ile de la Cité across
the Seine to the Left Bank and
occupied the Montagne Sainte-
Genevieve, where today the Pan-
theon is located. Here the imposing
Forum, with extensive cryptopor-
ticoes, dominated the hill and acted
as the center of administration and
business. According to the laws of
Classical urbanism, public monu-
ments and private houses were built
within a framework dominated by
the Cardo, the main north-south
thoroughfare, which conforms to the
present route of the Rue Saint
Jacques on the Left Bank and the
Rue Saint Martin on the Right Bank.
North of the city, on the slopes and
summit of Montmartre, temples and
well-appointed villas added their
touch of elegance to the Early Im-
perial skyline. Around the city, out-
side the space reserved for dwelling
areas and public business by Im-
perial law, the domain of the dead-
the cemeteries- developed along
the main roads west and especially
south from the first to the fourth
centuries.
As was usual in the cities of the
Roman Empire, Lutetia boasted a
variety of religious and civil monu-
ments-the Pillar of the Nautes be-
ing but one of them, the Forum
being chief among them. For leisure
the population could flock in great
numbers to the Arena and its wild-
beast games, or go to the extensive
public baths for sport, hygiene, re-
laxation, and sociability. Tfemples
and memorials, raised in honor of
the Gallo-Roman deities, were also
This head of Julius Caesar, made of
Pentelic marble , dates to 44 B.C.
a source of civic pride.
The people of Lutetia, who have
been estimated at between 6,000 and
8,000 during the Imperial heyday,
lived comfortably spread out among
their 140-odd hectares. By the first
century the city was thriving:
houses built of brick and stone were
roofed with tile, and might boast
rooms decorated with mosaic floors
and walls brightened with gay fres-
coes. Excavations have furnished us
with numerous objects which reveal
the everyday activities of the Lute-
tians- silver and bronze coins to
spend at the market, pottery locally
made or imported from other regions
of Gaul, bronze and terracotta fig-
urines which brought gods and god-
desses or local heroes into people's
houses.
Commercial traffic converged
on the city along the major high-
ways built by Rome's engineers, but
the river traffic along the Seine was
at the heart of its prosperity. Reli-
giously, the pagan traditions of the
Parisii were synthesized with the
venerated divinities of Celtic Europe
and the deities of the Classical world.
At home, the domestic cults of the
Lares were a focus of devotion.
Among Gallo-Roman divinities,
Mercury, Mars and Venus were most
frequently represented in Lutetia,
on stone reliefs as well as in figures
of bronze or terracotta. Burial prac-
tices provide a clue to religious atti-
tudes as well; during the early days,
cremation was the usual practice,
with the burnt bones and ashes
carefully buried in simple vases. But
during the Empire, inhumation
burial gained ground progressively
until it had become general by the
fourth century. Most often the
bodies were buried in a simple
wooden coffin, although the rich dis-
played fancy stone sarcophagi.
During the troubled third cen-
tury, the Christian religion first be-
gan to acquire converts in the towns
of northern Gaul. In Lutetia, funer-
ary finds as well as hagiographie
literature reflect the growth of a
small Christian community, threat-
ened by persecutions, into a trium-
phant religion united behind its
bishop on the eve of the Barbarian
invasions. Epitaphs decorated with
the Chrism (the sign in the sky
which led the emperor Constantine
to convert), personal ornaments
decorated with figures of the proph-
ets, and the first churches to be
built in the town, or the southern
cemetery are all archaeological
T? Aptmafoj
nrv
vestiges of this process.
During the Late Empire, when
the Barbarian invasions became a
daily threat, Lutetia was a military
center of some importance. The
handsome old Forum was fortified
and a large rampart was built around
the Ile de la Cité , partly with blocks
taken from earlier monuments. The
Seine river fleet was stationed there
and two soldier-emperors, Julian
and Valentinian I, made it a regular
headquarters. But neither Chris-
tianity nor the Barbarians were to
be stopped. A century later, the
Parisians rallied behind their favor-
ite saint, the shepherd girl, Gene-
vieve, during the darkest days of
the invasions. When the Franks,
under young King Clovis, finally
occupied the city, they too bowed to
the new faith. Converted about A.D.
496, Clovis made Paris the capital
of the new Frankish kingdom and
began a program of church building
continued by his successors, which
has transformed the city into the
Christian capital that we know.
Among the great finds from
this early period made a century ago
during the modernization of Paris
are three that bear more particular
mention. These are the Arena, the
Roman Baths (known for so long as
"Julian's Palace"), and the great
southern cemetery, which today is
in the vicinity of the Luxembourg
Gardens.
During the 1860s workmen cut
a large swath through one of the old
quarters of the Left Bank to build
the new Rue Monge and the build-
ings fronting it. When they came
upon the considerable remains of the
Roman amphitheater hidden in the
network of later constructions, there
need have been no surprise: the
memory of the Arena, which had an
estimated seating capacity of 12,000,
had been preserved for centuries by
the place name, and twelfth-century
documents situated it. But a long
drawn out historical preservation
battle followed. At first it went in
favor of the "modernizers" and large
parts of the monument were dis-
mantled to serve as a quarry for new
construction and to make way for a
bus depot! Preservationists fought
back in the press and won a major
victory in the second round with the
help of "stars" like Victor Hugo. In
1883 the city decided to save what
was left and even attempt a partial
reconstruction to be integrated into
a public garden which was finally
done in 1917-18.
But of all the ancient monu-
ments that remain of Roman Paris,
only the so-called "Northern Baths,"
today part of the famed Cluny Mu-
seum, still survive partly in eleva-
tion; one of the monumental rooms
stands today with its Roman vaults
intact. The residence of the powerful
Abbots of Cluny was built in the
later Middle Ages alongside what
twelfth-century sources call the
"Palace of the Baths." For a long
time it was thought that this had
been in fact a "palace" where the
Emperors Julian the Apostate and
Valentinian I had resided while in
Lutetia, but we know now that this
was merely a long-lived legend.
During the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries, a hanging
Babylonian-style garden was created
on these vaults, and during the
same centuries craftsmen were al-
lowed to occupy structures built into
the solid interior of the old building;
in 1781, for instance, a barrel-maker
had his shop here. Only during the
nineteenth century did historical
consciousness become acute enough
to warrant rescuing the structure.
Louis XVIII cleared away the para-
site structures, put an enclosing
wall around the structure to protect
the ruins, and ordered the first
limited excavations.
The large-scale operations of
urban renewal, begun by Napoleon
III and continued under the Third
Republic, led to the discovery of
Lutetia's largest cemetery located to
the south of the city, along the major
road to Lyon, where the Gobelins
quarter stands today. Countless
burials came to light when the new
boulevards were built. Vacquer and
other archaeologists were able to
rescue a rich harvest of grave goods
which provides a typological base
for understanding daily life- good-
quality sigillata pottery imported
from other regions of Gaul and the
plainer, local varieties, bronze jew-
elry, sometimes even little figurines
of a Gallo-Roman or an Oriental
divinity. This was also one of the key
sites for the development of Chris-
tianity, for here was built one of the
oldest churches, doubtless around
the grave of the fifth-century Bishop
Marcel whose name it bore until its
demolition. Thus the old pagan civic
necropolis was transformed into
one of the major cemeteries of
Mediaeval Christian Paris, as the
faithful flocked to be buried ad
sanctos, in the shadow of the saint's
protecting grace.
 Galen's
Pergamm

by Lee T. Pearcy

III, ruler of the Hellenistic Greek kingdom of Pergamm, was an

eccentric monarch with an interest in botanical research and a habit of testing
Attaluspoisonous plants and their antidotes on condemned criminals. When he
died in 133 b.c., one final surprise remained for his subjects. The king's will bequeathed
his realm to the distant but rising power of Rome. The Pergamene territory,
stretching from the Sea of Marmara to the southern coast of what is now Turkey,
became the nucleus of the Roman province of Asia. The golden age of the Attalid
kings (282-133 b.c.) was over.
The modern Turkish market town of Bergama occupies part of the site of the
Attalids' capital city, Pergamm. For most visitors, the royal monuments on the
acropolis are the chief attraction. The vertiginous sweep of the theater, the founda-
tions of the Altar of Zeus, and the ruins of the palaces, arsenals, sanctuaries, and
Royal Library, with which Eumenes II ( 197-159 b.c. ) asserted his claim to cultural
parity with the Ptolemies of Egypt, crown a thousand-foot hill at the end of a spur
extending south from the Madra Dagi range. Today, as it always has, the acropolis
of Pergamm dominates the fertile valley of the Bakir Cayi, the ancient Caïcus
River.
But Pergamene history did not stop with the death of Attalus III. After
Pergamm passed into Roman rule as a nominally free city -"free and autonomous
from the beginning by grace of the emperors," as an inscription revealingly

r
Ait Ionic column
capital from the
North Stoa , part
of a complex of
structures built
in the reigns of
Hadrian and
Antoninus Pius
to enclose the
sacred precinct o
Asclepius.
describes two cities in similar cir- illuminate the life and writings of astronomy as well as architecture,
cumstances-its fortunes were in Galen, and Galen in turn helps to and a hint of a certain rigidity of
general those of the province of put life into the stones. mind emerges from Nicon's gram-
Asia. Along with the province, it matical purism and from his fond-
enjoyed prosperity during the reigns ness for exotic mathematical and
of TVajan (a.D. 98-117), Hadrian Galen was born at Pergamm in literary recreations. He was, for
(a.D. 117-138), Antoninus Pius A.D. 129. His father, Aelius Nicon, example, given to composing isop-
(a.D. 137-161), and Marcus Aurelius was an architect and builder. His sephic verses, that is, verses whose
(a.D. 161-180). Under these An- mother was, as Galen himself wrote, letters when given their values ac-
tonine emperors Pergamm in par- a shrew. She would sometimes fly at cording to the Greek alphabetic
ticular experienced a second golden her slaves and bite them and was numeral system and added together
age rivaling that of the Attalids in always fighting with his father. give the same total for each line of a
architectural and cultural splendor, Galen compared her to Socrates' poem. Five inscriptions found at
if not in political influence. quarrelsome wife Xanthippe- but Pergamm preserve samples of
Although the most distinguished Galen's mother was worse. Perhaps these isopsephic compositions.
native of Antonine Pergamm was she found it difficult to live with Galen's father was a typical
Galen, the physician and philos- someone as omnivorously and, it member of the circle of men of lei-
opher, the only direct reminder of may be, intolerantly intellectual as sure and letters who gathered at
Galen to be found in Pergamm Nicon. Galen writes of his father's second-century Pergamm 's Sanc-
today was created after his death. interest in mathematics, logic and tuary of Asclepius, the god of medi-
It is in the ethnographical museum
of modern Bergama: an Arabic man-
uscript of the Mediaeval Persian
physician Avicenna's Canon of Medi-
cine, a work which draws heavily on
Galen's and a fitting testimony to
his importance as a transmitter
of ancient Greek medicine. Galen's
influence dominated not only
Mediaeval Islamic medicine, but
also western medicine for 1,500
years after his death early in the
third century.
And yet the archaeologically
minded visitor to the site of ancient
Pergamm soon discovers that
Galen's career, his opinions of his
native city, and the careers of his
family and associates make up per-
haps the best guide to the ruins once
one leaves the upper city and the
Attalid monuments on the acropolis
itself. The remains of the lower city

TA Ado-iap
rurv-.v

cine. The sanctuary now stands
quietly on the outskirts of Bergama
near a Ibrkish army training camp
and tank park. In Galen's day also
it stood somewhat outside the city,
with which it was connected by a
road some 820 meters long. The ex-
cavations of the German Archaeo-
logical Institute since 1927 have
exposed the last 140 meters of this
elegant street. In this section, near-
est the Asclepeion, Ionic colonnades
flanked the roadway and covered
broad sidewalks with shops opening
onto them. In earlier times the road
to the Asclepeion, like other roads
leading out of Greek cities, had been
flanked by tombs, and the colon-
naded street carefully skirts a round
tomb of the Hellenistic period
(323-14 b.C.).
The shops could have sold food,
drink, souvenirs, books- any kind
of necessity or luxury -and would
have had many customers among
the throngs of visitors and residents
at the shrine. The Asclepeion was
more than a sanctuary of the healing
god. It combined the functions of a
temple and a center of healing by
faith, a spa, a teaching hospital, and
a place of resort for intellectuals
from Pergamm and the other cities
of the Province of Asia. This blend
The road from the Sanctuary of
Asclepius passed through an arch , now
called the Viran Kapi, or Ruined Gate,
at the corner of Pergamm 's Roman
theater.
of Lourdes, Bath, St. Bartholomew's,
and All Souls' attracted not only
Galen and his father, but also the
famous rhetoricians Aelius Aristides
and Antonius Polemo, the Per-
gamene historian and consular
Claudius Charax, the consul Cuspius
Rufinus, and many others, sick and
well, valetudinarian and hypo-
chondriac. "All Asia," wrote Philo-
stratus in the generation after Galen,
"flocks to the shrine of Asclepius
at Pergamm."
Galen, perhaps while still in his
teens, became a therapeutes or "at-
tendant" of the Pergamene As-
clepius. Inscriptions found at the
Asclepeion and the gossipy speeches
of Aelius Aristides show that the
"attendants" were far from being
lowly servants of the god. Members
of this prestigious cult association
included consuls and ex-consuls,
senators, highly-placed members of
the imperial civil service, philoso-
phers and rhetoricians from all over
the province of Asia.
At the end of the colonnaded
street visitors entered a courtyard
and then passed through a propylon,
or ornamental gateway, into the As-
clepeion itself. The inscription still
on the propylon's broken pediment
in the courtyard, declaring that it
was given by the historian Charax,
reminds today's visitors of the com-
bination of wealth, intellectualism
and social prestige that centered on
the Asclepeion in second-century
Pergamm. For Charax, the money
spent on the propylon would be well
repaid by the way in which the struc-
ture proclaimed his social standing,
Nnuemhor/rWomlvir
1QfiR "ÍR
generosity and cultural interests to
all who passed through it.
Someone standing on the inner
steps of the propylon looked out on
a huge open courtyard 110 meters
wide and 130 meters long. On the
north, west and south sides Ionic
stoas (porches fronted by a range of
columns) surrounded the temples,
fountains and treatment rooms of
the Hellenistic and Early Roman
Asclepeion. Behind the visitor, an
impressive range of buildings com-
pleted the quadrangle on the east.
In the center of the western stoa a
doorway and flight of steps gave
onto a Doric stoa. It and a good part
of the northern colonnade have
been reconstructed.
This monumental ensemble of
enclosing structures was designed
to regularize the rather haphazard
plan of the earlier Asclepeion, to
symbolize the importance of the
healing sanctuary and the city to
which it was attached, and to pro-
vide space for the cultural activities
which had become an increasingly
important part of life at the shrine
in the second century. At the north-
east corner immediately to the right
of the main entrance stood a library
furnished, as an inscription still in
the northern stoa announces, by
Flavia Melitene, a prominent citizen
of second-century Pergamm, wife
of one town councillor and mother
of another. The statue of Hadrian
she donated to the library now stands
in the museum of Bergama.
At the northwest corner of the
enclosure is a small theater seating
perhaps 3,500 spectators. These
Gladiators fight bears and bulls in a
frieze now in the Archaeological
Museum in modern Bergama. Such
bloody spectacles were frequent in
Pergamum's amphitheater ; one of the
few in the Greek world.
"VI Abthafoinnv
audiences would not have come to
hear only dramatic performances.
The second century was an age in
love with rhetoric and rhetorical dis-
play. During this Second Sophistic
-so called to distinguish it from
the first great period of enthusiasm
for rhetoric, the late fifth century
b.c.- the sophists, teachers and
practitioners of rhetoric and other
arts enjoyed power, influence and
wealth to a degree seldom experi-
enced by intellectuals at any time.
Galen's writings show the influence
of the Second Sophistic's rhetorical
culture, and his accounts of how he
gave anatomical demonstrations
before enthusiastic, socially promi-
nent audiences at Rome, refuted
critical partisans of other physi-
cians, or expounded his diagnoses
of diseases differ very little from the
accounts of sophists' demonstra-
tions in Philostratus's Lives of the
Sophists. The small theater of the
Asclepeion might have witnessed
rhetorical displays by Aelius Aris-
tides (who in one of his orations at-
tributed his skill in speaking to
Asclepius), by Antonius Polemo,
and by other sophists visiting the
shrine.
Besides the library and theater,
one other large room opened off the
enclosing stoa at the southwest cor-
ner opposite the library. Its purpose
is not obvious, but it may have been
a lecture hall or meeting room. Next
to it the practical Romans installed
two public lavatories. The men's was
on an imperial scale, with 40 seats,
marble paving, and a ceiling sup-
ported by four fine Corinthian col-
umns; the women's, it is sad to
report, was a plain room with only
17 seats.
Someone leaving the Asclepeion
would have faced the imposing east-
ern façade of the enclosure- no stoa,
but a rhythmic architectural com-
position. Two buildings, each with a
pedimented porch supported by four
Corinthian columns, flanked a pas-
sageway just to the left of the façade's
center. The left-hand building was
the propylon built by Claudius
Charax. The right-hand building
was the Temple of Asclepius itself,
built by Lucius Cuspius Pactumeius
Rufinus, distinguished citizen of
Pergamm and consul in A.D. 142.
The temple was modeled on the
Pantheon, recently completed at
Rome. Behind a porch only slightly
bigger than the propylon loomed a
great cylinder 30.55 meters in diam-
eter supporting a hemispherical
dome 23.85 meters across. The
façade focused on the temple of the
god without being balanced around
it, and the matching porches of tem-
ple and propylon strained against
the off-center but dominating tem-
ple and gave the soothing effect of
symmetry without the tedium that
an actually symmetrical composi-
tion might have induced. The eye
swept across the eastern façade from
the library of Flavia Melitene on the
north past the propylon of Claudius
Charax and the temple of Cuspius
Rufinus to the round treatment
building at the southeast corner,
which was built somewhat later
than the other buildings and lay,
like the theater at the opposite cor-
ner, outside the enclosing line of the
stoas. These buildings represented
in stone and marble the intellectual,
social, political, theological, and
medical functions of the second-
century shrine. In the tension be-
tween the near symmetry of the two
porches and the off-center focus of
the domed temple hung something
else: a straining for effect and mis-
trust of serenity in an age that knew
the paradoxes of prosperity and the
anxiety of continuous peace.
An inscription over the columns
of the north stoa honored the
Emperor Hadrian, and it is likely
that the construction of the en-
closure was begun during his reign.
Galen, on the other hand, says that
Cuspius Rufinus was building the
round temple during his consulate
in A.D. 142, four years into the
reign of Antoninus Pius. As a
boy and young man Galen saw the
eastern range of buildings and the
northern, western and southern
stoas rise up and surround the old
Asclepeion, and the precinct filled
with the dust of construction and
the shouts of workmen.

