Keith R Pullen 1991 PHD Thesis

IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND MEDICINE
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of London
The Design and Development of a Small Gas

Turbine and High Speed Generator
BY KEITh R. PULLEN
A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

of the University of London and for the Diploma of
Membership of the Imperial College
1991
1
Abstract
This thesis describes the research work associated with the design and development of a
portable generator using a small gas turbine engine and a high speed disc alternator. The
work can best be described as total technology in content, and using analytical and
experimental methods in areas as wide as thermofluids, structural analysis and materials.
The applications for the gas turbine generator and the benefits of such a device over
existing reciprocating engine powered generators are described. Reasons for choosing the
particular design scheme for the gas turbine over a range of alternatives are also given.
For the novel, high speed disc alternator, reasons for the selection are cited, basic theory
is evolved and important design parameters are identified and optimised.
The major task in the design of the generator is the mechanical integrity of its
components, especially those on the rotor. Much analysis, including 3D finite elements,
has been performed to establish a satisfactory design. Prototypes of the alternator have
been successfully tested on three high speed rigs, designed and commissioned
specifically for this task.
Another area, critical to the success of the engine, is the aerodynamic performance of the
radial inflow turbine. An experimental test facility was designed and commissioned to test
the turbine to characterise its performance over a range of conditions. The duct which
supplies the gas to the turbine, the turbine volute, has also been analysed and tested in
detail. Results show that design modifications, particularly for the volute are required.
2
Acknowledgements
My first vote of thanks must go to Dr Shahram Etemad who joined the project with me
over three years ago and has worked with me enthusiastically as a colleague throughout
the time, sharing all the ups and downs of the work. My supervisor, Dr Nick Baines has
helped me greatly in the project, especially in the area of the turbine and I wish to thank
him especially for conscientiously guiding me throughout the work. On the alternator
side, Mr Arnold Fenocchi has played a major role working along side me as a fellow
student and I wish him every success in completing his studies. As part of the project
team in the laboratory, Mr Laurie Eggleston has worked extremely hard and diligently and
I must thank him for his efforts in helping solve many difficult problems bringing ideas
into hardware.
Without the determination and enthusiasm of Professor Colin Besant it is unlikely that the
project would ever have been initiated and I wish to thank him especially for his attitude
of encouragement and vision for the work. Professor H. Bolton and Dr M. Ristic have
also devoted much time and effort supporting the project.
I give special thanks to Rolls-Royce for their financial support for both the work at the
College and for personal subsistence. Without the authorisation of Professor J. Coplin,
then Director of Design at Rolls-Royce Derby, I would not have been able to cany out my
work at the College and I give him thanks for his role as co-initiator of the project. Other
employees of Rolls-Royce who have played a significant role in the project include Mr R.
Brien, Mr S. Hill, Mr P. Pinot and Mr K. Horton and I thank them for their
contributions.
As an independent consultant to the project Mr Reg Brealey has given me much help
especially in the area of design. I thank him greatly for sharing with me his vast
experience which has enhanced my abilities as an engineer.
The course of my work has involved working with upwards of fifty students at the
College at various levels. I give special thanks to one of these students in particular, Mr
Ed Pask who stands out as making a very large contribution to my work and has worked
with me sometimes beyond the small hours of the morning. I also wish to thank Mr C.
Pond and Mr W. Nonde as students who have made significant contributions to the
work.
Particular friends who have encouraged me outside the College include Ed Pask, Arthur
Delargy, Peter Kahn. Martin Steinbereithner, Neil Yates and the Peny family who I thank
for there moral support and prayers which helped me to finish this thesis.
Finally, but not least I wish to honour the Lord Jesus for being present with me always
and to whom I dedicate this thesis.
"Commit to the Lord whatever you do,

and your plans will succeed" Proveibs 16:3
3
Contents
Page
1 INTRODUCTION 11
1.1 Background 11
1.2 The Gas Turbine Engine 18
1.3 High Speed Alternator 41
1.4 Identification of the Main Research Areas for the S.S.T. Project 68
2 DEVELOPMENT OF STRESS AND VIBRATION ANALYSIS

TECHNIQUES FOR HIGH SPEED ROTOR DESIGN 72
2.1 The Need for Accurate Mechanical Stress and Vibration Assessment 72
2.2 Axisymmetric Models for the Design and Stress Analysis of Rotating
Components 73
2.3 3D Analysis of the Engine Compressor Rotor 91
2.4 Analysis Particular to Alternator Magnet Disc 95
2.5 Shaft and Component Vibration Analysis 102
3 DESIGN, MANUFACTURE AND COMMISSIONING OF THE

RADIAL TURBINE TEST FACILITY 105
3.1 Description of the Turbine Rig Requirements and Available Existing
Facilities 105
3.2 Design and Manufacture of the Turbine Test Rig 111
3.3 Control and Instrumentation 133
3.4 Recommendations for the Improvement of the Turbine Rig 156
4 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN AND INVESTIGATION OF THE