^ïicon had intended for his son

to study philosophy or politics,
pursuits appropriate to the cultured
governing class into which he had
been born. But in 144 or 145
Asclepius intervened. In a dream,
Galen says, the god told Nicon to
allow his son to study medicine.
Nicon obeyed. Perhaps he was re-
lieved that divine authority had
given him a way to grant his son's
wish without having to admit that
his plan for Galen's education
had been wrong. For the next four
years Galen studied medicine
at Pergamm amid the gleaming
buildings of the new precinct
of Asclepius. the ancient Greeks of the Roman The remains of Pergamum's Roman
In 148 or 149 Nicon died, and period were as bloodthirsty and amphitheater are rarely visited by
Galen at 19 found himself rich and competitive as anyone, and gladia- tourists to the site . The stream running
independent. He chose to travel and tors found a ready audience in Greek through the structure could have been
further his medical education at cities under Roman rule. There were used to flood the arena for mock naval
battles .
Smyrna (modern Izmir), Corinth troupes of gladiators at Smyrna,
and Alexandria. During his travels Philadelphia and Cyzicus. Although
he maintained his connections with amphitheaters are uncommon in the
influential people in Pergamm, and Greek world (in addition to Perga-
in 157 returned to his native city mum's, there was one at Corinth,
and a prestigious appointment: built in the third or fourth century,
physician to the gladiators. one at Cyzicus on the Sea of Mar-
Gladiatorial combats had origi- mara, and perhaps one or two
nated in Etruscan and Roman Italy, others), stadiums like those at
lb many people the spectacle of Aphrodisias, Smyrna, Nysa, and
human beings killing one another Laodicea were the scenes of gladia-
to entertain a crowd seems at odds torial combats. It is worth remem-
with Hellenic culture, but in fact bering that the Romanized theaters
1985
November/December 37
The Trajaneum, a temple in honor
of Trojan, the Optimus Princeps
(Best of Emperors), was the only
substantial structure added to
Pergamum's acropolis by Imperial
Rome. The lower city benefitted
most from prosperity under the
Antonine emperors.
of Greek cities like Ephesus or
Miletus were often the scenes of
gladiatorial exhibitions as well as
of more intellectual diversions.
Hundreds of inscriptions and reliefs
bear witness to the life, death and
popularity of gladiators in the
Greek-speaking parts of the Roman
Empire.
Pergamm had its amphitheater
and Roman theater to supplement
the Hellenistic theater on the acrop-
olis. Few people nowadays visit
these remains of the Roman city.
They lie on a long plateau, Musalla
Mesarlik, which runs from south to
north between the Asclepeion and
the acropolis in one of the poorer
quarters of modern Bergama. The
ancient road from the Asclepeion
passed through an arch at the south-
ern corner of the theater, and today
that arch is the most conspicuous
remaining part of the Roman thea-
ter. Known locally as the Viran
Kapi, the Ruined Gate, it serves as
a point of reference on the skyline
to someone who has chosen to walk
up through the narrow, twisting
streets on the eastern slope of the
Musalla Mesarlik rather than take
the easier road from the Asclepeion.
The outline of the theater ap-
pears as a semicircular hollow in the
hillside. Nothing can be seen of the
orchestra or stage building at the
bottom of the semicircle, but along
the northern edge and by the Viran
Kapi opposite it is easy to see the
massive arches that supported the
sloping tiers of seats. Many Roman
38 ARCHAFCH
OC.Y
theaters were free-standing, but
Pergamum's was built into a hill.
This theater was approximately 150
meters across, slightly larger than
the theater at Ephesus, which
seated some 25,000 spectators.
Two hundred yards north and
just west of the Roman theater stood
Pergamum's amphitheater. Its oval
measures 136 meters on the long,
north-south axis and 128 meters on
the shorter, east-west axis. The
Colosseum at Rome, in comparison,
measures 188 meters on its long axis
and 156 meters on the short. At the
northern and southern ends of Per-
gamum's amphitheater rise parts of
the substructure of concrete and
rubble, faced with blocks of the
reddish-purple andesite from which
much of Pergamm was built. These
remains tower nearly 100 feet (ca.
30 meters) above a small stream
which runs through the arena of the
amphitheater. The water from this
stream would have been channeled
to flood the arena whenever the day's
program called for a naumachia or
mock naval battle.
The gladiators who fought and
occasionally died here were orga-
nized into a troupe or "family" under
the supervision of a lanista. "Slave
driver" is the dictionary's transla-
tion, but "coach and general mana-
ger" might give a better idea of the
lanista' s duties. The nominal owner
of Pergamum's "family" was the
High Priest of Asia, an official
whose religious duties were less im-
portant than his role as president of
the province's general assembly, a
body which advised the Roman gov-
ernor on provincial affairs and super-
vised the official worship of Rome
and the emperor. The High Priest
was expected to provide at his own
expense gladiatorial games during
his year in office, and each High
Priest on leaving office sold his
"family" of gladiators to his succes-
sor. A decree of the Roman Senate
passed in A.D. 177 to regulate and
moderate the amount of money spent
on these displays gives valuable
details of their administration and
shows the pains taken to care for
the valuable gladiators between
bouts.
Galen was proud of the fact that
during his initial term as physician
to the gladiators, none of his pa-
tients died as a result of wounds.
Five High Priests succeeded one
another in four years, and each one
renewed Galen's appointment. From
the autumn of 157 to the autumn of
161 he gained valuable practical
experience in what we would call
trauma and sports medicine. But his
duties would not have kept him too
busy to pursue his studies in theo-
retical medicine and philosophy, and
to take part in the cultural and po-
litical life of Pergamum's governing
elite. Although a gladiatorial match
might last several days, these
matches were linked to major festi-
vals of local divinities or the im-
perial cult and so took place on only
a few days each year. Epitaphs from
Asia Minor often show how many
combats the deceased gladiator had
fought: hardly ever more than 20 in
a career, often fewer than ten, even
when the gladiator survived to re-
tire from the arena. Inscriptions
from Pergamm commemorate one
gladiator with 18 combats, another
with five victories, another with
only two. This unfortunate fighter's
name was Chresteinos, and his epi-
taph, set up by his wife Antonia,
records the fact that he was killed
by a gladiator with the nom de
combat Achilles, and declares that
he bore his fate like a man.
By A.D. 161 Galen, now 32, may
have realized that even a great and
prosperous provincial city like Per-
gamm could not offer the opportu-
nities his talents and ambition
demanded. The lure of Rome, Juve-
nal had written a generation earlier,
pulled every hungry Greek to it,
and, the satirist added, these clever,
facile, talkative foreigners displaced
solid, decent Romans from positions
of preferment.
Galen is not perhaps the sort of
"starving Greekling" Juvenal had in
mind. His lofty Pergamene connec-
tions and financial independence
raise him above that crowd. But
Galen did leave Pergamm for Rome.
There his anatomical demonstra-
tions, lectures and well-publicized
cures in difficult cases transformed
him from a provincial aristocrat
with a local medical reputation to
an international intellectual figure
and court physician to the Emperor
Marcus Aurelius. The Second
Sophistic reserved great rewards for
intellectuals who could demonstrate
their skills in eloquent, agonistic
verbal displays. Galen practiced
this craft as well as any Polemo
or Aristides.
When he left Pergamm in A.D.
161, however, he had, as he tells us,
intended to return as soon as some
unspecified internal strife in his city
had died down. We do not know
what this local conflict was or
whether it was in any way the cause
of Galen's departure. (He was in fact
back in Pergamm from A.D. 166
until sometime in 169.) But the
Roman cities of Asia knew local
conflict even in the midst of the gen-
eral Antonine tranquillity, and this
conflict was often directed at people
of Galen's class. The sophist Dio of
Prusa (modern Bursa) was the tar-
get of a mob who believed that he
had conspired with his fellow no-
tables to fix the price of grain. He
came up before the proconsul Pliny
on charges of malfeasance in connec-
tion with a public building contract.
At Pergamm itself at some point
during the reign of Antoninus Pius
a labor dispute halted construction
on a public building, and the Roman
governor of Asia, after inspecting
the site in person, intervened to
settle the grievance.
From our point of view on the
distant high ground of 1,800 years
of hindsight, Galen and his Perga-
mm present a spectacle of paradox
and contradiction. The stones seem
to match the man. It is hard to be-
lieve that the same people applauded
the deadly spectacles of the amphi-
theater and the sophists' displays
of verbal virtuosity in the cozy
theater of the Asclepeion. But if the
wind was right, patients in the
Asclepeion and readers in its library
would have heard the shouts of
the crowd in the amphitheater
carried up the ravine between the
Musalla Mesarlik and the higher
hill to the west. Galen, we know,
built his Pergamene years around
both places.
He was a physician who never
passed up a chance to condemn the
ignorance and greed of physicians,
a rhetorician who mistrusted rhet-
oric, a success among the governing
elites of Pergamm and Rome who
condemned their frivolity and anti-
intellectualism. When Galen left
Pergamm in A.D. 169 he never re-
turned. Unlike many intellectuals at
the imperial court- the sophist
Polemo under Hadrian, for example,
or the physician Xenophon under
Claudius and Nero- he never used
his position to win favors for his
native city, and Pergamm in turn
never honored him with inscription
or statue. Yet in the uneasy sym-
metry of the Asclepeion's façade
and the contrast between the heal-
ing god's shrine and the Roman
theater and amphitheater not far
away, today's visitor can sense the
social and cultural forces that shaped
Galen's early career and the tensions
beneath the Second Sophistic's
anxious race for tranquillity.
The small theater in the Sanctuary
ofAsclepius was the scene of
rhetorical displays by Galen, Aelius
Aristides and other sophists of the
second century A.D.Aristides
writes of the therapeutic value of
giving orations.
1985
November/December 39
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']
 the beginning of this
century, a science has developed
Sincethat involves the study of dis-
ease in ancient populations. Known
as paleopathology, it embraces
such fields as anthropology, archae-
ology and palaeontology. In essence,
paleopathology attempts to trace
the appearance, development and
disappearance of diseases, in addi-
tion to their effects on ancient
societies.
For most ancient populations,
only the skulls and skeletons remain,
and these can provide evidence only
of diseases that leave their mark
upon the bones. Other cultures,
however, practiced some form of
body preservation, ranging from the
mummified remains of the ancient
Egyptians to bodies in Alaska and
South America which were pre-
served through freezing or heat-
drying. In these cases, it is now
possible to examine the traces of
other illnesses through the develop-
ment of paleohistology, the study
of preserved tissues.
In recent years, many such
studies have been undertaken on
preserved bodies from Egypt, Nubia,
South America, the Aleutian Islands
and Alaska. Tb date the greatest
number of samples for histopatho-
logical study have been obtained
from Egypt and Nubia. The Egyp-
tians developed an intentional
method of preserving some of the
bodies of their dead, known today
as mummification, which involved
various techniques and the use of
chemical agents. This process has
provided the most effectively pre-
served ancient tissue for the modern
study of disease in an ancient
population.
Among the various investiga-
tions of Egyptian mummified re-
mains, one of the most intensive has
been carried out at the Manchester
Museum, of the University of Man-
chester in England. The museum
has one of the largest and most
comprehensive Egyptian collections
in Britain, which came into exis-
tence in the late nineteenth century
mainly through the generous patron-
age of a Manchester textile mer-
chant, Jesse Haworth. Over a period
Close-up view of Mummy 1770 before
the two-week unwrapping and autopsy
performed by the Manchester team in
1975. The fine gilded face mask is still
preserved but the bandages are in a
poor state of preservation. Lengthy
132 centimeters.

November/
December
1985 41

(Above left) The author cuts the first
bandages of Mummy 1770 and (right)
examines the fine pair of painted carton-
nage slippers which were discovered
covering the false "feet" with which the
mummy had been supplied. (Center)
One of the Manchester mummies under-
goes radiological investigation on the
specialized equipment at the Man-
chester Royal Infirmary.
In the radiograph showing the
view of Nekht-Ankh's cranium , for
example (below), archaeologists could
examine anatomical and dental
attributes .
42 ARCHAEOLOGY
of several years, he financed the
excavations in Egypt of the famous
British Egyptologist, William
Flinders Petrie. Material from the
excavations consequently came to
Jesse Haworth, who ensured that
the Manchester Museum received a
regular and substantial share of the
division. This collection now in-
cludes 21 human and 34 animal
mummies, which exemplify most of
the major developments in mummi-
fication procedures over the 3,000-
year span of Egyptian history.
Recently, the collection has provided
a unique opportunity for a multi-
disciplinary study of Egyptian
mummified remains.
Early research in this field was
undertaken in Manchester when
Margaret Murray, the first curator
of Egyptology at the museum, led
the first multi-disciplinary team in
the scientific examination of two of
the mummies in the collection. In
May 1908, in front of an invited
audience, the mummies, known as
the "Two Brothers," were unwrapped
and subsequently subjected to a
thorough scientific investigation by
specialists in various fields, such as
anatomy, chemical analysis and the
study of textiles. These experts con-
tributed their knowledge to the
detailed examination of both the
mummies and the associated funer-
ary artifacts, discovered à year
previously in an intact tomb at Der
Rifeh in Middle Egypt, dated to the
12th Dynasty (ca . 1900 b.c.). The
results of this investigation were

published in a monograph entitled
The Tbmb of Two Brothers by M.A.
Murray (Manchester Museum,
Manchester, 1910).
Some 60 years later, in 1973,
Manchester again embarked on a
scientific study. This time the whole
collection of Egyptian mummified
remains was included, and a multi-
disciplinary team applied a wide
range of modern scientific tech-
niques to the examination and study
of the mummies. As a University
department, the museum is ideally
placed for an interrelated study of
this kind, since it has ready access
to other teaching departments and
physical proximity to teaching hos-
pitals with highly specialized, ad-
vanced equipment. The University
of Manchester provided expertise
and equipment, and a grant was
received from the British Academy.
Kodak Ltd. of Hemel Hempstead,
England made available free supplies
of x-ray film for the radiological
studies of the mummies, and Key Med
Industrial of Southend, England
provided the equipment for the
endoscopy program.
The Manchester Project had two
specific aims. First, the intention
was to discover evidence of disease
and causes of death in the mummies,
and to gain further information
relating to funerary and religious
practices and living conditions in
ancient Egypt. Second, the team
wished to establish a methodology
for the examination of mummified
remains which other institutions
could then adapt for the study of their
own collections. A range of tech-
niques carried out on all the mummies
supplied a wealth of information
during the first phase of the project,
from 1973 to 1979.
Ihe detailed radiological survey
of all the human and animal mum-
mies was an unprecedented scientific
opportunity. Earlier studies of other
collections, carried out on site, had
involved the need to use mobile
compact equipment capable of being
attached to local electricity supplies.
But at Manchester the mummies
could be transported to the Man-
chester Royal Infirmary and the
University Medical School. Here,
near ideal conditions were available,
with access to orbiting, fluoroscopic
and tomographic equipment.
Specialized radiological equip-
ment available in the Department
of Neuroradiology at Manchester
Royal Infirmary included the Elema
Schonander Mimer III radiological
unit, equipped with a 0.3 millimeter
focal spot x-ray tube capable of
orbiting the subject. It could also
undertake fluoroscopy by means of
a seven-inch image intensifier and
television, and could be used for
varying sectional thickness tomog-
raphy at any angle of orbit. An asso-
ciated high-powered generator made
it possible to employ fine-grain in-
dustrial film (Kodak Industrex C)
in order to improve image detail.
Two of the mummies were also in-
vestigated in the University Depart-
Margaret Murray (second
from right) was the first
curator of Egyptology at
Manchester University
Museum , England. Here
she is unwrapping the
mummy of one of the "Udo
"
Brothers at Manchester
in 1908. The team she led
included medical and
scientific specialists in a
number of fields.
ment of Diagnostic Radiology by
computed tomography (EMI
CT5005), a technique designed to
obtain transverse body sections
five to 13 millimeters in thickness.
Radiology, as a totally non-
destructive technique of examina-
tion, can provide much information
relating to mummified remains. It
supplies details not only about the
history and state of preservation of
the mummy, but also about evidence
of any disease present in the skeletal
remains. Facts about funerary pro-
cedures can be supplied by radio-
logical studies of the position of the
arms and hands, the presence and
disposition of protective jewelry
(amulets) between the bandages,
and packets containing preserved
viscera placed in the abdominal and
thoracic cavities. The existence of
embalmers' restorations, such as
prosthetic limbs, can also be deter-
mined, as can evidence of brain
removal and the various methods
employed for this purpose. Skeletal
maturity and development, giving
the approximate age at death, and
the sex of the individual can also
usually be assessed.
In the Manchester mummies,
the radiological survey provided
evidence of the presence of disease
in a number of bodies. Arthritis,
ante-mortem trauma, and general-
ized disease were noted. In one
mummy, the calcified remains of a
male guinea-worm (Dracunculus
Medinensis) were discovered in the
abdominal wall during the unwrap-
Movem
ber/December
1985 43
The reconstructed heads of the "Tim
Brothers," Nekht-Ankh and Khnum-
Nakht , shows the marked facial differ-
ences between them. This study has
subsequently benefitted the highly
skilled work of plastic surgeons.
ping procedure, and were subse-
quently identified radiologically.
This is believed to be the earliest
known example of physical evidence
of this disease.
Dentition studies of the human
mummies provided insight into the
patterns of disease and the Egyp-
tian diet. Dental conditions can be
assessed by both visual examination
and a radiological survey of the
teeth and their supporting struc-
tures; almost all the abnormalities
except those of the gingivae and
mucosa are apparent in the x-rays.
The study of large collections of
dry skulls held in various museums
can sometimes assist in the inter-
pretation of these x-rays. Radiologi-
cal examination of human dentition
is not simple, because of the in-
volved shapes and angles of the
palate and mandible. Normal pro-
jections and, in selected cases,
tomographic techniques were used
in x-raying the Manchester mum-
mies. It was possible to determine
that the Manchester collection fol-
lows the general pattern seen in
larger groups. The dentitions of the
earlier periods of Egyptian history
show a freedom from caries, a con-
dition much more widespread in
mummies of the Graeco-Roman pe-
riod (ca. 332 B.c. to the fourth cen-
tury a.D.). This marked contrast
has been explained in terms of a
change of food and eating habits in-
troduced into Egypt by foreign in-
vaders who entered the country in
the later periods. The Egyptians of
earlier times show widespread evi-
dence of the most common abnor-
44 ARCHAEOLOGY
mality seen in the dentitions of
early man- the marked attrition or
wear on the cusps of the teeth.
Egyptian grinding techniques pro-
duced bread (the staple diet of the
people) that was not only gritty but
was also contaminated by wind-
blown sand. Chewing it wore away
not only the cusp, but also in some
cases the actual body of the tooth,
and in many instances this led
eventually to dental abscesses and
severe periodontal conditions. The
patient would have suffered, at the
very least, from debility and lowered
resistance to infection, and in the
worst instances, the condition
would have hastened death.
Significant information concern-
ing disease in the mummies has
also been supplied by the examina-
tion of the remaining soft tissues.
The science of paleopathology in-
cludes the examination of ancient
tissues by means of the naked eye,
histological investigation, and the
application of electron microscopy
and other advanced techniques.
Methods to réhydraté, fix and selec-
tively stain the tissues for histo-
logical study have been developed
on the basis of pioneering techniques
of paleohistology introduced by
Armand Ruffer of Cairo many years
ago.
In the first phase of the
Manchester Project, evidence of
disease was thus discovered in re-
hydrated tissue taken from two of
the mummies. Tissue belonging to
Nekht-Ankh (one of the mummies
unwrapped by Margaret Murray in
1908) was examined during the cur-
rent project. Fragments of soft tis-
sue, identified microscopically as
lung, appeared to be damaged and
to contain a good deal of scarring
with proliferation of both fibrous
and elastic tissues. Among the
fibrous tissues were several aggre-
gations of fine particles. These were
analyzed by means of analytical
electron microscopy (AEM)- the
first time this technique had been
used in Egyptology -and found to
be silica particles. Nekht-Ankh was
shown to have suffered from sand
pneumoconiosis, which resembles a
condition acquired by coal miners
and stone workers who have inhaled
quantities of stone dust. Similar
lesions have recently been described
in the lungs of people living in the
Sahara and Negev deserts, and it
can be assumed that in these cases,
as in Egypt, the condition was the
result of living in a desert or semi-
desert environment, not a result of
the individual's occupation. Further
examination of tissue belonging to
Nekht-Ankh also indicated that he
had suffered from pericarditis and
pleurisy, probably associated with
pneumonia, for some time before
his death.
In another mummy, named
Asru, histological examination of a
package of preserved material found
between her legs confirmed that it
consisted of mummified intestines,
showing clear evidence of a parasitic
infestation in some areas. Trans-
mission electron microscopy (TEM)
of the tissue revealed that the in-
festation was probably due to a
parasitic worm of the genus Strongy-

loides. This parasite enters the body
when the larval forms burrow
through the skin of the feet that
come into contact with infected
water or contaminated soil; it can
cause anaemia and also occasionally
severe inflammation of the large in-
testines, which can then spread to
other parts of the body and lead to
death.
Electron microscopy was also
employed in various other ways.
TVansmission electron microscopy
provided information about the
ultrastructure of liver tissue, which
was seen to be well preserved, with
discernible cell membranes and
nuclei. In the tissues generally, bac-
teria, bacterial spores and hyphae-
like structures were commonly
observed. The analytical electron
microscopy that identified the crys-
tals in the lung tissue from Nekht-
Ankh was also used to examine
certain mummies for the presence of
heavy metal pollutants. The surface
structure of hair from one of the
mummies was investigated by
means of scanning electron
microscopy.
This wax head reconstruction is based
on the remaining pieces of the skull of
Mummy 1 770. False eyes and hair, and
some facial coloring have to be based on
historical assumptions, but the actual
shape of the head and facial features is
reconstructed according to scientific
measurements .
Most important, electron micros-
copy was used to study the insect
remains found in the mummies.
Insects can enter a mummy at any
time in its history. Those that use
the body as a moist food supply
enter during or immediately after
the process of mummification;
others can be identified as subse-
quent attackers. Insect remains dis-
covered in the Manchester collection
spanned the range of destructive
pests that could undermine the
preservation of the mummies at dif-
ferent stages of their history.
In June 1975, the decision was
made by the Manchester team to
unwrap and autopsy one of the mum-
mies in the collection. This type of
investigation had not been under-
taken in Britain since Margaret
Murray's multi-disciplinary exami-
nation in 1908. Indeed, such a pro-
cedure should only be carried out if
it is believed that the knowledge to
be gained concerning methodology
and paleopathology is sufficient to
justify the loss of an irreplaceable
artifact.
Preliminary x-rays assisted with
the selection of a mummy for
autopsy. Mummy 1770 (named for
its museum accession number) was
chosen because of the poor state of
preservation of the outer wrappings
and because the x-rays revealed
some interesting medical evidence.
The unwrapping and autopsy of this
mummy -an adolescent about 14
years of age- were performed at the
Medical School of the University of
Manchester. A slow, systematic ap-
November/
December
1985 45

proach was adopted to ensure that
no evidence was overlooked and that
the maximum amount of scientific
information was obtained. Records
were kept with cine and still photog-
raphy, and the position of each
bandage or layer of bandages was
noted as it was removed. All ban-
dages, bone and tissue fragments
were carefully numbered, labeled
and stored in sealed polythene bags
for future reference and examination.
The dissection of the mummy
was carried out in two weeks, but
the slow, painstaking compilation of
the research and results occupied
another two years. It was discovered
that, in life, this individual had not
only suffered from guinea-worm in-
festation, but had also undergone
the amputation of the lower part of
both legs. Dental and other evidence
46 ARCHAEOLOGY
indicated that this adolescent girl
suffered from chronic ill health for
most of her short life. Various arti-
facts were recovered from between
the bandages, including cartonnage
slippers, head and chest covers,
gilded nipple amulets and a false
phallus, false feet, and gilded toe-
nail and fingernail covers.
The bandages were subjected to
intensive examination, and the na-
ture of the material was identified
macroscopically and microscopically
as linen. Other research included
the use of such techniques as gas
liquid chromatography and amino
acid analysis to isolate and charac-
terize the substances applied to the
bandages at the time of mummifi-
cation. Radiocarbon dating of the
bones and bandages of the mummy
indicated a substantial discrepancy
(Left) An endoscope is introduced into
the back of the mummy Asru to obtain
access to the chest cavity. It was pos-
sible to remove small pieces of lung
tissue for study ; which enabled the
histopathologist to identify the presence
of the disease Sand Pneumoconiosis.
(Below) The Greater Manchester Police
Force developed a method of finger-
printing the mummies by taking a mold
of the finger or toe, and subsequently
rolling the inked cast. This method of
obtaining fingerprints has since been
introduced into the standard practices
of some police forces.
between the age of the body and that
of its wrappings. This suggests that
the mummy may have been re-
wrapped in the Graeco-Roman
period, by persons who were uncer-
tain of its sex and identity.
The first phase of the project
provided the material for two books,
a scientific account and a more pop-
ular version, published in 1978 and
1979. These showed how the team
had not only concentrated on the
evidence provided by the individual
mummies but had also included
more general studies such as the
assessment of mummification tech-
niques. In addition to the written
accounts, two teaching films were
produced by the Audio-Visual Ser-
vice of the University of Manchester.
The one dealing with the range of
techniques applied to the mummies
was the winner, in November 1979,
of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science Major
Film Award. The shorter film, which
concentrated on the methodology of
unwrapping Mummy 1770, was
awarded one of five certificates of
merit from the same Association.
A 50-minute film made by the
British Broadcasting Corporation
for its archaeology series Chronicle
has been shown twice on British
television as well as abroad. A major
temporary exhibition entitled O,
Osiris , Live Forever /, which
described the work of the project
against the background of Egyptian
religious and funerary customs, was
displayed at the Manchester Mu-
seum in 1979. It attracted many
visitors during its 18-month dura-
tion, and was awarded the Sotheby's
Prize in the 1980 "Museum of the
Year Awards" in Britain for the best
temporary exhibition. Subsequently,

part of this exhibition traveled to
the University of Alberta in Edmon-
ton, Canada. In June 1979 an inter-
national symposium entitled
"Science in Egyptology" was held
at the University of Manchester.
This provided the first opportunity
for a multi-disciplinary gathering to
meet and discuss the current re-
search and use of modern medical
and scientific techniques in the field
of Egyptology. The second phase of
the Manchester Project developed
from this symposium.
T-his stage of the Manchester
Project, lasting through 1984, con-
centrated mainly on the develop-
ment of virtually non-destructive
methods of obtaining new informa-
tion about mummified remains.
Endoscopy has provided a most ac-
ceptable means of non-destructive
examination, and a serological study
has been undertaken to determine
the mummies' blood types. New
material has been obtained through
use of endoscopic techniques, and
new tissue stains of the conven-
tional type as well as new histologi-
cal stains have been employed.
Endoscopy carried out on the chest
cavities of several mummies has
enabled small pieces of lung to be
removed for study. In addition to
the sand pneumoconiosis seen in one
mummy, the lung biopsy of another
(previously identified as suffering
from the worm infestation, Strongy-
loides), showed that this woman had
also had hydatid disease, caused by
a tape worm called Ecchinococcus
granulosus . The disease is not a
common problem, but another ex-
ample was found in the Manchester
collection, in brain tissue samples
taken from one of the detached
Insect remains from the Man-
chester mummies were examined
by electron microscopy. Some of
these attackers seriously en-
danger the state of preservation
of the mummy. Here an adult
hump spider beetle, Gibbon
psylloides, is magnified 36 times.
mummified heads.
Information about the Man-
chester mummies, and about other
collections of Egyptian mummies in
public and private institutions
around the world, is now being
stored at Manchester on the Inter-
national Mummy Data Base. This
computerized base was established
to receive, store, and eventually
make available to scholars informa-
tion relating to funerary artifacts
associated with mummies and to
patterns of disease and conditions
which affected daily living condi-
tions in ancient Egypt.
Another interesting outcome of
the Manchester research is the way
in which some of the techniques de-
vised for specific use on the mum-
mified remains have been applied to
modern forensic problems. Staff
members from the Fingerprinting
Department of the Greater Man-
chester Police Force originally be-
came involved in the project to de-
velop a method of obtaining the
fingerprints and toeprints of one of
the mummies. This technique not
only helped to determine the age of
the deceased but also provided in-
formation about the person's life-
style. Subsequently this technique
was introduced into the standard
practices of some police forces in
cases where the customary methods
of fingerprinting were inappropriate
-where cadavers had been severely
charred by fire or mummified by
natural environmental conditions.
Knowledge obtained from the
scientific reconstruction of the
three-dimensional heads of mum-
mies has also been of benefit in
modern plastic surgery. Working
from x-rays, a reconstruction of the
proposed result can be built, giving
the surgeons a three-dimensional
view of their patient's intended ap-
pearance before surgery takes place.
As applied to the heads of the Two
Brothers and of Mummy 1770, new
techniques developed from methods
devised in 1898 can produce more or
less accurate representations of the
major features of the head and face.
Such three-dimensional "busts"
have served as models on which
drawings and paintings could then
be based, for purposes of publica-
tion and exhibition.
The modern application of
these techniques was featured in
a 1984 award-winning, educational
television film entitled Perspective :
The Mummy 's Blessing. A second
BBC "Chronicle" film showed how
the Manchester studies developed
from 1979 to 1984, and this is also
featured in another book, Evidence
Embalmed. And at the Manchester
Museum, a new Egyptology gallery
illustrates the team's work.
In June 1984, a second sym-
posium on the theme of Science in
Egyptology held at the University
of Manchester gave scholars from
many countries the opportunity to
discuss their work and to consider
how new techniques of investigation
can be introduced. With the new,
virtually non-destructive methods
of examining mummified remains,
future research will be able to amass
new facts about disease and living
conditions in ancient societies, with-
out destroying irreplaceable evi-
dence. Involving specialists from
many disciplines will make it pos-
sible to build up from mummified
remains a more accurate picture of
the realities of everyday existence
in early communities than the writ-
ten evidence alone can provide.
November/December
1985 47
The Protection
Historic
Shipwrecks:
A New Zealand Case
Study
by J.R. MCKlNLAY and G.J. HENDERSON
the onslaught of increasingly large numbers
of well equipped recreational divers, professional
With salvagers and treasure hunters, it is now recog-
nized in many parts of the world that very little of any
country's underwater cultural remains will survive for
long in the absence of comprehensive protective legisla-
tion. In 1977 The Underwater Cultural Heritage , a
report prepared for the Council of Europe, listed legal
protection as one of several problem areas in the field of
underwater archaeology along with technical training,
funding of research, and improving public awareness of
the cultural heritage that lies beneath the seas. Since
then some progress has been made in providing protective
legislation as Australia, Britain, Denmark, Finland,
France, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and the United States
have passed or are preparing laws covering work on
underwater sites.
Even earlier, in 1975, the New Zealand Parliament
passed an amendment to the 1954 Historic Places Act
which defined the responsibilities of the Historic Places
TVust to protect and preserve archaeological sites. The
definition of "archaeological site" included the site of
the wreck of any vessel "where at any material time that
wreck occurred more than 100 years before that time, and
which is or may be able through investigation by ar-
chaeological techniques to provide scientific, cultural
or historical evidence as to the exploration, occupation,
settlement or development of New Zealand." This defini-
tion is included in the current ( 1980) Historic Places Act.
So a good amount of legislation is on the books, but
the worldwide record of enforcement is less impressive.
Very rarely, in fact, are convictions obtained. The legis-
lation is useful in dissuading law-abiding citizens from
destroying sites, but calculating and determined in-
dividuals break the law without being apprehended or,
at any rate, without being successfully prosecuted.
Australia, for example, has comprehensive legislation
at both the Commonwealth and State levels, the first
dating back to 1964. Yet despite several prosecutions
there have been no convictions in any court under
these acts.
In 1983 a diver was charged in a New Zealand Dis-
trict Court under the 1980 Historic Places Act with
damaging a historic shipwreck. He was convicted as
charged, but the judgement was overturned on appeal.
Nevertheless, in light of the rarity of successful prose-
aft ARCHAFOI
ogy
of
cutions, the conviction in the District Court was a sig-
nificant event. The details and outcome of the case must
be of interest to the concerned international public and
to all archaeologists responsible for managing our in-
creasingly threatened underwater sites.
Actually, New Zealand is not regarded as a center
for maritime archaeological studies, but as it turns
out the first test case of the Historic Places Act in-
volving a shipwreck took place here just a few years ago.
The Maori people had colonized the islands from the sea
by A.D. 1000, but no examples of their early seagoing
craft are known to have survived. The earliest known
"Western" shipwreck in New Zealand waters is the 800-ton
stock carrier Endeavour, scrapped in 1795, three years
after the establishment of the first temporary European
settlement by a group of seal hunters.
Even after European colonization of New Zealand
was legitimized by the Treaty of Waitangi with the
Maoris, and the proclamation of British sovereignty in
1840, the growing body of settlers had to rely entirely
on sea transport for both internal and external trade
and communications until road service was available.
Substantial numbers of shipwrecks began to occur.
About 270 are recorded up to 1839, and another 690 be-
tween 1860 and 1879. Most of the wrecks in the latter
period are steamships, many of them well-preserved
large iron propeller-driven vessels. It would be difficult
to argue that they are not an important part of New
Zealand's archaeological resources along with the earlier,
perhaps more glamorous sailing ships. Although no
archaeologists have been employed for the express pur-
pose of managing the underwater sites protected by the
Historic Places Act, there is considerable interest in
them within both the diving and the general community,
expressed for example in the popularity of Kelly Tarlton's
Shipwreck Museum at the Bay of Islands. And it was the
concern of the diving community that led to the prose-
cution of the Taupo case in 1983.
On February 18, 1879, a 720-ton iron screw steamship,
Thupo , struck a rock while entering Tauranga Harbour
and foundered. On April 29, 1881 the vessel, having
been refloated and temporarily repaired, set off in tow
for Auckland. In the early evening she sprung a leak
and was abandoned, and at 9:40 p.m. Taupo sank in a
reported 38 fathoms of water near Mayor Island in the
Bay of Plenty.
The site of the wreck had never been formally identi-
fied in later years, although by the 1970s the local diving
fraternity was agreed that a wreck some five miles off
the coast at Waihi Beach, about 35 miles from Tkuranga,
was that of Thupo. On January 17, 1982 a boat equipped
for maritime salvage was observed by M.D. Ogier,
Chairman of the Scientific Committee of the New
Zealand Underwater Association, anchored over the site
of the wreck. Ogier and other local resident divers went
out to the boat and discovered that it was tied to the
wreck by a rope. They saw indications that explosives
had very recently been used to remove metal items from
the wreck, and metal objects apparently from a wreck
were lying on the deck of the salvage vessel.
At that time Ogier was formulating plans to have
the wreck declared a reserve, under another statute, for
"no-touch" diving. Very much upset at what he con-
sidered to be the vandalism of the wreck, he reported
the matter to both the police and the New Zealand His-
toric Places TYust. Eventually the owner of the salvage
boat was charged with willfully modifying an archae-
ological site- the wreck of the Thupo- contrary to the
provisions of the Historic Places Act. The Thupo case
was therefore the first test of the section of the Act that
related to shipwrecks as archaeological sites.
The case was heard at the District Court in T&uranga
on July 13-15, 1983. The police, who prosecuted, set
out to prove the following chain of evidence: the SS
Thupo was wrecked on that part of the Bay of Plenty on
April 29, 1881 ; the site of the wreck was an archaeologi-
cal site within the definition of the Act; the vessel (that
is the wreck) involved was the Thupo ; the wreck had
been damaged or modified; the damage could be linked
to the defendant's salvage vessel; and the modification
of the wreck was within the defendant's knowledge.
The police called 18 witnesses, including:
• M.D. Ogier, to testify as to the events on the day he
saw the salvage vessel over the site of the wreck;
• The Property Manager of the Union Steamship Com-
pany, owners of the Thupo , to testify as to the facts of
the ship and its sinking;
• The archivist of the Hocken Library, to give details of
the registration of the Thupo and of its machinery;
• Divers who had seen the wreck before January 1982,

November/December
1985 49
The
archaeological community
learned a deal about
great
of required for the
proof
of such a case.
prosecution
who subsequently knew or believed it to be the Thupo
and could describe the damage done to it;
• A scientist from the Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research, who gave evidence as to the special
nature of certain items which had been recovered from
the wreck;
• The officer in command of a Royal New Zealand Navy
Operational Diving Team, who testified as to the pre-
cise location, identity and condition of the wreck;
• The Senior Archaeologist of the New Zealand Historic
Places TVust, J.R. McKinlay, who testified as to the
archaeological value of a ship such as the Thupo, and
also with regard to the TVuss administration of the Act;
• The Curator of the Department of Maritime Archae-
ology at the Western Australian Museum, G.J. Hender-
son, who as a maritime archaeologist was asked to
testify as to the archaeological, scientific and historical
value of the wreck.
McKinlay and Henderson had the status of expert
witnesses.
During the proceedings the defense emphasized
that the Thupo had only become an historical wreck
(occurring more than 100 years before) in 1981, less than
a year before the alleged offense took place. They also
pointed out that the Thupo had been raised and stripped
for salvage and was being towed to the salvage yard
when it sank in 1881.
The judge in his summation said that he was satis-
fied that the wreck was that of the Thupo , that it came
within the definition of Section 2 of the Historic Places
Act, and that the wreck had been modified by the de-
fendant. He was also satisfied that the defendant knew
it was the wreck of the Thupo , and the action was there-
fore willful.
Since on the basis of the evidence the judge was
confident that each of these points could be answered in
the affirmative, the defendant was convicted as charged.
Although the judge acknowledged that this was a
precedent-setting test case, he decided that the modifica-
tion of the wreck was not of major proportions, and
since the salvage work had been stopped after M.D.
Ogier's visit to the site he did not impose any fine (al-
though the Act provides for a fine of up to $25,000).
The defendant was, however, ordered to pay costs, ex-
penses and fees totaling $3,720.
Subsequently, an appeal was lodged with the High
Court, and judgement was given on October 23, 1984.
30 ARCHAEOLOGY
has
certainly
the
degree
successful
While agreeing with the District Court on most points,
the appeal judge differed in his view of the extent to
which the defendant demonstrated the necessary degree
of mens rea in terms of the word "willfully" in the statute.
He noted that while the word is commonly used to mean
intentional or deliberate, it also has an interpretation
encompassing recklessness as to the consequences of the
act. It is stated in the judgement that: "assuming that
recklessness is all that needs be proved, the prosecution
in this case was required to show beyond reasonable
doubt that the appellant intended to modify the wreck
knowing it to be an archaeological site, or that he was
reckless as to its status. If he believed the wreck was
not an archaeological site, then mens rea would be
negatived unless the belief was reckless."
It was noted that this was not the same thing as
ignorance of the law, and that: "where a person acts
under a mistake of law which precludes him from having
the requisite mental element for a particular offense,
he cannot be guilty of that offense. This is so long as
the mistake was honestly entertained whether or not
it was reasonable to have made it."
The appeal judge, having followed through various
legal precedents, came to the view that the prosecution
had failed to prove mens rea beyond a reasonable doubt,
and the District Court conviction was quashed. He was
also critical of the high level of costs which had been
ordered in the lower court- "I do not think it was fair for
the appellant to be penalized by the District Court
Judge by having to pay the costs of bringing an expert
witness from Perth [Australia]. Tb have done so would
put too high a price on the appellant's constitutional
right to defend." The judge also seemed to disparage
expert testimony concerning the archaeological sig-
nificance of the Thupo , remarking that the wreck was
hardly in the same class as the Waitangi Treaty House
(site of the British-Maori treaty that New Zealanders
regard as the founding of the nation).
So in the end the case was lost- but not all was lost.
The important gain from the case was that the District
Court Judge accepted the definition of a shipwreck as
an archaeological site, and this was not disputed by the
appellant. The archaeological community has certainly
learned a great deal about the degree of proof required
for the successful prosecution of such a case. We are all
now more informed about the legal principle of mens rea-
we think! And an important lesson was learned by
the diving fraternity in New Zealand.
From an administrator's point of view, the Thupo
case has brought additional understanding of the fra-
gility and possible impotence of a law that is not backed
up by adequate resources for enforcing it. The case of
the Thupo would never have been heard had it not been
for the fortuitous coincidence of the wreck site and the
residence of a senior executive of the New Zealand
Underwater Association. Most wrecks in New Zealand,
and most of the unauthorized disturbances of them,
occur far from the surveillance of the Underwater Asso-
ciation (not all of whose members are willing to have
their own diving activities too closely monitored or con-
trolled by legislation). And the New Zealand Historic
Places Trust still has no maritime archaeologist or even
a diver on its staff -a situation unlikely to change in
the foreseeable future.
From the maritime archaeologist's point of view, the
need is clear for resources to be made available for appro-
priate institutions to carry out adequate cultural re-
source management: to assemble site registers, carry
out site surveys and inspections, excavate where appro-
priate, and conduct educational programs to make the
diving and general public aware of the existence and
fragility of these archaeological sites beneath the water.
Iron and steam shipwrecks are under particular threat
today, being more conspicuous to fossickers, more profit-
able for salvagers, and regarded by many archaeologists
(uncertain about how to exploit their archaeological
potential) as less interesting than older shipwreck sites.
There is, however, a growing recognition in several
countries of the value of iron and steam shipwrecks as a
cultural resource. In Australia, for example, the Western
Australian Museum has recently been conducting inten-
sive investigations on the site of a screw steamship
wrecked in 1872. But unless adequate site management
plans can be brought into effect in many other areas
in the near future the world will lose a large proportion
of these sites. Perhaps the greatest benefit of a case
such as that of the Thupo is its role in public education,
by heightening the general awareness of the cultural
value of the sites and the destruction currently taking
place- and by making it less likely that future dis-
turbers of the sites can claim a lack of understanding of
the nature and consequence of their acts.