TURBINE VOLUTE 158
4.1 The Engine Volute Design 158
4.2 Experimental Investigations of the Volute Aerodynamic Flow 163
4.3 Summary of the Volute Investigation 178
5 EXPERIMENTAL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF THE

RADIAL INFLOW TURBINE 179
5.1 The Range of Test Conditions Achieved 179
5.2 Performance Testing based on the Energy Balance Method 181
5.3 Investigation of the Nozzle Inlet and Exit Flow 189
5.4 Investigation of the Rotor Exhaust Flow 198
5.5 Rig Component Examination, Further Calculations and Summary 207
4
6 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE HIGH SPEED

ALTERNATOR TEST FACILITIES 211

6.1 Initial Rig Requirements 211

6.2 Commissioning and Development of the Mk 1 Rig 211

6.3 The Mk H Rig and Further Developments 216

6.4 The Mechanical Burst Rig 221

6.5 The Mk ifi Alternator Rig 224
7 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE DISC ALTERNATOR 226

7.1 The Magnet Disc and Stator Geometries 226

7.2 Materials Manufacture and Testing for the Alternator 235

7.3 Heating Losses and Stator Cooling 257

7.4 Investigation of High Speed Disk Windage 261
8 SUMMARY OF PROJECT ACHIEVEMENTS AND FUTURE

RECOMMENDATIONS 279

8.1 Project Aims and Resources 279

8.2 Summary of Project Achievements 279
8.3 Recommended Future Work Required to Build a Demonstrator S.S.T.

Generator 282

Appendix 1 Cost Comparison Analysis for the S.S.T. Turbine Engine 284
Appendix II Details of Staff and Student Contributions for the S.S.T. Project 286

Appendix III Results Dynamic Analysis on High Speed Shafts 288

Appendix IV Coordinates for the Volute Instrumentation Positions 289

Appendix V Additional Graphs for the Probe Calibration 290

Appendix VI Loss Coefficients and Flow Analysis for the Volute 292

REFERENCES 294
5
List of Figures
CHAPTER 1
Section 1.1 Page
Fig 1.1.1 The5OkWGasTurbineGenerator 12

Fig 1.1.2 The Turbine Volute 14
Section 1.2

Fig 1.2.1 Matrix Decision Process for the Choice of Gas Turbine 20

Fig 1.2.2 The Simple and Heat Exchanged Gas Turbine Cycles 21

Fig 1.2.3 Performance Characteristics for Simple and Heat Exchanged Gas Turbines 22

Fig 1.2.4 Types of Gas Turbine Compressors Available 23

Fig 1.2.5 Types of Turbine Available 26

Fig 1.2.6 Size Comparison of a Radial and Axial Turbine for Equal Mass Flow 27

Fig 1.2.7 The Two Shaft Engine 28

Fig 1.2.8 Theoretically Possible Components Orientations 30

Fig 1.2.9 Alternatives for the Combustion Chamber 31

Fig 1.2.10 Detail of the Combustion Chamber Gas Feed 32

Fig 1.2.11 The Exhaust Silencer/Heat Exchange Unit 33

Fig 1.2.12 Cycle Efficiency for Different Turbine Entry Temperatures and Shaft Speeds 36

Fig 1.2.13 Comparison of Specific fuel Consumption for the S.S.T. and Diesel Generator 37
Fig 1.2.14 Specific Fuel Consumption Comparison for Diesel and the Heat Exchanged S.S.T. 38
Section 1.3

Fig 1.3.1 The S.S.T. Generator Design Target Compared to Other Permanent Magnet Designs 42

Fig 1.3.2 The High Speed Disc Alternator Design 43

Fig 1.3.3 A Dmm Alternator Configuration 46

Fig 1.3.4 The Inside Coil, Stationary, Two Coil Lundell A.C. Generator (Becky-Robinson) 47

Fig 1.3.5 The Approximate Size of Magnets Mounted on a Disc 52

Fig 1.3.6 The Mk I Rotor Design 53

Fig 1.3.7 The Keeper Disc for the Disc Alternator 55

Fig 1.3.8 The Mk II Geometry used for the Metal Strength Shell Comparison 56

Fig 1.3.9 Simplified Geometry the Strength Shell Comparison 57

Fig 1.3.10 Maximum Alternator Rotor Sizes for Different Strength Shell Materials 59

Fig 1.3.11 Relative Power Comparison for rotors with Different Strength Shell Materials 60

Fig 1.3.12 Internal Metal Disc Design Scheme 60

Fig 1.3.13 Finite Element Analysis showing Hoop Stress for the Internal Metal Disc 61