1985
November/December 51
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']
 ARCHAEOLOGY
Kushan
Sculpture:
the zenith of its power the empire
At of the Kushan dynasty, one of the
most significant in India's history,
stretched from modern Afghanistan and
Pakistan to central India. For nearly
300 years - the first through the third
centuries of this era- the Kushans ruled
all or part of these lands, which con-
trolled a vast portion of the trade routes
connecting China and the Mediterra-
nean. It was a lucrative business, being
lord of the merchant roads, and the
Kushans prospered.
With prosperity came the possibility
of cultural, intellectual and spiritual de-
velopment, but the Kushans came of
nomadic stock and had few cultural fra-
ditions of their own to develop. They
had been pushed out of their homeland
north of the Oxus River and then, in
the second century b.c., into the ad-
vanced urban civilization of Bactria,
where they occupied one of five princi-
palities. During the century that fol-
lowed the Kushan nomads acquired a
taste for settled existence. Shortly be-
fore the Christian era a Kushan scion
united all of the Bactrian principalities
under a single rule, giving his name to
the whole and laying the foundations of
the Kushan Empire.
During almost three centuries of vig-
orous Kushan rule Buddhism became
the dominant religion in India, the im-
age of the Buddha first appeared in
Indian art, and the models that inspired
later Indian sculpture were created. Al-
though the Kushan period was mani-
festly a formative one in Indian art
history it has never before been the sub-
ject of a major art exhibition. Such an
exhibition has now been organized by
The Cleveland Museum of Art, where
Kushan Sculpture: Images from Early
India opens on November 13, 1985. Al-
though some of the 130 sculptures have
been loaned by India and European mu-
seums, the objects are primarily from
American collections, and nearly a third
of them come from The Cleveland Mu-
seum of Art. Kushan Sculpture is part of
the Festival of India 1985-1986, a cele-
bration of Indian culture throughout
the United States that originated dur-
ing the 1982 state visit of the late Prime
Minister Indira Gandhi with an agree-
ment between Mrs. Gandhi and Pres-
ident Reagan to emphasize cultural ex-
change between the two countries. A
grant from the National Endowment for
54 Archaeology
NEWS
From
Images
by Stanislaw Czuma
the Arts helps to support the Kushan
exhibition, and its Cleveland showing
has been funded by the Ohio Arts
Council.
Perhaps the most unusual feature of
Kushan art is that it embraces two dis-
tinctive sculptural traditions that flour-
ished simultaneously, each sponsored by
the ruling dynasty. The more common
historical experience is that a single art
style ''speaks for" the state and its
favored religion. But the Kushans, per-
haps because of their nomadic back-
ground, readily adjusted to the cultures
they found in the lands they conquered.
That of their northwestern region,
Gandhãra, had its roots in the Graeco-
Roman tradition dating back to Alex-
ander the Great's conquest in 326-23
b.c. The eastern region, with Mathurã,
some 60 miles south of Delhi, as its cen-
ter, was heir to the indigenous Maurya-
Sunga tradition.
India
Early
The indigenous tradition
From early times Mathurã enjoyed
great importance because of its favora-
ble position on the ancient trade routes.
Merchants stopping in Mathurã for ex-
tended periods often commissioned
works of art such as shrines, votive ob-
jects, and even official buildings. Their
presence gave the city a cosmopolitan
character marked by religious and ra-
cial tolerance. Buddhism, Jainism and
Hinduism all flourished there, along
with spirits of ancient cults which be-
came a part of the new religions along
with other auspicious symbols and mo-
tifs. The result of all this was a great
variety of sculptural representations.
The Kushan period in Mathurã pro-
duced many Buddhist structures: the
stüpa (a dome-shaped funerary mound
with railings and gates, often orna-
mented), vihara or sangharama (mon-
asteries) and chaitya (a worship hall).
These are now in ruins (Mathurã was
devastated by war in the twelfth cen-
tury), but provide enough sculptural ma-
terial to give a fairly accurate picture of
the school's artistic production.
Mathuran sculpture of the Kushan pe-
riod derived from the earlier Sunga style
that flourished in central India in the
second century b.c. In addition to reli-
gious icons, popular divinities include
Yaksas and Yaksis (male and female
spirits with powers over the productive
forces of nature). In carving these sec-
ondary figures the artist was less re-
strained by iconography. The sensuous
females continue the ancient tradition
of the fertile mother goddess, and pot-
bellied males symbolize abundance,
wealth and protection. Their style is
more realistic than that of the earlier
Maurya-Sunga sculpture. This had lit-
tle in common with realism as under-
stood by the Western or even the Gand-
hãran artist. The Mathuran sculptor
(Left) The second-century A.D. statue
of Kubera, highest-ranking deity
inherited from the animistic pre- Aryan
tradition , sports a potbelly appropriate
for the god of wealth and prosperity.
Height y97 centimeters.
(Above) The sandstone salabhanjika
(tree spirit) is one of a pair adorning a
second century B.C.Mathuran torana
(gate bracket). Height , 71.1 centimeters .
(Right) The stucco head of Buddha is
late Gandhãran style (fourth/ fifth cen-
tury B.C.),probably from Hadda.
Height , 29.2 centimeters.
never copied nature; his art was concep-
tual, based on his idea of what the ob-
ject should look like, rather than what
it really was. The fully rounded figures
wear a minimum of garments, so trans-
parent that the nude body underneath
is evident.
It was the human body that captured
the Mathuran sculptor's interest. The
hefty, somewhat plump males and vo-
luptuous, opulent females are richly
adorned with jewels; their faces, with
thick and fleshy features, are animated,
following the pattern of earlier Indian
art. Although most Mathuran sculpture
of this period is religious and therefore
governed by iconographie restrictions,
it nonetheless offers an abundant vari-
ety and freshness. The characteristic
material is a reddish sandstone, some-
times spotted with white, from the local
Sikri quarries. Flora and fauna, baccha-
nalian themes and royal portraits were
also carved- in stone, metal, ivory and
terracotta.
The melting pot
The Gandhãran school of sculpture
had several artistic centers, located on
the trade routes linking China and cen-
tral Asia with the Roman world. By far
the most important was Peshawar, pos-
sibly the main seat of the Kushan Em-
pire. The Kushans also maintained
regular navigation to the West from
ports on the Indus River delta, and
Gandhära was the point where the Silk
Road forked toward India. So the re-
gion was a melting pot of Western,
Iranian, Indian, and Far Eastern cul-
tural currents.
The artistic tradition of the Gand-
hãran school traced back to the Hellen-
ized civilization of Bactria, where the
Kushans had settled in the second cen-
tury b.c. The philhellenic character of
the region's art is revealed in finds from
the Bactrian city of Ai Khanum (in mod-
ern Afghanistan) and from Taxila in
Pakistan (ancient Sirkap) dating to the
first century b.c. /first century A.D.The
later, more advanced Gandhãran style
seems based more directly on Roman
prototypes.
Although no Gandhãran monuments
remain intact, remains of stüpas , shrines
and monasteries supply a fair indica-
tion of their style. The sculptures are
usually Buddhist, since during Kushan
times Hinduism and Jainism were pri-
marily indigenous cults localized around
Mathurã. Most of the stone sculpture,
usually of the local gray schist, dates
from the first to the third centuries A.D.;
objects of stucco and bronze are fre-
quently from the fourth and fifth
centuries.
Gandhãran sculpture was based on
the Classical models of Greek and Ro-
man art. Its ultimate aim was to cap-
ture the physical beauty of the human
figure, often enriched by a spiritual qual-
ity. Gandhãran sculptors observed life
much more closely and produced works
far more realistic than their Mathuran
counterparts. Sometimes, especially dur-
Novem
ber/December
1985 55
 (Above) Silver roundels with elephant
riders , first century A.D., werepart of
the treasure found in the Oxus Valleyin
1887.Diameters , 7.2 and 7.5 centi-
meters. (Right) The Buddha's trans-
parent clothing and modeling of the
body reflect Graeco-Roman style typical
of the late Gandhãran period, when
Mahayana Buddhism created a demand
for icons. Height, 1 meter, 19.7 centi-
meters . (Far right) The Mathuran rail-
ing pillar, second century A.D., is of
Sihri sandstone. Height, 80 centimeters.
ing the later period or if the iconogra-
phy warranted it, their ideal of physical
beauty might be sacrificed for the sake
of the expressive or dramatic qualities
of the subject portrayed; a particularly
fine example is the representation of the
Emaciated Buddha. In their expressions
of religious zeal some of the Gandhãran
stuccos are comparable to Mediaeval
Christian art.
In addition to its Hellenistic and
Roman sources, Iranian influences and
some indigenous Indian characteristics
are also discernible in Gandhãran sculp-
ture. Whatever the mix, it is perfectly
clear that Gandhãran art should be
looked on not as a provincial version of
Greek and Roman but as an individual
style inspired by those sources- and an
art which at its best displays innova-
tive ideas of its own.
The greatest number of Gandhãran
sculptures are architectural fragments
and decorations. Particularly popular
were bas-reliefs with scenes from the life
of Šakayamuni - the historical Buddha
56 Archaeology
-which decorated the plinths and
drums of stüpas and were contemplated
by worshipers performing the devotional
circumambulation of the monument.
Often the narrative of the bas reliefs was
continuous, its scenes divided by pilas-
ters with pseudo-Corinthian capitals.
This iconography, minutely detailing the
Buddha's life, was the innovation of the
Gandhãran school.
The Buddha
For several generations scholars of
Indian art have debated the origin and
development of the Buddha image. While
they agreed that it initially appeared in
the late first century A.D. the question
remained, "Which of the two schools
should have credit for its creation, Gand-
hãra or Mathurã?" During the earlier
stages of Buddhism the Buddha had
been depicted through aniconic symbols:
his throne, the Bodhi tree beneath which
he had meditated, his footprints, the
wheel of the law (dharma-chakra ), the
stüpa, or other emblems. One can there-
fore assume some kind of canonic re-
striction against depicting the Buddha
in human form. Hinayana Buddhism-
the "Lesser Vehicle"- considered Bud-
dha a mortal teacher and consequently
had no need to turn to an icon for wor-
ship. Mahayana Buddhism, the "Greater
Vehicle"which probably developed some
time during the first century A.D.,
stressed the miraculous and godly char-
acter of the Buddha.
In Mathurã during this time the
bhakti (devotion cult) was flourishing
along with the local tradition of image-
making. Although there is no secure ev-
idence that a Mathurãn sculptor made
the first Buddha image, the conjunc-
tion of impulses and traditions that
could be adapted to satisfy them sug-
gests that Mathurã was a more fertile
breeding ground for the depiction of
Buddha in human form than Gandhãra.
The model for the Buddha image was
borrowed from two indigenous Indian
concepts with which the Mathuran sculp-

tor was familiar: the Universal King or
Superman and the ascetic. The earliest
inscribed Buddha images in Mathurã are
referred to in their inscriptions as Bodhi-
sattvas. Only later is the distinction
between Buddha and Bodhisattva
defined, with the Buddha wearing mo-
nastic garb and the Bodhisattvas (his
human intermediaries who have not yet
reached Buddhahood) clad in princely
garments.
In Gandharä this initial synonymous
origination of two representations is ab-
sent. This strongly suggests that
Mathurã was the place where ideas were
initiated. Since both Gandhãra and
Mathurã, and their artistic schools, were
parts of the same political empire under
the strong rule of an ardent proponent
of Buddhism, it is likely that Gandhãran
artists very quickly adapted the ideas
formed in Mathurã.
Each school drew on its own tradi-
tions for its manner of depicting the
Buddha, but the two schools shared an
elaborately prescribed set of icono-
graphie formulae that provided some of
the most important distinguishing fea-
tures of the Buddha. He wears a monas-
tic garment covering one or both
shoulders. The gestures of his hands
(mudrà ) reflect various moods or events
in his life, such as the gesture of bless-
ing, of meditation or of preaching. The
religious manuals (sütm) endowed him
with 30 superior and 80 inferior lack -
shanas , or superhuman features, bor-
rowed from the ancient Indian concept
of the Universal King. Best known
among these are the bump at the top of
the Buddha's head that accommodates
the Supreme Wisdom of his Enlighten-
ment (ushnisha ); the whorl of hair be-
tween his eyebrows (urna); long earlobes
formed by the rich and heavy earrings
he had discarded and disavowed; aus-
picious symbols on his feet and hands;
and his halo.
How the Buddha's sanghàti, or mo-
nastic robe, is worn and whether it falls
over his feet or leaves them uncovered;
the position of his hands expressing a
(Far left) The nagini (serpent deity of a
lake or river) is Mathuran, first or sec-
ond century A.D. Height, Î meter, 24.4
centimeters. (Left) The Bodhisattva
from Mathurã , of mottled sandstone, is
late second century A.D. Height, 89
centimeters. (Above) The Mathuran
Ayagapatta (cosmic design) of the first
century A.D. is of red sandstone.
89 by 82 centimeters.
certain mudrã; whether his hair is de-
picted by wavy lines or shell-shaped;
the decoration of the halo and the base
of the image; the presence or absence of
attendants --all these are clues the spe-
cialist follows in trying to determine the
date or the provenance of an image.
Making matters more complex is the
fact that the two schools exerted con-
siderable mutual influence throughout
the Kushan period.
The catalogue for Kushan Sculpture
(published by The Cleveland Museum
of Art and Indiana University Press)
makes an important contribution to
scholarship in Kushan studies. It also
features a thorough essay for the gen-
eral reader and entries and photographs
for each of the objects in the show, with
34 color reproductions.
After Kushan Sculpture closes in
Cleveland (January 5, 1986)it will travel
to the Asia Society Galleries in New
York City (February 13-April 6, 1986)
and to the Seattle Art Museum (May
8- July 13, 1986).
fSowpmher/Df*rpmhM-
1Qfl5 57

In the Field
The Rumble of
by James P. Delgado
The outbreak of civil war on the eastern
seaboard of the United States in 1861
had immediate repercussions on the
western shore of the continent. The in-
fant state of California, vital to the
interests of the Union because of its
mineral and agricultural wealth, was
thought to be in a perilous situation due
to the war. Isolated from the protection
of Federal might, and governed by pro-
Southern Democrats, California was
considered vulnerable to a Confederate
onslaught from within or without.
Of particular importance was the port
of San Francisco, principal harbor on
the coast and center of the region's mar-
itime commerce. Fear of Confederate
attack and of a rebellion by disloyal cit-
izens prompted several preventive meas-
ures: completion and arming of existing
defenses at Fort Point on the southern
shore of the Golden Gate and on Alca-
traz Island; dispatch of an ironclad Mon-
itor, U.S.S. Camanche, to San Francisco
Bay; arrest and imprisonment of out-
spoken Southern sympathizers; and
erection of temporary seacoast defenses
inside the harbor. These measures were
taken to fight a battle that never oc-
1curred, an enemy who never came.
Until recently, only the towering walls
of Fort Point, now a National Historic
Site, stood to remind visitors of San
Francisco's Civil War past. Then in 1982
National Park Service archaeologists
discovered the intact walls of one of the
"emergency" fortifications. Sepulchered
beneath tons of sand and rock and the
manicured lawns and curving pathways
of Fort Mason, at the northernmost
58 ARCHAEOLOGY
Distant Thunder
The view of Black Point Battery (the
Golden Gate in the background) shows
the faces of the ready magazines
between gunpits 9 and 10.
point of San Francisco, lay the rotting
timber gun platforms and battered brick
walls of the small, 12-gun Black Point
Battery.
Now professional archaeologists and
student laborers have exposed nearly
one-half of the structure and recovered
thousands of artifacts offering an ar-
chaeological and anthropological assess-
ment of the only known intact temporary
Civil War fortification west of the Rock-
ies. Soon the Black Point Battery will
stand open to the air once again, as a
tangible reminder of a time when an
enemy flying the Stars and Bars could
command the fear and respect of a city
far removed irom the theater of war.
Fortifying the Golden Gate
When the opening shots of the Civil
War were fired the Golden Gate was
guarded only by two uncompleted forti-
fications partially covering the entrance
to the important harbor. This lack of
readiness worried both pro-Union citi-
zens and the military, and the presence
of a vocal pro-Confederate faction exac-
erbated their concern. The existing for-
tifications were rushed to completion,
arms were massed and stored on im-
pregnable Alcatraz Island, and appeals
were made to Washington for additional
defenses. Military and civil authorities
arrested anyone heard espousing the
Southern cause, and the detainment of
dozens of prisoners in hastily con-
structed cells on Alcatraz added to the
effectiveness of the "Rock" as a symbol
of Federal power.
But the lurid imaginings of the press
concerning a Confederate invasion
backed by a fifth column continued to
influence public opinion. Both military
and public pressures were exerted for a
congressional appropriation to bolster
the city's defenses. In the expectation
that funds would soon arrive, the Com-
mander of the Department of the Pa-
cific, General George Wright, in 1861
ordered his engineer, Colonel René E.
De Russy, to prepare a plan for "field
works to command the approaches to
the city, should a landing be attempted
by the enemy."
Throughout 1861 and 1862, however,
Wright's appeals for money fell on deaf
ears as the demands of a hard-pressed
army and navy in the East occupied the
attention of Congress and fears of an
attack on the West declined. Then the
highly publicized activities of Confeder-
ate raiders against merchant shipping
created new anxieties, and in 1863 an
allocation of $400,000was made available
for fortifications on San Francisco Bay.
On August 18, General-in-Chief Henry
Wager Halleck wired Wright that the
batteries would be built on the northern
shore of the Golden Gate, on Angel
Island, and at Black Point.
Black Point, so called because of its
stands of dark laurel trees, had been
fortified by the Spanish authorities of
Alta California until the 1830s, but by
the time of the American conquest in
1846-47 all traces of their Batería San
José had vanished. In 1850 Point San
José Military Reservàtion was created
by Executive Order. Without funds to
build a post, however,the Army did not
occupy the site. In their stead came a
handful of squatters, prominent citizens
whose substantial residences, with out-
buildings and gardens, stood along the
crest of Black Point.
The trigger guard
(above) is from a
Springfield rifle,
Model 1873. The
iron pintle , or
pivot pin, (below)
was used to
attach a cannon
to its platform
and is 18 inches
square with 40-
inch bolts.
Length of trigger
guard , 17
centimeters.
 On October 13, 1863 General Wright
received orders to take possession of the
site. TVoopsfrom the Presidio of San
Francisco marched to Black Point and
work on the new battery began. Most of
the squatters were evicted, houses were
demolished, and the tip of the Point was
blasted away to create a flat plateau for
the battery.
When completed in May of 1864 the
battery was a 12-gun fortification with
breast-high brick walls, dressed rock
flanking walls and massive gun plat-
forms of redwood timber. Since solid ma-
sonry forts had been made obsolete by
shells fired from rifled guns that reduced
them to rubble in a matter of days,
Black Point's parapets were built of soft,
yielding earth to absorb the impact of
incoming shells. The battery also had
two underground timber magazines for
black powder, and five small shell rooms
known as "ready magazines" to give the
cannon a quick and ready supply of am-
munition in the heat of battle.
By the end of June half the battery
was armed. At the west end ("Battery
West") were six Ten-Inch Rodman Can-
non, monstrous 24,000-pound weapons
that could fire a ten-inch diameter, 124-
pound shell almost two-and-a-halfmiles.
In the "East Battery" iron carriages for
six 42-pound "James" guns had been
installed, but the guns did not arrive
until January of 1865.
Despite its "temporary" designation,
the new fortification was used well into
the twentieth century, even though plans
to enlarge it never reached fruition. With
the building of other fortifications closer
to the Golden Gate the need for the Black
Point Battery steadily declined, and by
1887 the eastern half was abandoned.
Only the Rodman guns remained, to
fire salutes and to be used for practice.
Another threat to San Francisco
loomed in 1898, and fear of an attack by
the mighty Spanish fleet brought new
appropriations for "temporary" fortifi-
cations at Black Point. Adjacent to the
still-armed western end of the old forti-
fication a new concrete emplacement
was built for two Ifen-Inch Rodman can-
non that had been converted into "Eight-
Inch Muzzle Loading Rifles."A new con-
crete magazine was also built and the
new battery was put into service in July
of 1898.
When the new national emergency
passed the Civil War-era weapons were
removed. The gun tubes remained on
post, however (probably until the Sec-
ond World War, when all cannon there
were scrapped), and the Eight-Inch Ri-
fles stayed mounted until 1904and 1909,
thus maintaining the defensive use of
the battery site into the new century.
In 1909 construction of a reinforced
concrete powerhouse for a nearby de-
fense searchlight occupied most of the
interior of the old "West Battery." In
1911 grading of the slope below the
Excavated Army equipment includes a
leg strap to top a boot. Length , 43
centimeters.
"East Battery" for a powerhouse de-
stroyed most of that end of Black Point
Battery, and sand and gravel dumped
over the old brick walls completely re-
moved from view all traces of the Civil
War fortification. The dirt fill over the
site was then landscaped with trees,
lawns, curvilinear walkways, and stair-
ways as part of a beautification program
in connection with the Panama Pacific
International Exposition of 1915. A ga-
rage covered the site of the 1898 bat-
tery, and gradually all memory of the
two fortifications faded away. In 1968,
when the 1909 powerhouse was de-
molished and its semi-circular depres-
sion filled in, the last hint of what had
been there during the Civil War van-
ished.
Excavating the battery
In 1972 the Black Point military post,
renamed Fort Mason almost a century
before, became the headquarters of a
new unit of the National Park system,
the Golden Gate National Recreation
Area, created to preserve, protect and
interpret nationally significant cultural,
scenic, natural and recreational re-
sources. Since many former military
installations were included in its bound-
aries the National Park Service was
entrusted with the task of interpreting
200 years of military history at the
Golden Gate. Park historians and ar-
chaeologists began a careful evaluation
of sites and structures, but the dilapi-
dated tip of Black Point was overlooked
until the late 1970s, when Park Ranger
John Martini, an avocational historian,
began to search for traces of the Civil
War battery he had read about. Clear-
ing a clogged passageway leading into
the hillside, Martini discovered the un-
derground concrete magazine of the 1898
battery and, protruding from a nearby
hillside, a stub of broken brick wall that
he deduced was part of the Civil War
structure.
In 1982, when plans to renovate the
tip of Black Point for a new picnic area
caught the attention of GGNRA's cul-
tural resources management team, Mar-
tini's discoveries were remembered, and
Park Archaeologist Martin Mayer, aided
by volunteer archaeologist Robert Ben-
nett and Park Historian James Delgado,
carefully excavated small areas of the
site. The stub of broken brick wall was
traced back to intact walls outlining two
gun pits in the east battery area and
one intact gun pit in the western por-
tion. The walls then disappeared, run-
ning between six feet of dirt and rock
fill. Dozens of artifacts, including brass
friction primers (used to fire the cannon
without a match) and the remains of
timber supports for the guns, offered
tantalizing evidence of a unique archae-
ological legacy from San Francisco's
Civil War days.
When scientists from the National
Park Service's Western Archaeological
and Conservation Center in T'icson, Ar-
izona, analyzed the bricks, they found
that acid in the soil was eating them
away, along with the mortar that held
the buried walls together. Of the series
of options recommended by Soil Scien-
tist Elvia Niebla, the total excavation
of the battery was the one selected.
Funding was provided through a gener-
ous grant from San Francisco's Richard
and Rhoda Goldman Fund, matched by
the National Park Service, which al-
lowed for the hiring of 20 local high
school students. Supervised by profes-
sional archaeologists Robert Bennett,
Gregory Brown, Rebecca LaFontaine,
and John Schuster, and by work super-
visors Marguerite Dailey, Gary Habeeb,
and Linda Posternak, and working side
by side with National Park Service
heavy equipment operators Gary Moel-
ler and Neil Woods, the students cleared
over 5,000 cubic yards of soil, exposing
much of the west battery. Thousands of
Soldiers were issued a Model 1906
bayonet scabbard. Length , 22.3
centimeters.
artifacts were also recovered through pa-
tient chipping of rock-hard clay with
picks, sifting the crumbled earth, and
painstaking plotting of each item
wrested from the hard, unyielding soil.
Before closing the site for the winter
of 1982-83 the National Park Service
obtained the services of master mason
Thomas Mairo, who restored battered
and broken sections of the battery wall
with original bricks. With the needed
repairs done, the battery was once again
abandoned, albeit for a short time, to
the winter rains, awaiting a new season
to complete the archaeological excava-
tion. After the winter hiatus work began
again in the summer of 1983, as addi-
tional grant money from the Goldman
Fund and a new grant from the Mary
A. Crocker Trust of San Francisco
brought in a new crew of students. Su-
pervised once again by archaeologists
Brown, Bennett and LaFontaine and by
newly-hiredarchaeologists Myra Nisson,
Cindy Desgrandchamps and Sunshine
continued on page 76
December
November/ 1985 59
 SCIENCE SCOPE

by Stuart Fleming

Ukiyo-e Painting:

An Art Tradition

under Stress

Any conversation about Japanese art

other than one among the fanatical col-
lectors of sword-fittings and Samurai
armor, soon turns to a comparison of
personal tastes for the colorful ukiyo-e
prints of the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries. Everyone remembers the tsu-
nami of the "Great Wave of Kanagawa,"
in Katsushika Hokusai's opus, The
Thirty-six views of Mt Fuji , first pub-
lished in 1823; everyone reacts to the
sensual beauty of the courtesans of the
pleasure areas of the city of Edo, as
captured by Kitagawa Utamaro in the
1790s. Such prints, however, represent
ukiyo-e (which translates as "pictures
of the floating world") during its full
flowering, when its artistic tradition had
been thoroughly formalized as part of
Edo's lively plebeian culture. Within the
larger context of Japan's pictorial art
history, the evolution of ukiyo-e was a
centuries-long affair, in both technique
and content, and based on a quite dif- This 1780 scene captures the essence of
ferent notion of genre painting. Back in
the tenth century, there emerged an ar- ukiyo-e, with four womenperforming a
tistic tradition called Yamato-e. It was chore necessitated by the humidity of
the Japanese summer. If these paint-
very much a response to the abstract
mood of the then dominant Chinese ings are to be preserved, they have to
be kept in somewhat over 70percent
styles; its basic themes were landscapes humidity, a climate not too different
of the four seasons, famous places, an-
nual festivals, and incidents recounted from the one in which they were created.
in Japanese literature. By the twelfth
century Yamato-e was sprouting sub- how so many ukiyo-e scenes appear to
traditions, the most powerful of which be an on-high view of daily activities in
was fuzaku-ga, or pictures of Japanese
manners and customs. This was genre Japanese home life.) Each had an artistic
influence which outlasted many a polit-
painting of sorts, but it primarily de- ical change in the world surrounding
picted the interests and leisurely pur- them.
suits of the nobility and military classes;
it touched but incidentally on the lives The pleasure seekers
of the common people. It was, in fact, a political event that
The inheritance of fuzaku-ga bestowed gave ukiyo-e its initial stimulus- the
on ukiyo-e was mainly certain aspects century of confusion and civil strife fol-
of technique. There was the unusual re- lowing the outbreak of the Onin Rebel-
verse perspective (i.e., lines converging lion in 1467, which itself lasted some
towards the foreground ) and the unique twelve years. In 1568, Oda Nobunaga
compositional device called fukinuke captured the imperial capital of Kyoto
yatai , which literally means "house with and brought some sense of unity back
the roof blown off."(This nicely describes to the land. Nobunaga's campaign had,
however, been a bloody and destructive
Stuart Fleming is Scientific Director of one, and Kyoto's old palaces and shrines
MASCA, Museum Applied Science Cen- were in ruins as he brought his army
ter for Archaeology University Museum, through the city gates. Artisans flocked
University of Pennsylvania , Philadel- to Kyoto to begin rebuilding its splen-
phia , PA. dor; others were drawn there by the pos-

60 Archaeology
sibility of joining the warrior ranks and
thus achieving a higher station in life.
In the wake of this influx came the pur-
veyors of amusement: courtesans, pros-
titutes and entertainers who could cater
to the desires of this growing consumer
society.
The prevailing mood of Kyoto's popu-
lace was to reject the tenets of orthodox
Buddhism of that time- a passive atti-
tude, wherein the world was but a sad,
fleeting dream- and replace them with
a desire to make the most of life, here
and now. The Buddhist ukiyo, meaning
either "sad world" or "floating world,"
suffered a value transference, to equate
to the troubled, earthly affairs of man
as seen, in microcosm, in the pleasure
districts. Gambling became popular, and
the winnings were invariably spent on
women. Prostitutes of all kinds and
classes, some even dressed as Buddhist
nuns, often used popular temples and
shrines as areas to ply their trade. They
mingled with the countless dancers, ac-
tors, etc., to create a truly rich pageant
of daily pleasure-seeking that cried out
for expression via a richly-colored pal-
ette. Ukiyo-eartists did just that.
When a fresh power struggle ended
in victory for Ieyasu Ibkugama at the
Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, and the
moving of the imperial capital to Edo
soon afterward, the popular arts gained
in diversity. In ukiyo-e, while Kyoto and
Osaka remained centers for more tradi-
tional painting topics, such as kabuki
theater and literature, Edo artists took
full advantage of the newly developed
woodblock medium to mass-produce
their efforts. (Initially, they hand-
painted over black-and-white prints, but
by about 1745 printmakers were trans-
ferring color directly from the blocks.)
It is said that the leading artist of the
day, Hishikawa Maronobu, was so pro-
lific that he caused a paper shortage in
Edo around 1680.But the scale of ukiyo-e
production did not detract significantly
from its quality; it simply kept pace
with its exuberance.
The protective scroll
Beautiful though ukiyo-e is, it is also
one of the most difficult art media to
preserve. Whether on paper or silk, the
paintings have always been highly vul-
nerable to Japan's seasonal variations
of humidity. Any support for the paint-
ing has to be flexible,because the stresses
induced by a sharp decrease in humidity
could tear the work apart. The solution
the Japanese themselves favored was
scroll-mounting, lining with a tough,
long-fibered paper that could absorb
stress by small deformations. Hand-in-
hand with that preservation measure
went another: the habit of storing the
rolled-up scroll in a plain box of paulow-
nia wood that, in turn, fitted snugly into
a lacquered wooden box. The outer lac-
quer acted as a moisture barrier, and
the inner box was both a humidity
buffer and an effective shock absorber.
We have now come to recognize, how-
ever, that this method of storage served
a couple of quite different vital func-
tions in preservation. Both relate to the
pigments used. Among the inorganic
ones, the most popular were powdered
oyster shell (for white), cinnabar red,
malachite green and azurite blue, to-
gether with browns and yellows of var-
ied hue prepared from natural ochers.
Each was mixed into a paste based on a
watery solution of glue just before ap-
plication. In ukiyo-e, then, the notion of
a paint layer drying was quite different
from the one that we are familiar with .
in Western art. Whereas linseed oils,
etc., become hardened by chemical
change and limited evaporation of or-
ganics, the ukiyo-e glues do so by reach-
ing a point of gelatinization as water
steadily evaporates. Pigment grains are
then tightly bound together (and to the
paper beneath) as much by surface ten-
sion effects as by basic adhesive proper-
ties of the glue. The drying process
ensures that only about 50 percent of
the surface of the pigment grains is cov-
ered by glue gel; each paint layer is like
a porous sponge, protected to only a
limited extent from any deterioration
processes which air and moisture can
induce. The scrolling and boxing tech-
nique does much to slow those pro-
cesses, with layer upon layer of paper
shielding the fragile painting beneath
them.
Then there is the problem faced by
the organic components of the ukiyo-e
palette. Tfextiledyeing was as popular a
craft in Edo in the late seventeenth cen-
tury as any other, so the ukiyo-e print-
maker had a whole host of colors to draw
upon. They included a safflowerred (and
sometimes a cochineal red imported
from China as early as 1695); all man-
ner of yellows, including gamboge resin
derived from the Garcinia evergreens,
and tumeric extracted from the roots of
the Curcama tuber; dayflower blue and
indigo blue (which, by Hokusai's times,
was almost eclipsed by Prussian blue
from Europe); and browns and blacks
prepared from tannins. Greens, called
Kusa-ai, were some admixture of indigo
and one of the yellow dyestuffs.
Brilliant though these colors are when
first used, most of them are highly fugi-
tive, i.e., they change color quite mark-
edly when exposed to light for lengthy
periods. Again, scrolling and boxing an
ukiyo-e work proves invaluable, simply
by the act of light exclusion. In terms
of damage what we are talking about
here are processes of change that might
occur over about twenty years of expo-
sure in household conditions. Left un-
checked, almost all of these dyestuffs
are reduced to ugly pale yellow, gray or
black stains where there was once vivid
continued on page 75
Nm/amhar/fWomhor
IQftS fil
 ABOUT
PHOTOGRAPHY
by Joe Marvullo
All New!
Improved!
In a high-gloss, often glutted market-
place, with a seemingly endless stream
of all new improved products, there are,
of course, superlative entries that pro-
vide breakthroughs in both technology
and design, and these deserve specific
mention. In last year's columns, "The
Electronic 80's" and "The Digital Dec-
ade,"we discussed the new trends in cam-
era design and high-tech electronics as it
applies to the photo industry. The last
five years or so have been nothing short
Automatic exposure in action is repre-
sented in this photograph of a bird
caught in mid-flight against a back-
ground of the Meiji Shrine in Tokyo.
An 80-200mm lens was used at the
maximum tele setting to capture a
larger moon than the eye could see.
The film was Kodachrome 64.
of remarkable as far as the field of optics
and the design and construction of lenses
are concerned. These latest innovations
have and will continue to change the
way we take and see pictures.
One of the most startling departures
from the accepted "look" of a 35mm cam-
era was introduced two years ago by the
prestigious German manufacturer,
Rollei. In the most dramatic cosmetic
change in sir history, since Nikon intro-
duced the Nikon F, Rollei introduced the
SL2000F. The goal was to integrate the
flexibilities of medium format photogra-
phy with the size and ease of operation
of a modern automatic sir. The unique
fO OGY
ARCHAFOl
1986!
Photography
concept of a built-in motor drive, inter-
changable film backs and a dual viewing
system was revolutionary.
This year, after some well thought out
modifications a new model has arrived -
the fabulous Rollei 3003. Retaining the
best features of the previous model, the
3003 has added a well-fitted loop hand-
grip as part of the camera design, giving
greater flexibility to the camera's hand-
held operation. There are also three sep-
arate release buttons and a well-placed
hot shoe on the side of the camera. The
hot shoe has contacts for automatic or
"dedicated" flash units; a separate syn-
chronizing socket for strobes assures the
photographer several options for the so-
lution of the photo problem. The dual
integrated viewing systems give great
leverage when choosing an angle since
the scene or subject can be viewed from
eye-level to waist-level at a second's no-
tice. The ability to see overhead or right
angle views while hand-holding the cam-
era is unique.
On a tripod the 3003 is easy to use
since its "cube"-like shape has the con-
trols at strategically important places.
Multiple exposures are made simple by
a setting on the interchangable back,
and in conjunction with the built-in
motor any variety of creative or techni-
cal exposures can be made. The view
finder clearly indicates all the functions
of the camera, which includes a "memo"
function for light evaluation storage,
shutter speeds, f-stops, flash function
and a clearly visible exposure measure-
ment field. An electronic exposure sys-
tem that is highly accurate rounds off
the innovative course Rollei has taken
with the 3003.
A camera such as the Rollei would
require lenses of the highest professional
calibre to realize the full potential of the
camera system. The famous German lens
manufacturer Carl Zeiss has succeeded
in producing an excellent series of com-
patible lenses. Renown trademark names
such as "Sonnar, Distagon, Planar, and
Tble-Tfessar"are represented in modern
versions customized for the 3003. A
completely different series of lenses, the
"Rolleinar" line are made to the highest
specifications for Rollei by some of Ja-
pan's top optical companies; these lenses
range from super-wide angle to powerful
telephotos.
Intelligent electronics
Another type of professional camera
design in a completely different conclu-
sion is the sleek and compact OM-4from
Olympus. The OM-4 is part of the new
Olympus generation of cameras, lenses
and accessories. In last year's column
we talked about the introduction of this
state-of-the-art, well-plannedsystem and
a brief review of its most exciting fea-
tures is well deserved. Olympus has al-
ways been known and respected for their
continuing policy of designing high-
quality equipment that is generally
"smaller" in size then any of their com-
petitors while at the same time main-
taining a futuristic approach to metering
systems and automatic TTL compact
flash units.
The key to the OM-4 is the incredible
multi-spot metering system, part of the
new age of "intelligent electronics" which
contains a whole array of professional
functions. The multi-spot takes its light
reading directly off the film plane and
can be switched from a center-weighted
light reading, which measures the whole
frame instantly, to a spot reading which
takes in a small selective reading of only
two percent of the picture area. Push
button controls allow the photographer
to program the meter-computer to either
expose for highlights or shadow areas,
or if desired a combination of all tonal
ranges. For the photographer in the field
this is an extremely time-saving, effec-
tive and problem solving feature.
There is also a useful memory func-
tion which allows the photographer to
follow the action in any light changing
environment while keeping a pre-
recorded exposure setting for the elec-
tronic shutter. The precision engineer-
ing of the meter ties directly into the
advanced flash accessories such as the
powerful new electronic flash, the T45.
Smaller than most comparable flashes,
it has its batteries stored in its handle so
there are no bulky powerpacks to carry.
At the same time the ingenious design
has assured that the number of flashes it
provides ( 100 per charge ) is twice that of
any comparable unit. This incredible unit
also cycles at two seconds, an important
feature for action or multiple exposure
photography.
Photographing artifacts
The lens selection of computer de-
signed Zuiko lenses is as extensive as it
is innovative. I have chosen several to
highlight because of their special quali-
ties. For the archaeologist/photographer,
the new and light-weight 50mm F:2
Macro lens is a welcome addition.
Its sophisticated elements provide pin-
point focusing over the entire picture
range while at the same time its high-
speed (for a macro lens) assures bright
and easy viewing. It is both a functional
"normal" lens and a compact macro with
remarkable resolution and color rendi-
tion. The 100mm F:2 semi-telephoto has
floating elements which make detailed
close-up work in low-light situations or
copy work easy and accurate. It can focus
extremely close for a tele, and is ideal for
photographing artifacts. Its size is com-
pact and the weight is well balanced.
On the other side of the visual spec-
trum is the ultra-wide 18mm F3.5 lens,
one of the finest lenses of its type on the
market. It too has floating elements and
is both ideal for close-up work and archi-
tectual vistas. Its minimum focusing
range is an incredible 9.8 inches!
With the investment photographers
continued on page 73
10QR £-3
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']

PASSPORT
Allen
by Audrey
How To let Lag
Fight
American pioneers trekking westward
by wagon train faced many obstacles,
but jet lag wasn't one of them. Slow
progress gave their internal body clocks
plenty of time to adjust to crossing time
zones. Tbday, however,when we can eas-
ily be transported across three or more
time zones in less than a day, we suffer
the consequences of jet lag: a dragging
dullness of brain, drowsiness, a tend-
ency to walk into walls, insomnia, indi-
gestion, nervousness, irritability, even a
kind of leaden euphoria, to mention only
a few of the possible symptoms. This is
not the best of conditions in which to
start your vacation, or a course of study,
or to begin your volunteer work- or take
charge of volunteers- at an archaeologi-
cal site.
It usually takes one day per time zone
crossed for your body rhythms to get in
sync with your new time and place. (Trav-
elers going northward or southward and
not crossing time zones may arrive tired,
but not jet-lagged.) Most people find it's
easier to fly east to west (into longer
days )han west to east (into a short day )
because our rhythm is set for about 25
hours, not 24 hours. But with a few days
preparation and a bit of planning, you
can avoid or at least lessen the scourge
of jet lag.
Experts point out that you have three
weapons with which to fight jet lag: diet,
mental imagery, and light exposure.
Here's how you can use them all to get
your internal clock ticking to your desti-
nation's time before you arrive there.
Plan your anti-jet lag diet
Your first step is to determine break-
fast time at your destination on the day
you'll arrive. Then followthe anti-jet lag
diet developed by Dr. Charles Ehret of
the U.S. Energy Department's Argonne
National Laboratory in Argonne, Illi-
nois. If breakfast time is, for example, 8
a.m. on Thursday, and you'll be arriving
some time after that (or late the day
before), count four days before that hour,
which would be the previous Sunday at
8 a.m.
• Sunday
"Feast"- that is, eat generous portions
on that Sunday. Eat a high protein break-
fast and lunch (omelets, cheese, eggs,
milk, fish, meat, beans, high-protein ce-
reals) to provide power all day and to
stimulate the body's active cycle.
Eat a high carbohydrate dinner-
spaghetti (without meat or meat sauce),
potatoes, rice, a sweet dessert- to help
you sleep. If you're a coffeeor tea drinker,
drink caffeinated beverages only between
And Win
3 p.m. and 5 p.m., when their effect on
your body rhythms is neutral.
• Monday
The following day- Monday- "fast";
that is, eat as little as possible. But take
care not to become famished. Again, eat
protein for breakfast and lunch, but only
half -portions. Keep carbohydrates and
calories low; choose light soups and sal-
ads, fruit, unbuttered half slices of bread.
Such fasting, it's said, depletes the liv-
er's carbohydrates and helps the body
clock to reset. Follow yesterday's advice
about caffeinated beverage drinking.
• Tuesday
Feast, as you did on Sunday. Again,
drink caffeinated beverages only between
3 p.m. and 5 p.m.
• Wednesday
Back to fasting on this, the day of your
flight. Avoid carbohydrates up to 6 p.m.,
as they bring on sleepiness. If you're
west, it's a good idea to drink
traveling
caffeinated beverages (no sugar or cream )
only in the morning. If traveling east-
ward, only between 6 p.m. and 11 p.m.
Dr. Ehret maintains that caffein and
in beverages like coffee and
theophylline
tea speed the depletion of glycogen,
readying your body for rescheduling.
Late in your "day," quiet down, skip
the in-flight movie, avoid bright lights
and conversation, and sleep on the plane
until that pre-determined breakfast time
-and no longer.: Dr. Ehret cautions
emphatically against sleeping past this
breakfast time even if it means rising in
the middle of the night.
Have a high protein breakfast. If
you've actually arrived by that time, sim-
ply start living your day as they are
doing at your destination. If you're still
in flight at breakfast time and can't count
on the airline serving what you need,
plan ahead to pack a high protein "break-
fast" in an insulated container- a sand-
wich of cheese, meat, fish, turkey, or
peanut butter .
Start living your day as though you
were at your destination: stretch, turn
on lights, walk around, socialize. Eat a
large lunch and dinner at your destina-
tion when the locals do; retire early, and
continue doing "as the Romans do..."
You can help your body reset its in-
flight time clock by picturing what the
people at your destination are doing at
any given time, according to Dr. Edith
Jurka, a New York psychiatrist who's
taught many people to create these men-
tal pictures. As soon as you board your
plane, set your watch to your destina-
tion's time, and imagine that you're on
that time. If it's bedtime at your desti-
nation, tell yourself it's bedtime and that
you're going to sleep for the night, not
just taking a cat nap. During your desti-
nation's daylight hours picture daytime
activities, even if you're in the dark.
Dr. Alfred Lewy of Oregon Health Sci-
ences University has studied the effects
of daylight on a hormone that may be
the body's chief timekeeper. His advice
is, when flying eastward, go outside for
several hours in the morning before
flying. When flying westward, spend
time outside in late afternoon.
More tips
• If your flight is in the morning, go to
bed about an hour later than usual for
westward trips, and one hour earlier if
you're eastbound.
• Don't drink alcohol in flight ; it brings
on fatigue and interferes with the reset-
ting of the body clock. This is probably
the most important part of the diet plan.
The decision to just sit and sip a few
martinis or Scotches and sink into pleas-
ant oblivion on long trips is common-
and looked upon as sophisticated by
some. But the truth is that alcohol
"knocks you out" faster in flight because
of cabin pressure. So there's a lot of truth
in the thought that "jet lag" for a lot of
people who are alcoholic beverage drink-
ers is really hangover.
• Do drink water to fight dehydration.
The air in flight can be as dry as desert
air, and heightens the distress of jet lag.
Caffein, sweetened soft drinks, and alco-
hol add to the problem because they are
dehydrating.
• After the flight, keep to destination
time, but try to get to bed early. Don't
plan much for your first day there. If
you're heading for an all-important con-
ference, plan to arrive a day ahead.
• Remember: losing hours is harder on
the body than gaining them, so it's espe-
cially important to fight jet lag on east-
ward trips.
• Avoid smoking and eating big meals
on the plane. This only adds to fatigue
and body stress.
• Plan to move around the plane. Get up
and walk at least once an hour during
waking hours (helps prevent swollenlegs
and ankles), and try isometru exercises
in your seat.
• Use the diet plan again foAyoui trip
back. If you're going to be at your desti-
nation only a day or two, so that you
can't start your diet plan four days be-
fore flight, at least fast, and sleep only
until your destination's breakfast time,
and avoid alcohol.
Youcan send for a wallet-sized plastic-
coated card describing Dr. Ehret's anti-
jet lag diet plan by writing to: Anti-Jet
Lag Diet, Argonne National Laboratory,
9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, IL
60439. Youmight also want to read Over-
coming Jet Lag, by Charles F. Ehret and
Lynne Waller Scanlon, Berkley Books,
200 Madison Avenue, New York, NY
10016 ($4.95).
1985 65
November/December
 THE BOOKSHELF
The Dawn of European Art: An
Introduction to Palaeolithic Cave
Painting, by André Leroi-Gour-
han. 77 pages , 105 color photographs ,
9 black-and-white photographs , 17 text
figures , 2 plans , i table, bibliography.
Cambridge University Press , AfewYbrfe,
Afy 1982 (The Imprint of Man) $19.95
Rock Art of the Spanish Levant,
by Antonio Beltran . 91 pages , 101
color photographs , 32 text figures, 1
map, bibliography. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press , Afew Yòr&,7VY1982 (The
Imprint of Man) $19.95
These are the first two volumes in a
"new lavishly illustrated series of books
on prehistoric art," edited by the enthu-
siastic and dedicated rock art scholar,
Emmanuel Anati. They address art rep-
ertoires that are chronologically early,
in regions where the histories of discov-
ery and interpretation of the art have
long been intertwined. For these reasons
it is quite appropriate to review the two
volumes together.
At first glance the two volumes ap-
pear to be the same- in size, in format,
and presumably in scope and content.
But the differences between the two are
striking, and particularly informative on
the state of knowledge and research into
each of the two artistic traditions. These
differences exemplify the diversity of
opinion within the field of prehistoric
art, even with respect to the artforms
themselves. One author (Leroi-Gourhan)
does not deal with these divergences,
but the other (Beltran) must , because
of the longstanding and obviously acri-
monious debate over the assignment of
the Levantine art to the Palaeolithic. It
is now the consensus that the Levantine
art is no earlier than the Mesolithic/
Neolithic in period, and not even directly
derived from the preceding art of the
Palaeolithic.
Nevertheless, this debate over the
chronological and cultural assignment
of the eastern Spanish paintings has
contributed to a state of knowledge and
research that differs markedly from that
into Palaeolithic art. Thus, the two
books differ markedly- in intent, scope,
and what the reader must know before-
hand.
Two further important points of com-
parison between the volumes must be
made. First, the bibliographies. The
Beltran book has nine small-print pages
of references, ranging from general
works to works on a site-by-site basis
for 112 Levantine art sites. The Leroi-
Gourhan book gives us only ten refer-
ences; those he cites in the text. This
66 ARCHAEOLOGY
attests to the nature of his book as an
original piece of research and interpre-
tation. By contrast, Beltran's bibliogra-
phy, citing research on the Levantine
art that has rarely been published in
accessible English versions, makes clear
the nature of his book as a survey and
synthesis.
A second major contrast between
these books is in the illustrations, which
at first glance appear to be set up ex-
actly the same way. In the book on
Palaeolithic art the color plates are
numbered and have brief captions. Fre-
quently referred to in the margins of the
text, they are used to illustrate the au-
thor's points. While there is not the same
integration of text and plates in the book
on Levantine art there is much greater
use of black-and-white figures within the
text.
The Beltran book on Levantine art
gives us a fine descriptive overview of
the subject and emphasizes two major
topics. First is the categorizing of the
subject matter: animals by species; hu-
mans by type, including their attributes
and ornamentations, and kinds of com-
positions or scenes (economic activities,
conflicts, dancing). Beyond this, the
book is concerned with the "questions
of chronology and origins that deter-
mine the position of Levantine painting
within the general history of art" (p.
80). Clearly, this stems from past de-
bates over the distinctiveness of Levan-
tine art. The author quite firmly res-
cues it from the claims of other artistic
traditions (Palaeolithic or even Bronze
Age), and sets it on its own as a dis-
tinct and distinguished artform of some
40,000 years' duration.
Working within this traditional ar-
chaeological concern for a chronological
framework, Beltran finds himself at a
loss when he tries to account for the
occurrence of different types of human
depictions in the same panel, since there
is no chronology in the types (p. 40).
Although he claims that there ought to
have been successive changes in color,
movement, and style through time (p.
70) he laments that he has not been
able to distinguish such stages.
Despite the predominance of his con-
cern with description and chronology,
Beltran also pays some attention to the
"whys" of Levantine rock paintings. And
he is not alone among interpreters of
prehistoric art in reading most scenes
quite literally as empirical and direct
statements on activities and generalized
beliefs such as fertility. Such readings
must, however,be considered only a par-
tial, or perhaps even a misleading way
to approach the interpretation or de-
scription of rock art. The pitfalls of lit-
eral readings, and some alternatives to
them, have been shown by the pioneer-
ing works of Patricia Vinnicombe and
especially David Lewis-Williams for
southern San rock art (South Africa).
Not only does Beltran fail to consider
the possible metaphorical component of
the depictions. In trying to read the
scenes literally he draws on generalized
notions about fertility and magic that
have no compelling linkages to the par-
ticular imagery he has so carefully de-
scribed for the Levantine. By the end of
his discussion we are left with a string
of general, almost universal inferences
about the painted scenes that are very
far removed from the specific contexts
of the peoples, places and times that
generated these paintings. Despite the
author's optimistic opening statement
that advocates seeking the "why" of
Levantine art in "historical causes" (p.
13) and his attempts to place Levantine
art as a distinctive tradition, his con-
clusions are characterized by the same
vocabulary as that of an introductory
early twentieth-century text on primi-
tive magic and religion.
Whereas Beltran's book begins with
his observation that we are "spared the
monotony of formal rules" in Levantine
art (p. 18), Leroi-Gourhan's essay on
Palaeolithic art is primarily a further
elaboration of the formal rules of that
art. For him, the decoding and explica-
tion of the structure of prehistoric art
provide access to its meaning. This
structural approach, however, is almost
exclusively applied to the parietal art
or cave/wall paintings; he refers only
occasionally to portable art. And he
makes no attempt to summarize here
the subject matter, chronological se-
quence, history of debates, or even tech-
niques, except as these topics relate to
his own agenda- the presentation of a
"model for figurative construction" (p.
44) "characterizing the evolution of
Palaeolithic art" (p. 17).
Having already placed this book in
historical perspective with his earlier
treatises, Leroi-Gourhan now wants to
try out a "less contentious" domain- the
actual production of the works. "If
plenty still remains to be discovered
about the 'why' of the symbols depicted
on the cave walls, almost everything re-
mains to be said about the 'how'" (p. 7).
The first section of his text includes
Form, Space, Animation, and Time. It
presents his research since the time ten
years ago when he first detailed the to-
pographic, mythogram approach: "that
the pictures constitute a symbolic ap-
paratus linked to the shape of the cave,
a 'decoration' in which the different ele-
ments fill predetermined positions" (p.
8). In this particularly provocative sec-
tion there is a substantial attempt to
decode the cognitive processes that may
Continued on page 70

1985
November/December 67
 ARCHAEOLOGY
The Sun Kingdom of Yucatan.
1984. Produced and directed by Hugh
and Suzanne Johnston. Color, 20 min-
utes. Purchase $395(16 mm), video cas-
sette all formats $340 from Hugh and
Suzanne Johnston , 16 Valley Road >
Princeton, N J 08540 (609) 924-7505.
This is a short, fast-paced and very
handsome film focusing on the Yucatan
Peninsula of eastern Mexico, once a cen-
ter of late or "New Empire" Maya civili-
zation and today the home of many
descendants of the Maya. The viewer is
treated to arresting views of numerous
Peninsular Maya archaeological sites-
Uxmal, Coba, Chichen Itza, Tulum,
Dzibilchaltun, and others. But much of
the emphasis of the film is on the Yuca-
tan of today, and the camera dwells just
as appreciatively on the beaches and
tourist hotels, faces and fiestas of mod-
ern times. The role of the Spanish in the
history of the Yucatan is mentioned, and
there are several shots of Spanish
churches and haciendas, but for the
most part the film concentrates on two
periods in the culture history of the
Yucatan (and on the peoples associated
with these)- the Maya period and today.
The influence of one on the other is made
clear: modern architecture evokes an-
cient temple design, for example, while
contemporary peasant faces mirror the
priestly or princely visages in Maya
painting and sculpture.
Technically this film is very proficient
indeed. Vibrant colors, interesting cam-
era angles and the seductive interplay
of light and shadow are all used to ren-
der the great natural and architectural
beauty of the Yucatan nothing short of
spectacular. Evocative views of archae-
ological sites and shots of slowly revolv-
ing Maya objets d'art are intercut with
scenes from contemporary life in which
the charming, the colorful or the dra-
matic-in costumes, crafts, native cere-
monies, even foods- are sought out. The
narrator's precise enunciation and pleas-
antly sonorous voice and the background
of Mexican guitar and band music com-
plement the fine photography.
In contrast to what many may feel is
implied by the title, this film contains
less information about the ancient Maya
than about their homeland and cultural
legacy. It does not purport to be a schol-
arly or didactic effort, but rather a
ground-floor introduction to the anthro-
pological geography of a particularly in-
teresting culture area. Serious students
68 ARCHAEOLOGY
FILMS
of the ancient Maya will be dismayed
by the film's sketchy treatment of Maya
civilization, which is portrayed almost
as if it had existed in a vacuum. Ar-
chaeology has shown that Maya culture
was anything but homogeneous, either
temporally or spatially, but the consid-
erable differences between earlier, more
southerly manifestations of this culture
and its later Yucatan flowering are dis-
regarded. Much is made of the "mystery"
of the decline of the Maya civilization,
but none of the possible contributing
factors is mentioned. Likewise, the film
skirts substantive issues of contempo-
rary Mesoamerican anthropology to por-
tray the present-day Maya Indians in
what are perhaps unrealistically sunny
hues. In both cases- the archaeological
and the anthropological- it is a loving
portrait, but it lacks depth.
Still, The Sun Kingdom of Yucatan is
more than just a lightweight explora-
tion of the art, archaeology and culture
of the Yucatan. It is a travelogue, in the
best sense of the word: the lay viewer's
interest in and appreciation of the place,
its people and its past are kindled. The
film will be enthusiastically received by
members of armchair travel clubs and
by junior high school social studies
classes. It will disappoint professional
archaeologists and anthropologists, al-
though the beauty and polish of the
production make it pleasant viewing,
even for them.
Gretchen Anderson Gwynne is Adjunct
Assistant Professor of Anthropology,
State University of New York at Stony
Brook.
The Ritual of the Mounds. 1984.
Produced and directed by John Meyer
for the Tennessee Department of Conser-
vation. Color, 281/2 minutes. Purchase
$250 (16mm), video (VHS) $75, rental
$25 from the Educational Resource Cen-
ter, Tennessee Department of Conserva-
tion, 701 Broadway, Nashville, TN 37203
(615) 742-6567.
The Ritual of the Mounds is an enter-
taining introduction to a truly impor-
tant site: the Pinson Mound complex
located in western Tfennessee.This ex-
tensive mound complex has been pur-
chased by the state of Tfennessee,which
has begun a laudable program of con-
servation, scientific investigation, and
public interpretation. The narrator's
claim that Pinson represents the "larg-
est burial and ceremonial Woodland
mound complex in the United States"
would be challenged by some (Newark
and Hopewell spring to mind as possi-
ble challengers), but never mind: Pinson
is big enough and unusual enough to
warrant our most carefully focused at-
tention.
The time period (ca. A.D. 200) is an
important one in eastern United States
prehistory for it witnessed the flores-
cence of the far-ranging Hopewell belief
system/exchange network as well as the
crystallization of more localized, but
nonetheless important, cultural com-
plexes such as Weeden Island in north-
ern Florida. Especially remarkable, but
as yet incompletely investigated, is the
fact that a number of Pinson's mounds
appear to be flat-topped, thus possibly
representing some of the earliest known
"temple" mounds.
In spite of the film's title, Ritual of
the Mounds is much less concerned with
mound ritual than with mound excava-
tion. We watch as a crew of young ar-
chaeologists sets in a grid, previews the
stratification using split-spoon soil
probes, and opens a series of two by
two meter squares into the mound. As
they excavate, we share with them the
thrill of discovery as well as the tedium
of day to day note-taking, digging and
sifting. Outstanding assets of this film
are its realistic portrayal of field and
laboratory work and its clearly drawn
connection between research questions
and the excavations being undertaken.
The treatment of methods is uneven,
however. The viewer is left with the
impression that all excavated sediments
are routinely passed through one-quarter
inch hardware cloth; no mention is made
of quite standard techniques of biologi-
cal data recovery, such as flotation.
The mound excavation is emphasized
strongly, but there is little mention of
the non -mound parts of this vast site.
The director of the project is shown
mending pottery with a cellulose-based
glue, rather than water-based as recom-
mended by most conservators.
The cinematography is uneven. Splen-
did action scenes show the importance
of teamwork in a complex excavation,
but often there is insufficient connec-
tion between the narrator's message and
the scene being viewed. While we listen
to a description of the location of Hope-
wellian and Mississippian developments,
we are shown not a helpful map, but a
view of the Tennessee sky. Near the be-
ginning of the film, as the viewer strug-
gles to comprehend the site plan being
described, the camera is whirling dizzy-
ingly around the base of unnamed
mounds. As the narrator speculates on
the leadership structure of this past so-
ciety, the archaeologists are shown star-
ing intently at freshly-excavated pot
sherds. In one of the sillier outdoor
scenes, the camera lurches unsteadily
about, narrowly missing colliding with
a tree. By far the most annoying aspect
of the film is the distracting music, a
peculiar combination of atonal flute
moans and twanging strings, which ac-
tually drowns out the narration on more
than one occasion.
We see the young archaeologists at
play as well as at work. We witness their
technological failures (a recalcitrant dirt
slide, for example) as well as the im-
pressive results of their careful excava-
tions. We also see an extended sequence
of "archaeo-humor," as the workers re-
lieve the tedium of their work by engag-
ing in various masquerades and pranks.
The sequence is amusing enough, but
much overdone. Mimicry of Arab dress
and gestures will be insulting to some,
and the general attitude of frivolity dur-
ing the excavation is embarrassing.
Rock-and-roll music blares from a radio
during the excavations, and a dog wan-
ders freely through the trenches. Such
informality during excavation of a burial
site may be offensive to Native Ameri-
cans. Close-ups of the burials are over-
dramatized, and accompanied by eerie
music, suggesting that they are objects
of morbid fascination rather than res-
pect-something to be stared at rather
than learned from. Such overdramatiza-
tion is condescending to the audience
and simply in bad taste. It certainly
does not present an accurate picture of
archaeologists' motives for investigat-
ing the past.
In spite of the crew's frivolity, the film
succeeds in portraying their technical
competence, dedication to duty, and gen-
uine respect for the Native Americans
they are investigating. Excellent artist's
sketches of the reconstructed burial rit-
uals deserve discussion; instead they are
flashed rapidly, without comment, jux-
taposed with photographs of the exca-
vation crew. Once again, the filmmaker
discards an opportunity to connect the
excavations with the interpretations in
favor of an unsuccessful attempt to link
the diggers with the digees.
The elements of a great film are here,
but they are poorly integrated. The film
is generally enjoyable, and informative
of excavation techniques, but it falls
short of its potential to teach valuable
lessons from the past. We learn much
about digging, but little about the con-
text of the mound in the larger site and
the site in its regional context. The film
is probably best suited for high school-
educated audiences and above, but it
should be shown by someone who can
provide some of the necessary back-
ground and context that this otherwise
informative film lacks.
William H. Marquardt is Visiting Asso-
ciate Professor of Anthropology and Ad-
junct Associate Curator in Archaeology
at the Florida State Museum, Univer-
sity of Florida.
November/December
1985 69
 The Bookshelf
Continued from page 67
have brought the visual imagery into
existence. The author discusses fram-
ing, superpositioning, and symmetry-
topics that are extremely rare in the
study of Palaeolithic art.
The second part of the text, divided
into sections entitled The Message, The
Actors, and The Content of the Mes-
sage, elaborates on his proposition that
Palaeolithic wall art is a mythogram of
continuity and unity. Under the head-
ing of Actors he discusses the animals,
the human depictions, the monsters, and
the signs. Then he discusses these as-
semblages as they contribute to the
identification and illustration of the fun-
damental formulae for the grouping of
images, both in relation to each other
arid in their locations within the cave.
Leroi-Gourhan's conclusion that "all
authors find themselves very generally
agreeing that the images in the caves
were the framework for an ideology
which is expressed in symbols associ-
ated with fertility and the hunt" (p. 8)
is unfortunately not significantly be-
yond the generalisms that conclude
Beltran's book, despite the structural
gymnastics he has gone through.
Although Leroi-Gourhan continues to
advocate the existence of a progressive,
transformational sequence for the evo-
lution of Palaeolithic art, his underly-
ing agenda is to demonstrate the
existence of a mythogram; that is, a
visual depiction that is without spatio-
temporal references. In particular, the
mythogram in Palaeolithic cave art in-
volves hierarchically coordinated images
of animals according to a fundamental
formula. Here we find Leroi-Gourhan's
most explicit statement of that formula.
It begins with the two major classes of
animals, A (horse) and B (bison/
aurochs), which are the central figures
of any composition, and which together
comprise 60 percent of the images in
Palaeolithic cave art. They are, by for-
mula, complemented by peripheral or
complementary animals (type C): stag,
hind, mammoth, ibex, or reindeer. The
remaining 10 percent of the depictions,
type D (bear, feline or j-hino) are remote
to the composition as well as within the
cave. Relative size and positioning are
used to demonstrate the formula, and
several major caves are explicated in
terms of the formula and how it is played
out.
The sexual symbolism that prevailed
in Leroi-Gourhan's earlier essays is not
completely abandoned; the cave itself is
still presented as a female symbol, and
it remains the only context in his analy-
sis and interpretation of the art. Occa-
sional references to the sociocultural
context or to archaeological finds such
as those from Lascaux are not the kinds
of contextual data that will contribute
70 ARCHAEOLOGY
directly to the confirmation of the myth-
ogram or to elucidating the meanings it
may have embodied. In the end, we are
once more in the generalizations of the
nineteenth century: "evidence of magic
activity linked to hunting;" "Lascaux
can be considered a temple" (p. 75).
Despite their shortcomings, perhaps
even because of them, these first two
volumes in the Imprint of Man series
are excellent contributions to the field
of prehistoric art. They show us how
little we know, despite more than a cen-
tury of inquiry; they set the agenda for
further research; and they herald an
exciting potential for the study of pre-
historic art. Margaret W. Conkey is As-
sociate Professor of Anthropology at the
University Center at Bingfiamton, State
University of New York.
An Introduction to Louisiana
Archaeology, by Robert W. Neu-
man. Xvi, 366 pages , 71 black-and-white
plates, 3 maps, bibliography, index. Lou-
isiana State University Press, Baton
Rouge, LA 1984 $27.50
Regional archaeological guides are apt
to open with a labored chapter on the
palaeoenvironment, but this thorough,
up-to-date synthesis begins instead with
a detailed report on archaeological work
in Louisiana from early in the nineteenth
century through the 1930s. It is a novel
introduction, devoid of critical evalua-
tion and thus admirably reflective of the
archaeological naiveté of those early
years. The author saves his interpretive
efforts for the succeeding, chronologi-
cally-arranged chapters, in which he de-
scribes the state's many sites and their
excavation in meticulous detail, build-
ing slowly toward a comprehensive pic-
ture of a late prehistoric Louisiana that
was an extraordinary cultural mélange
of indigenous and exotic influences. The
story is set in a non-standard but sensi-
ble .chronological framework: the rela-
tively poorly-known Paleo-Indian period
is followed by the "Meso-Indian" (Ar-
chaic) and "Neo-Indian" (Burial Mound
and Ifemple Mound) periods, with the
latter represented by seven finely-drawn
and highly evocative portraits of dis-
tinct prehistoric cultures. The last of
these spilled over into the post-contact
("Historic Indian") period.
Because of the author's academic
voice and painstaking attention to de-
tail, this book may prove difficult going
for laymen, but will find an attentive
readership among archaeologists and
their students- particularly those inter-
ested in Native American cultures and
in the development of archaeological the-
ory and method in the U.S.
The book is well written, scrupulously
footnoted and indexed, and masterfully
illustrated with black-and-white plates
showing Louisiana's archaeological sites
and the artifacts - some of them of
astonishing artistic and technological
sophistication- they have yielded. This
is a thoroughly responsible job, right
down to its useful summary chapter,
(now-standard) plea for site conserva-
tion, and comprehensive bibliography.
Gretchen A . Gwynne, State University
of New YorkyStony Brook, NY
Trade and Exchange in Early
Mesoamerica, edited by Kenneth
G. Hirth. vii, 338 pages , 60 black-and-
white photographs , 20 text figures , 29
tables , 1 plan, 28 maps, bibliography .
University of New Mexico Press, Albu-
querque, NM 1984 $37,50
The materialist-ecological approach has
been the most successful employed in
world archaeology during the twentieth
century, and this volume represents a
major contribution from that perspec-
tive. All authors are remarkably similar
in their assumptions and theories, and
most use them well. These cases detail
the emergence of increasing economic
centralization from egalitarian roots,
concomitant with marked differences in
power and prestige. Three stages of cen-
tralization can be seen in all cases: non-
centralized, minimally centralized
(ranked societies), and highly central-
ized (the state). Most analyses rely heav-
ily on obsidian and other well-preserved
and well-studied materials.
The volume is over-titled; it only
rarely ventures out of highland Central -
Mexico. Neglected are the Gulf Coast,
Yucatán, Petén-Belize, the Southeast,
and Xoconusco. Topically,the Olmec are
conspicuous by their absence, and per-
ishables need greater consideration, in-
cluding major and minor foodstuffs,
salt, cotton, and feathers. The authors
are often weak in isolating transforma-
tion of an egalitarian into a non-egali-
tarian society. This is, however, a major
volume. Hirth is to be complimented on
an excellent job of editing. His intro-
duction, his conclusion, and his chapter
on Morelos are models to be emulated.
Payson D. Sheets, University of Colo-
rado, Boulder, CO.
Pottery in the Roman World: an
Ethnoarchaeological Approach,
by D.P.S. Peacock . xxi, 192 pages,
31 black-and-white plates, 62 text fig-
ures, 1 table, 20 plans, 4 maps, bibliog-
raphy. Longman, Inc., New York, NY
1982$35.00
This book, the first in Longman's new
archaeology series, looks at how Roman
pottery was made and distributed and
at the reasons for its developmental his-
tory. It is not a conventional handbook
of pottery shapes, functions, trade-
marks, origins, and dates. The book's
purpose is to see Roman pottery objects
in terms of the economic and social en-
vironments in which they were produced
and used.
continued on page 73

1985
November/December 71
 WORDS TO
MACHU PICCHU: CONSERVING AN
INCA TREASURE, page 18
Bromeliades- plants of the Bromeliaceae
familyof tropicalAmerica,with basal, often
spiny leaves and flowersin dense spikes or
heads; the pineapple is a bromeliade.
Lianas - climbing plants rooted in the
ground; woody lianas are found in tropical
rain forests, herbaceous lianas in temper-
ate regions.
THE ARCHAEOLOGYOF
EARLYPARIS, page 26
Arverni- a powerfulGallicpeople livingin
the Auvergne section of modern France
who came under Roman dominationin the
second century B.c.
Celts- a group of peoples with a common
speech and artistictradition who occupied
lands north of the Mediterranean region
from Galatia (Turkey)in the east to Galicia
(Spain) in the west.
Gauls- a name applied by ancient writers
to the peoples of the territory west of the
Rhine, bounded by the Alps,the Pyrenees,
the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.
Salyans - a Gallic people living in the
Provence area of modern France, defeated
by Rome in 133 b.c.
Sigillata - ceramics, especially ancient
Roman ware, decorated with stamped-on
patterns or motifs.
Stater- ancient gold or silvercoins of the
Greek city-states, with varying standards
of value.
GALEN'S PERGAMM, page 33
Asclepius - the Greek and, later, Roman
god of healing. His shrines at Pergamm,
Epidaurus and Cos were centers of medi-
cal practice and cultural activityin Greece
during the Roman period.
Lanista - the manager and trainer of a
troupe of gladiators.
Naumachia- a mock naval battle fought
in a flooded arena or in a specially built
pool that was also called a naumachia.The
spectacle was introduced by Julius Caesar
in 46 B.c. and became increasinglypopu-
lar under the Early Roman emperors.
Propylon- a formal entrance to a shrine
or precinct. Often, as on the Acropolis at
Athens or at Pergamum's Asclepeion,the
propylonwasan importantarchitecturalunit.
Stoa- a long open building fronted with
columns, often with rooms opening off the
back walland on a second floor.Stoas pro-
vided shelter from sun and rain as well as
space for public and private business, and
tney often served to bound open public
areas.
72 ARCHAEOLOGY
REMEMBER
THE MANCHESTER
MUMMYPROJECT, page 40
Cartonnage- a material made from papy-
rus and gum, used for coffinsand other fu-
nerary objects in ancient Egypt.
Chromatography - a method used to
isolate and identifysome of the substances
with which a mummy's bandages were
impregnated.
Electron microscopy- a method of exam-
iningsamplesof tissueand other substances
from the mummies. The electron micro-
scope can show up details in a specimen
1,000 times smaller than is possiblewith a
light microscope.
Endoscopy - the use of an endoscope
(viewinginstrument) to examine internal
cavitiesof the mummies.
Fluoroscopy- examinationby x-raystrans-
mitted onto a fluorescent screen.
Orbiting- a radiological technique using
apparatus that enables the x-ray image to
be viewedfrom a number of angleswithout
moving the body.
Paleohistology- the study of examining
tissue from ancient bodies.
Paleopathology- the study of disease in
ancient tissues.
Tomography - a method of obtaining
x-rays of tissue in a plane of interest by
blurring out the unwanted shadows above
and below the plane, thus sharply defining
the image.
KUSHAN SCULPTURE: IMAGES
FROM EARLYINDIA, page 54
Jainism - a religion and philosophy
founded at about the same time as Bud-
dhismby Mahãvíra,the last of 24 Tirthankas
whose teachings are followedby Jains. The
religion espouses non-injuryto all beings,
and asceticism and monasticism as paths
to human perfection.Formerlywidespread,
Jainism is now strong only in the western
state of Gujarat.
Maurya Sunga- Indian historical period
taking its name from two ruling dynasties,
the Mauryas(320-185 B.c.)and the Sungas
(185-72 b.C.).
Plinth- the base of a wall or column ped-
estal, also the square, projecting base of a
stupa.
THE RUMBLE OF
DISTANT THUNDER, page 58
Parapet- an earth embankmentsupported
(at Black Point) on the inside by a breast-
high masonry wall.
Revetment- angled timber facingatop the
parapet wall used to retain the earth fill.
Terreplein- the surface behind the para-
pet where the gun platformsare located.
The Bookshelf
continued from page 71
Suggesting that "current ceramic
studies are in some ways comparable
with chemistry before Lavoisier,"the au-
thor seeks to formulate a model to be
used for future pottery studies. The
model he develops involves an ordering,
from simple to complex, of the chief
methods probably used by the Romans
to produce and distribute pottery. He
constructs the model on the basis of
ethnological study of modern pottery
production in areas once occupied by
the Romans, especially Spain, France,
Italy, Greece and T'inisia. The same de-
ductive approach already applied by
such scholars as Matson and Hampe/
Winter on a smaller scale in the eastern
Mediterranean is thus enlarged in this
book to include a considerable part of
the Roman West.
The author, a specialist in the scien-
tific, especially the penological, analy-
sis of pottery, has visited and worked at
many of the locations, ancient and mod-
ern, discussed in the book. Using evi-
dence from ethnology, he presents an
"ethnoarchaeological" model for Roman
pottery production. Starting with the
most primitive pottery-makig, in
households, he progresses to individual
workshops, urban and nucleated indus-
tries, the massive fine-ware manufactur-
About Photography
continued from page 63
are making in these sophisticated cam-
era, flash and lens systems, it is only
reasonable to provide the best possible
protection for traveling and rugged use
in the field. There are many types of
camera bags from the excellent to the
absurd (for example, plastic bags), but
the quality of excellence rests in bags of
rugged durability, water repellency, the
ability to take shocks, and even to look
good. Such requirements go into one of
the professional's most favored line of
camera bags, the Tfenba. These are a
whole series of bags, straps, clamps, and
accessories to fit every possible photo-
graphic need.
Since the bags are designed by a pro-
fessional photographer, great care has
gone into both the planning and con-
struction of each piece. The bags are
easy to work out of, are reliable and are
waterproof. The word Tenba means
"steadfast" in Tibetan- this has defi-
nitely been achieved. The bags are man-
ufactured in the U.S.A. The cloth is
DuPont's Codura, a material three
times stronger than canvas. The pad-
dings are made of Ethafoam, the
same tough material used in the linings
of football and race car driver's helmets.
It is a quarter of an inch in thickness and
is made to take shocks. U.S. grade mili-
tary hardware has been used for all buck-
les, clamps and d-rings; the shoulder
straps are welded to d-rings to assure
ing system, production on estates, and
finally military and municipal/state pot-
teries. Within these categories such top-
ics as the types and amounts of pottery
produced, the chief centers of produc-
tion, the classes of society to which
pottery-owners and workers belonged,
and the marketing of wares are treated.
The chapter on the huge fine-ware in-
dustry is particularly well developed, as
might be expected, given the abundant
information now in print. The equally
large shipping amphora industry is,
however,less extensively discussed. The
model is preliminary, but it should pro-
vide both specialists and non-specialists
with a background against which to see
Roman pottery in better focus.
Readers will be interested in the chap-
ter that describes in clear terms just
how the Romans made various types of
pottery, from raw material to finished
product. There are also up-to-date dis-
cussions of such technical matters as
the dating of Roman pottery and the
methods currently used to sample, quan-
tify, and study the distribution of pot-
tery. This stimulating and useful book
is also a convincing statement of the
importance of pottery as a source of
knowledge about Roman economic and
social history. Elizabeth Lyding Will,
Department of Classics, University of
Massachusetts , Amherst , MA.
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pods and stands come in every conceiva-
ble size and configuration. There are over
100 precision tripods to choose from, in
light, medium and heavyweight classes,
as well as monopods and over 30 sepa-
rate interchangeable heads. The tripods
are made to handle any camera from
35mm through 8x10, as well as 16 and
35mm film and video cameras. A whole
range of accessories is available from
cases to light stands. For the archaeolo-
gist/photographer there is virtually no
photographic chore on location or in the
studio that cannot be accomplished by
one of the durable Gitzo tripod
variations.
In the next issue we will continue our
look at the International photo product
scene with some comments on other su-
perior entries in the field.
rvi i ir' u irtQR Ti
 FOR FURTHER
Machu Picchu
For Further Reading on the Inca:
Hiram Bingham, Lost City of the Incas :
The Story of Machu Picchu and its
Builders (Atheneum, New York, NY
1972),is the account of Bingham's 1911-
15 expeditions which remains a solid,
fascinating report of his discoveries;
Paul Fejos, "Archaeological Explora-
tions in the Cordillera Vilcabamba,
Southern Peru," Viking Fund Publica-
tions in Anthropology, No. 3, (Wenner-
Gren Foundation for Anthropological
Research, New York, NY 1944), the only
complete published description of the
sites on the Inca IVail; Graziano Gas-
parini and Luise Margolies, translated
by Patricia J. Lyon, Inca Architecture
(Indiana University Press, Blooming-
ton, IN 1980), is the most complete
study available on this subject; John
Hemming and Edward Ranney, Monu-
ments of the Incas (New York Graphic
Society Book published by Little, Brown
and Co., Boston, MA 1982), is a well-
researched, general written and photo-
graphic study of some major Inca sites.
Galen's Pergamm
For Further Reading on Pergamm
and Roman Asia in general: Ekrem
Akurgal, Ancient Civilizations and
Ruins of Turkey (Mobil Oil Türk, Istan-
bul 1969; fourth edition Haset Kitaberi,
Istanbul 1978), provides a good guide
to Pergamm and the other important
sites in Roman Asia; Roland Auguet,
Cruelty and Civilization : The Roman
Games (Allen & Unwin, London 1972),
is the best book in English on gladia-
tors and their life; George Bean, Aegean
Turkey (Praeger, New York, NY 1966),
although less up-to-date than the recent
editions of Akurgal, makes better read-
ing.
On Galen: G.W. Bowersock, Greek
Sophists in the Roman Empire (Oxford
University Press, Oxford 1969), has a
valuable chapter on Galen; Vivian Nut-
ton, "The Chronology of Galen's Early
Career," Classical Quarterly 23 (1973):
158-71, gives evidence and arguments
for the events of Galen's life up to his
first journey to Rome; John Scarborough,
"Galen and the Gladiators," Episteme
5 (1971): 98-111, gives an account of
the treatments employed by Galen and
relates them to Roman medical practice.
The Manchester
Mummy Project
For Further Reading on mummies:
A. and E. Cockburn, editors, Mummies,
Disease and Ancient Cultures (Cam-
bridge University Press, Cambridge
1980), is an account of the multidisci-
plinary research carried out on mummi-
fied remains from many areas of the
world; A.R. David, editor, The Man-
74 Archafoinc.v
READING
chester Museum Mummy Project : Mul-
tidisciplinar y Research on Ancient
Egyptian Mummified Remains (Man-
chester Museum, Manchester 1979),pre-
sents the scientific account of the
Manchester researches until 1979; A.R.
David and E. Tapp, editors, Evidence
Embalmed: Modern Medicine and the
Mummies of Ancient Egypt (Man-
chester University Press, Manchester
1985), tells the story of the Manchester
investigation to 1984 in layman's terms;
W.R. Dawson and P.H.K. Gray, Cata-
logue of the Human Remains in the De-
partment of Egyptian Antiquities,
British Museum, London (British Mu-
seum Publications, London 1968), is a
radiological survey of the collection of
Egyptian mummies; J.E. Harris and
E.F. Wente, An X-ray Atlas of the Royal
Mummies (University of Chicago Press,
Chicago and London 1980), gives a de-
tailed account of the radiological survey
carried out on the royal mummies in the
Cairo Museum; E. Tapp, A. Curry and
C. Anfield, "Sand Pneumoconiosis in an
Egyptian Mummy," British Medical
Journal, May 3, 2:276, discusses the ev-
idence for this disease in Nekht-Ankh.
The Protection of
Historic Shipwrecks
For Further Reading on shipwreck
legislation: Council of Europe, The Un-
derwater Cultural Heritage, Volume I
(Report of the Committee on Culture
and Education, 1977); C.W.N. Ingram
and P.O. Wheatley, New Zealand Ship-
wrecks 1795-1975 (A.H. and A.W. Reed,
Wellington, NZ 1977); P.J. O'Keefe and
L.V. Prott, Law and the Cultural Heri-
tage, Volume I, Discovery and Excava-
tion (Professional Books, Oxford 1984).
Kushan Sculpture:
images from Early India
For Further Reading on Indian and
Buddhist art: A. Coomaraswamy, His-
tory of Indian and Indonesian Art
(Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY
1965),is a reprint of a 1927classic; more
recent treatments are J. Rosenfield, The
Dynastic Arts of the Kushans (Univer-
sity of California, Berkeley and Los
Angeles 1967); and W. Zwalf, The
Shrines of Gandhara (British Museum
Publications, London 1979).
The Rumble of
Distant Thunder
For Further Reading on Civil War
San Francisco: Emanuel Raymond
Lewis, Seacoast Fortifications of the
United States : An Introductory History
(Leeward Publications, Inc., Annapolis,
MD 1979), is invaluable; Erwin N.
Thompson, Seacoast Fortifications, San
Francisco (National Park Service, Den-
ver, CO 1979), is the best available
source.
Science Scope
continued from page 61
color. Safflower red and dayflower blue
seem most susceptible to deterioration
in this respect.
Ukiyo-e in the museum
If ukiyo-e paintings were kept perma-
nently scrolled, their longevity might
be assured. But then we would never
see them. Perhaps just unroll them for
a while? But for how long? As muse-
ums have tried to make these judge-
ments, a couple of drawbacks in the
usual storage conditions have been rec-
ognized. The rolled-up state becomes,
as a result of creep, the natural shape of
the scroll. Unrolling creates a tension
on the painting's inner surface, and the
fibrous, network-like structure of paper
responds by creating a lateral concav-
ity. This means that the edges of the
support are actually some distance in
front of the central region of the paint-
ing itself, as the scroll hangs on display.
In the short term this effect is revers-
ible, but under the prolonged stress of
the weight and horizontal rigidity of the
roller, the painting buckles into a wavy
shape that is irreversible. Creasing may
occur during rerolling. This damage oc-
curs in just a few years in ordinary cli-
matic conditions. Fluctuate the humidity
appreciably, and it will be much aggra-
vated ; add a certain degree of age-related
brittleness to the paper, the pigments' -
glue and the paste on supportive back-
ing, and lateral cracks soon develop.
Current exhibit strategy for ukiyo-e
still has a certain empiricism about it.
The Japanese generally insist on a limit
of one month on display and a controlled
humidity ranging between 55 and 60 per-
cent. As for color fading, ultraviolet fil-
ters commonly used to protect other
museum artifacts prove only margin-
ally effective in its prevention. (An ex-
ception is indigo blue, the deterioration
rate of which can be slowed to about a
third of its unshielded value. ) Many pig-
ments respond very unfavorably to en-
vironmental pollutions, lead-based
colors suffering badly since they readily
convert to black lead sulfide.
As it stands there are no simple solu-
tions for ukiyo-e preservation. Therein
lies an irony, since ukiyo-e is essentially
an art for and about people, yet its pub-
lic display threatens its very survival.

Science Scope Reading: R.L. Feller,

M. Curran and C. Bailie, in Japanese
WoodblockPrints (Allen Memorial Art
Museum, Oberlin, OH 1984); E.W. Fitz-
hugh, "A Pigment Census of ukiyo-e
Paintings in the Freer Gallery of Art,"
Ars Orientalis XI (1979): 27-38;
Muneshige Narazaki, Masterworks of
Ukiyo-e: Early Paintings (Kodansha,
Tokyo 1967); Kenzo Toishi, "The Scroll
Painting," Ars Orientalis XI (1979):
15-25.
 In the Field
Continued from page 59

Psotta, the students worked as hard as

their predecessors, removing thousands
of cubic yards of soil, painstakingly ex-
cavating the gun platforms, and recov-
ering thousands of artifacts.
While the amazingly intact battery
walls were a pleasure to behold, the ar-
tifacts were the real treasure of two sea-
sons' digging. The hundreds of friction
primers, parts of uniforms, firing mech-
anisms of Civil War muskets, bullets
and cartridges, mess kits and canteens,
broken bottles, and thousands of other
smashed, trampled, buried and forgot-
ten items offer unique insights into mil-
itary life and attitudes in Civil War San
Francisco. Contractor shortcuts in con-
struction, intricate and massive "tem-
porary" platforms for the gigantic
cannon, and au courant weapons pro-
vide perspectives on mid-nineteenth-
century building practices and on the
actual capability of the well-armed men
who defended the city. Randomly-fired
bullets in the walls, a carefully-hidden
liquor bottle in a gap in the timbers of a
gun platform, and a twisted chain of
firing pins are graphic evidence of the
boredom faced by soldiers who stood
ready for an enemy who never came.
At the end of the second summer all
of the west end of the battery stood
completely exposed, and its restoration
began. Foundations of later buildings
were chipped away to allow an unob-
structed view of the original brickwork.
Earth was replaced atop the parapets, re-
creating the contours of the earthworks.
Now reproduced timber revetments
are being installed on the walls to face
the interior slopes of the earthworks, as
was done in 1864. Lawn is being planted
to accentuate the terreplein and slopes
atop the walls; double-hinged wooden
doors are soon to be re-hung on the ready
magazines ; and a reproduction gun plat-
form, cast in concrete to simulate wood,
will be installed to await the placement
of a Civil War vintage Rodman cannon.
Future plans call for uniformed inter-
preters to stand watch, drilling and run-
ning through mock firings for the thou-
sands who visit Fort Mason each year.
Small, unobtrusive outdoor exhibits
reproducing historical photographs have
been oriented to help merge the past
with the tangible present.
After almost three years of careful ar-
chaeological excavation, meticulous res-
toration, and much planning, the Black
Point battery stands open to the air once
again. The restored ramparts now re-
mind visitors of a time when the pas-
sions and fears of the Civil War engulfed
the nation's western shore. The conflict
is long past; yet it can still be perceived,
like the rumble of distant thunder, by
those standing inside the Black Point
battery.

-7/r ArvM
iA1-/M
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/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']

n EWSBRIEFS
Folk Art of the South
AlthoughSouthern music,craftsand
folkwayshave long been diligentlystudied
by folklorists,comparativelylittleattention
has been paid to Southern folkart, particu-
larlythat from the eighteenth and nine-
teenth centuries.Withinthe large and
diverseregion extendingfrom Maryland
and Virginiato east Texas,a number of
distinctgroups- French,Spanish,German,
Moravian,Afro-American,Swiss,Scotch-
Irish,and Shaker- developed their various
artistictraditionsin rural isolation.
Nowa landmarkexhibitionorganized
by the Museumof AmericanFolkArt in
NewYorkCityand on tour through several
Southern citiesuntilthe end of 1986 pro-
videsan opportunityfor the publicto see
the fullrange of the South's rich folkart
legacy.Portraitsin flattenedtwo-dimen-
sionalstylewith crisp outlinesand much
decorativedetailwere the most important
art form.Others were genre painting,
prominentlyfeaturingevents of war;fraktur
(illuminatedor decorated writing)and slip-
glazedearthenware produced by German
settlersof the Upper South; sculpturesof
wood, stone and metal;alkaline-glazed
stoneware,stillproduced by the last of the
Southern folkpotters;textilesand furniture.
Afterclosingin San Franciscothe exhibi-
tion, sponsored by PhilipMorris,Inc.and
partiallyfunded by the NationalEndow-
Maya Art in Washington
Handwoventextilesfrom the Guate-
malan villageof Comalapa and 20 oil
paintingsby Andres Curuchich,the coun-
try'soutstandingprimitivepainter,willbe
on displayat the Museumof LatinAmeri-
can PopularArt in the Organizationof
AmericanStates buildingin Washington,
DC November26-December 31, 1985.
Comalapa:Traditionsand Textileshas been
mountedby the MuseoIxchelof Guatemala
City,a privatemuseum devoted to the
preservationof Guatemala'srich textile
heritage.PhilipMorris,Inc.funded the
Englishtranslationof the illustratedmono-
graph writtenby anthropologistLinda
Barrios,Curator of the Museo betel.
At Washington'sTextileMuseumthe
ment for the Arts,willbe on viewat the
BirminghamMuseumin AlabamaOctober
17-December8, 1985; the Tennessee
State Museumin NashvilleJanuary 9-
March8, 1986; the MintMuseumin Char-
lotte, NC April5-May 25, 1986; the Valen-
tine Museum,Richmond,VAJune
17-August30, 1986; and the J.B. Speed
Art Museum,Louisville,KYSeptember 28-
November30, 1986.
Prehistoric
Native Americans
AncientArt of the AmericanWoodland
Indians,exhibitedat the Detroit Instituteof
Arts September 5-November 10, 1985 and
the Museumof Fine Arts,Houston, TX
December21, 1985-March 9, 1986, brings
together stone sculptures,ceramics,copper
tools,weapons,ornaments,and ceremonial
objectscreated between 3000 b.c.and
a.D.1500. Discoveredover the past 180
years,some as recentlyas fiveyears ago, in
the Woodlandregion extendingfrom the
AtlanticCoast to the Westernprairiesand
from the Great Lakesto the Gulfof Mexico,
the objectscome from the Late Archaic
(3000-1000 b.c.),Woodland (1000 b.c.-
A.D.900) and Mississippian(a.D.900-1500)
Periods.Partiallyfunded by the National
Endowmentfor the Arts,the exhibitionis
open to the publicwithout charge.
presentation of Flowers,Saints and Toads:
the TextileArt of the Chiapas Mayas
inauguratesa national tour of the firstU.S.
exhibitionof weavers'artistryfrom Maya
communitiesin Mexico.Organizedby the
Science Museumof Minnesota,the more
than 50 textilesfrom the nineteenth and
twentiethcenturies interpret the art form's
history,aestheticsand symbolism.The
toad, "musicianof the rain,"causes rain to
fallfrom the cloudscreated in the mountain
cave of the Saint, or Earth Lord. Although
each Mayacommunity'stextilesappear
uniformat firstglance,everypiece expresses
the weaver'spersonal visionof the world
and her place in it, and each is unique: the
weaver never repeats her design exactly.
Thishuipil,or overblouse,from Comalapa
is of the San Martintype.
More on the Festival of India
Each of the variousexhibitionsof Indian
art in the 1985-86 Festivalof India cele-
bration in the U.S.features a particular
culturalregion,period or style.Indian
Miniaturesfrom the EhrenfeldCollection,
on viewat the CaliforniaPalace of the
Legion of Honor in San Franciscothrough
December 15, 1985 and travelingto nine
other museums,presents an overviewof
the development of Indian miniaturepaint-
ing and includesworksof Mughal,Decanni,
Rajasthani,and Pahari painting.The ear-
liestworksdate fromjust before the reign
of the firstgreat Mughalemperor,Akbar
(a.D.1556-1605), when the Persian style
imported by the Mughalsbegan to merge
with the indigenousIndian traditionto
form a vigorousnew Mughalart styleem-
phasizingnaturalisticanimal studies and
court painting.Typicalworksare a portrait
of Akbarpresenting a falconto his son
Jahangir (Mughaliconographyassociates
the falconwith politicalpower and its trans-
mission)and the charming YoungAfrican
Elephant.Other importantworksdepict
Krishna(an incarnationof the Hindu god
Vishnu) as child,warrior,lover,and deity.
Afterclosingin San FranciscoIndian
Miniatures, organizedby the American
Federation of Arts,willvisitmuseums in
Texas,Louisiana,NewJersey, Massachu-
setts, Florida,Illinois,Iowa,Oklahoma,and
North Carolina;watch the "Current Exhibi-
tions" section of Archaeologyfor dates and
places.
Prehistoric Pottery
Re-Dated
Collectionsof Precolumbianpottery and
gold artifactsin the FieldMuseumof
Natural History,originallybrought to
Chicago for the Colombianpavilionat the
1893 World'sFair and dated a.D.400-800,
are now attributed to a much earlierperiod
-600-1500 b.c.Scholarshipand excava-
tions in Colombiaand Ecuador since the
late 1960s have confirmedthat the
Museum'sIncisedBrownwarepottery
comes from the same tombs and the same
culture that produced its ClassicQuimbaya
gold pieces (most examplesof whichare in
Madrid'sMuseo de America).
Current informationclearlyindicates
that by 1000 b.c.the most advanced metal-
lurgyin the NewWorldwas being practiced
in the Cauca Valleyof Colombia,and that
the people who produced this civilization
were either exterminatedor drivenawayby
a series of Pompeii-likevolcanicdisasters,
extendingfrom south of Quito, Ecuadorto
northern Colombia,that made the Quim-
baya region uninhabitablefrom about 600
b.c.to a.D.100 or later.The most recent
archaeologicaloccupation of the area is
dated a.D.800-1600.
Duringtheir investigationsscholarsat
the Field Museumcame across approxi-
mately 15 more pieces of IncisedBrown-
ware- among them a spectacularbichrome
example and a mug for nativebeer in the
shape of an alligator,perhaps the giant
blackcaiman which has great mythological
significancein South America.

Asphalt Archaeology
Urbanarchaeologicalprojectsoften take
on an unusual character,and sometimes
lend themselvesto curiouslyapplied ob-
jectives.A recent case of "applied archae-
ology"came about in Galveston,Texas,
where the cityis seekingto bringback an
operationaltrolleysystem.Roger Moore,
an independent archaeologicalconsultant,
is servingon the project'sdesignand engi-
neeringteam, withthe task of satisfyingthe
UrbanMassTransportationAdministration
and State of Texasrequirementsin regard
to the constructionimpact of the trolleyon
archaeologicalresources.As events un-
folded,the archaeologicalcontributions
went beyond the boundaries of environ-
mentalcompliance.
Giventhe fact that the trolleyline will
pass through one NationalLandmark dis-
trict-the Strand, the nineteenth-century
"WallStreet of the South" and currentlya
popular historicalattraction- as wellas
severalNationalRegisterdistricts,Jeffery
Oschsner,the project architect,placed
the highestpriorityon achievinga histori-
callycompatibledesign for the system.
For example,the cars willbe traditionalin
character,replicatingcars of the 1890-
1915 period.
Another key issue lay in the design of a
historicallyappropriate new pavingsurface
to be placed betweenand around the tracks.
Thiswas a question that seemed best an-
swereddirectly,by a glimpseof the old ca.
vm- *rt-; ;*<.w «/
Yuletide Festivities
The 15th annual ScottishChristmas
Walkweekend in Alexandria,Virginiawill
be highlightedon Saturday,December7,
1985 by the traditionalparade of tartan-
clad marchersthrough the Old Townand a
concert of massed pipe bands afterwards.
Bagpiperswilllead visitorsto a Saturday
Adventserviceat the Old Presbyterian
MeetingHouse builtby Alexandria'sScot-
tish founders in 1774, site of the tomb of
the UnknownRevolutionaryWar soldier.
Publictours of privately-ownedbuildings
willbe conducted on Saturday afternoon,
Scottishcraftsand Christmasdecorations
willbe on sale, and childrenfrom two to 12
may have lunch with Santa- served by
elves.The entire affairis for the benefitof
the AlexandriaY,a serviceorganization
concerned withwomen and their families,
whichsponsorsthe ScottishWalkWeekend
jointlywiththe Cityof Alexandriaand the
Saint Andrew'sSociety.
EleutherianMillsin Wilmington,Dela-
ware, ancestral home of the DuPont family,
adorned December7-31 with natural dec-
orationsof greens and berries,grapevine
wreaths and poinsettias,may be visited
seven days a week. Candlelighttours (ad-
vance registrationrequired) on December
17, 19, 26 and 30 willbe conducted by the
HagleyMuseumand Library,located on
the site of DuPont'soriginalblackpowder
factory.
In Minneapolis,the AlexanderRamsey
House, home of Minnesota'sfirstterritorial
governor,who was also second governor
of the state and Secretaryof War in the
cabinetof President Hayes,willbe open for
1900 pavement hidden beneath the current
asphalt surface.
Test units were dug by a CityPublic
Workscrew under Moore'ssupervision,
perhaps one of the firstarchaeologicalex-
cavationsto employa pneumaticjack ham-
mer as its principaltool. Odd (and noisy)
as this substitutefor troweland shovel
mightbe, it worked likea charm, exposing
the older surfaceswithout damagingthem
noticably.Brickpavements,whose presence
was expected,were cleanlystripped. In
addition,the work turned up a bit of a sur-
prise in the form of creosoted wood blocks
used as pavement for a couple of blocksof
the street. This forgottenpavement mate-
rialwas fairlypopular with civilengineers
around the turn of the century,even though
it was prone to "explosion"when water-
saturated.
Both the old surfacesseemed to be in
excellentcondition.This fact caught the eye
of the GalvestonHistoricalFoundation,the
guardian of the Strand district.The His-
toricalFoundationjoined forceswith the
DowntownRevitalizationCommitteeto
financea more ambitioustest, clearing
awaya 25 by 30-foot section to get a better
look.The test was placed at the joint of the
brickand wood surfaces.It demonstrated
that the asphalt could be economicallyand
safelystripped usinga grade-allbackhoe.
Strippingall the asphalt off- givingthe
districta more historicalflavor- is stilla
possibilityas the citydecides on the next
move.
the holidayseason decorated as the Ram-
sey familyarranged it in the late nineteenth
century- with the accent on children.
Special features include exhibitsof chil-
dren's literature,samples of food described
in the stories,and interpretivereadings of
the storiesthemselveson the fiveSundays
of December.Fridayeveningtours of the
house (occupiedby Ramseysuntil 1964)
on December6, 13 and 20 willculminate
in quadrilledancing,and both house and
museum giftshop willbe open for Decem-
ber tours Mondaysthrough Fridays,10-3,
Saturdaysand Sundays, 1-4.
An Ancient Greek Oeuvre
The WorldoftheAmasis Painter:Vase
Paintingin Sixth-Centuryb.c.Athens,the
firstinternationalloan exhibitionfeaturing
the work of a singleartist from the ancient
world,willbe on displayat the Toledo
Museumof Art November24, 1985-
January 5, 1986. The real name of the
master painter,whose hand is recognized
in more than 100 survivingvases and frag-
ments in collectionsthroughout the world,
is unknown;the name "Amasis"belonged
to the potter in whose workshopthe vases
were made and painted. Tracingthe artist's
40-year career, the vases depict the my-
thologyand dailylifeofAthensthrough their
varied subjects:gods and heroes, battle
scenes, horse races and athleticevents,
weddings,banquets and wine making.
Afterclosingin Toledo The Worldof the
AmasisPainterwillbe shown at the Los
AngelesCounty MuseumFebruary20-
April6, 1986, jointlysponsored by the
J. Paul Getty Museum.
November/
December
1Qft5 7Q
 THE FORUM
In Quest of Nuraghi
by Stephanie Ocko
police helicopterlookingfor firesor
banditsrumblesoverhead as the ten of us
trek across an empty Sardinian field,haul-
ing meter sticks,surveyingtransit and
tripod,clearingtools,a ladder,boxes of
tapemeasures,plumb bobs,flashlights,can-
teens, lunch,and a huge container of tea
for morningbreak. For half an hour we
walkpast flocksof sheep and an interested
donkeyor two to a round stone tower loom-
ing monumentallyin the treeless field.Its
ancient stones,coveredwith orange lichen,
glowin the earlymorning sun.
The tower is a nuraghe,and we are a
Universityof CaliforniaResearch Expedi-
tion- sixvolunteers,three professional
architects,and Project DirectorLenore
Gallinof U.C.LA Our missionis to meas-
ure and record the architecturalfeatures of
Sardinia'smysteriousBronzeAge struc-
tures. Archaeologistshave recorded a con-
tinuous pottery styleand recoveredbronze
tools,ingotsand figurinesfromthe nuraghi,
about 7,000 of whichhave been mapped
and named by the Italianmilitary.But why
they were builtis not clearlyunderstood.
Gallinhopes her architecturaldata willhelp
answerthat question.
Mostof the nuraghi have two stories,
each witha corbelledinner room, an inwall
stairway,and a singledoorwaycapped by a
mammoth lintel.In most cases the second
storyhas collapsed,leavinga ragged con-
figurationof fallenstones on the roof.
Nuraghihave been used as animal shelters
for so long that they could qualifyas the
Augean Stables,but our only Herculean
task is to clear awaythe dry tangled thorn-
bushes that obscurethe base and clutter
the top of the building.
Then, splitinto teams, we get to work.
Some of us perch precariouslyon the edge
of the top and sink a plumb bob attached
to a tape to measure the slope and height
of the nuraghe. Gusts of the soft Sardinian
windthat temper the heat wreak havoc
withthe plumb bob and bring up the music
of sheep's bellsfrom the lonelyfields.Be-
low,while someone holds a meter stick at
points around the base, another person
movesthe tripod, measuringthe distances
and angles on a transit.
Lunch is a sumptuous Mediterranean
delightof meats, cheeses, huge Sardinian
flatbread,tomatoes, olives,fruit and yogurt,
whichwe eat off a checkered tablecloth
spread in a groveof olivetrees. Afterlunch,
we move insideto the dark and gamy in-
terior,lightedby flashlightsand a wheezy
gaslamp.We measure the radii of the
chamber from a center point, draw and
measure the niches,doorwayand stairway,
and then, standing on a ladder and stretch-
ing upward,we measure the rise and apex
of the beehiveceiling.
Whenwe pack up our gear to go, after
guzzlingwater from canteens, we have
80 Archaeology
helped the architectsdividethe circleof
the nuraghe into quarters and map the sec-
tions with a networkof invisibletriangles
fromwhichthey can make the finaldraw-
ingsthat note each nuraghe's specialfea-
ture-an intact post and lintelon the roof,
a second stairwayleadingto an inwall
chamber,or holes seven to eight feet deep
at graduated levelsin an outside wall-
individualdifferencesthat are important to
Gallin'sdata.
Bonorva,where we live,is one of those
Mediterraneanvillageswith a high inci-
dence of widows,cheeky children,teen-
agers dressed to the nines plyingthe
passeggiataeverynight,and old men who
sit on benches and wonder. Streets wind
between two-storystucco houses painted
in soft pastels and lead to piazzasfronted
by churches and busy cafes.Our landlady,
Zia Peppa, patrols the terrace and controls
the general order of things.If musicfrom
our guitar reaches a criticalpitch she flings
up the slatted blind and cries into the night
for peace and quiet or she willcallthe cara-
binieri.Her quiet, pleasant brother, a shep-
herd, slowlystirsmilkin a vat over a fire in
a room on the terrace, makingpeccorino,
a hard goat cheese.
Zia Peppa's neighborand archenemy,
Benedetto, a metalsmithwho makes bed-
steads decorated with gailypainted flowers,
invitesus one night for cakes and wine and
dancingto his collectionof Americanswing
and waltzrecords. He has intense brown
eyes and an excitedsmile,but when he
plays Sardic music he growsserious.We
are invitedto join hands in a circleand
dance to its curious,monotonous rhythm.
We stop when Benedetto'swifeAngelina
enters with her ricotta cake, cut into mathe-
maticallyprecise pieces and laid in a per-
fect grid on a huge tray.The cake is as
monumental as the evening.
It never rains in Sardinia,they say-
except on our fieldtrips. In Castelsardowe
sit in a cafe drinkingcoffeeto keep warm;
in Cala Gonone we huddle against a beach
house watchingrain fallin silverglobules
and lightningbolts shoot into the sea. But
on our fieldtrip to Baruminiit is hot and
dry.Baruminiis the superstar of Sardinian
nuraghi.Coveringseveralacres on a hilltop,
it is a labyrinthof paths that snake around
stone wallsand circularbuildingsthat clus-
ter around a central tower,the focus of
radiatingrooms. Romanscalledthe nuraghi
castra,and the message of defense at
Baruminiis loud and clear.
That night at dinner we discussthe
nuraghiwith our architects,none of whom
was familiarwith them beforejoining
Gallin'sexpedition.BillHocker of Berkeley
thinks nomads from the mountains periodi-
callyraided the pastoralistNuraghicPeople,
and nuraghi might have been builtby local
masons as refuge centers for families.
"Nuraghididn't require an architectany
more than farm houses do, but likefarm
houses each nuraghe is different,based on
localor personal preferences,"Hockersays.
But Paul Tuttleof the Universityof Cali-
fornia,Berkeley,whose fieldis the social
factorsof architecture,believesthat a cen-
tral governmentoversawthe building,send-
ing out trained architectsor engineers.
"The buildingsare so complex,and the
stones are so large, constructingthem re-
quired a lot of organization,"Tuttlesays.He
also believesthat hilltopand fieldnuraghi
compriseda defense network.Architect
Tom Carnegie,who worked on a public
housingproject in the Arctic,thinksthere
were too many nuraghi to have functioned
only as refuge centers and suggeststhat
many were houses. When someone asks if
livingin a windowlessstructurewould not
have been unpleasant, he argues that peo-
ple then might have had differentconcepts
of lightand darkness.Most of the houses
in Bonorvatoday are shuttered against the
afternoon sun.
As volunteerswe findwe are a compat-
iblegroup, and toward the end of our stay
we achieve a kind of synergy.For Stuart
Plumb,a Seattle biologyteacher and vet-
eran of severalarchaeologicalexpeditions
and Outward Bound trips, ours is the best
group he has known.WarrenTarshis,a re-
tired insuranceexecutive,and his wifeOlga,
a teacher, have been on sixarchaeological
expeditions,some with Earthwatch."In our
experience,groups peak at midpoint,"
Warren says."In the beginningthe process
of discoveryis fun. Then it slopes off."Olga
adds, "People get tired at the end of expe-
ditions.And accidents can happen."We
think of the teeteringheightswe hang from,
on stones that are none too stable,and of
the recent headlinesin the localnewspaper
sayinga nuraghe had collapsed.But we do
not think- together, at least- of disaster.
Ann Criswell,a Latinteacher from northern
California,spends her free time taking
photographs; KristyWessenberg,a San
Franciscolaw librarianand experienced
backpacker,is interested in architecture.I,
a writerfrom Boston who livedin Zaïrefor
three years, am doing a thesis on Daidalos.
Ifwe have anythingin common, it is a love
of adventure.
Our last nuraghe is the biggest:Santa
Barbara,a three-story,four-toweredruin on
a hilltop.Everythingis breakingdown:the
van sputters, Stuart's shoe is held together
with maskingtape, the flashlightbatteries
are weak,the climbup the hillfeels likethe
BuddhistWayof Truth.We have givenit
our best.
But the nuraghi stillelude us. On our last
night,we walkto the piazza,under the
same networkof stars that shone on the
enigmaticBronzeAge builders.In the
distance,between the roars of motorbikes,
we hear the music of sheep's bellsthat
enlivenedthe silencetwo millenniaago.
Stephanie Ocko is a journalist withgrad-
uate degrees in communicationsfrom Sim-
mons and ancient art from Harvard.She
spent time in Zaire withthe ForeignService
and WaltDisneyFilms.
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