Fig 1.3.14 Details of the Analysis And Bulk Stresses 62

Fig 1.3.15 The Titanium Lobbed Disc Geometry 63

Fig 1.3.16 The Drum Disc Configuration 63

Fig 1.3.17 The Annular Magnet Rotor Design 64

Fig 1.3.18 The Permanent Magnet Drum Type Alternator - Internal Rotor 65

Fig 1.3.19 The Permanent Magnet Drum Type Alternator - External Rotor 66

Fig 1.3.20 A Non-Permanent Magnet Disc Generator 67

Fig 1.3.21 A Non-Permanent Magnet Drum Generator 68
CHAPTER 2
Section 2.2

Fig 2.2.1 The Turbine Rotor Features 74

Fig 2.2.2 The Cutback Backplate 74

Fig 2.2.3 The Turbine Disc and Blades Divided up into Elements 75
Fig 2.2.4 Hoop Stress Contours for the Disc and Maximum Stress for the Blade

- Combined Centrifugal Loading at 100 krpm and Bolt Tension 77
Fig 2.2.5 Von Mises Stress Contours for the Disc and Blade

- Combined Centrifugal Loading at 100 krpm and Bolt Tension 77
6

Fig 2.2.6 PropertiesofWaspalloyforincreasingTemperatures 80

Fig 2.2.7 Low Cycle Fatigue Estimation for Waspalloy at 450t 80

Fig 2.2.8 The Larson-Miller Parameter for a Similar Material to Waspailoy 81

Fig 2.2.9 An Early Design of Alternator Keeper Disc 83

Fig 2.2.10 The First 100 k.r.p.m Keeper Disc Design 84

Fig 2.2.11 Flowering of a Flat Sided Disc and a Design Shape to Reduce it 84

Fig 2.2.12 The Keeper Disc Design Incorporating Symmetiy 85

Fig 2.2.13 The 2-Piece Keeper Disc Design 86

Fig 2.2.14 The Compressor Rotor 87

Fig 2.2.15 2D Axisymmetric Mesh for the Compressor Disc 88

Fig 2.2.16 Main Results from the 2D Analysis of the Flat Back Compressor 89

Fig 2.2.17 Scalloped Back Compressor Rotor l)isc Stresses and Deflected Shape 90
Section 2.3

Fig 2.3.1 The Skew Pie Cut Geometry used for the 3D Cyclic Symmetric Analysis 92

Fig 2.3.2 Von Mises Stress Contours - 3D Compressor Rotor Disc and Blade Model 93

Fig 2.3.3 Low Cycle Fatigue Estimation for 17-4PH Steel 94
Section 2.4

Fig 2.4.1 2D Axisymmetric Analysis of the Alternator Magnet Rotor 95

Fig 2.4.2 Maximum Stress Contours - 2D Complete Alternator Rotor Model 97

Fig 2.4.3 The Mesh used for Cyclic Symmetric Analysis of the Mk II Rotor Design 98
Fig 2.4.4 The Effect of Interference Fit and Spin Speed on the Magnetflore Stress

for the Mk II Rotor 100

Fig 2.4.5 The Mk HI Rotor Design 100
Fig 2.4.6 The Effect of Interference Fit and Spin Speed on the Magnet/Core Stress

for the Mk ill Rotor 101
Section 2.5

Fig 2.5.1 Shaft Vibration Modes for the High Speed Rig Shaft with Test Disc 102

Fig 2.5.2 The Resonant Frequencies for the Mk I High Speed Rig 103
CHAPTER 3
Section 3.1

Fig 3.1.1 The Turbine Components and Traversing Axis for the Turbine Rig 105

Fig 3.1.2 Available Rig Facilities for the Turbine Rig 108

Fig 3.1.3 The Leakage Flow for the Turbine Rig Pipework 110
Section 3.2

Fig 3.2.1 The Energy Balance Method for the Turbine Performance 112

Fig 3.2.2 The H3 Bearing Housing used for the Turbine Tests 114

Fig 3.2.3 Evaluation of the Maximum Bearing Displacements 115

Fig 3.2.4 Deflected Shape and Maximum Blade Tip Excursion 116

Fig 3.2.5 Resonant Frequencies of the Rotor for Different Bearmg Stiffnesses 117

Fig 3.2.6 Rotor Shaft Features 119

Fig 3.2.7 The Turbine Rig Assembly 121

Fig 3.2.8 The Inlet duct on the Test Rig Volute 122

Fig 3.2.9 The Volute Passage Definition 123

Fig 3.2.10 Overhang in the Volute Half Section 123

Fig 3.2.11 The Nozzle Vane Structure and sealing Mechanism 125

Fig 3.2.12 Creation of the Conect Profile for the Turbine Shroud 125

Fig 3.2.13 The Compressor Inlet Ducting and Throttle Valves 128

Fig 3.2.14 The Traversing Mechanism 130

Fig 3.2.15 The Gantry in use for the Volute Traverse 131

Fig 3.2.16 The Gantry in use for the Exhaust Traverse 132
7
Section 3.3

Fig 3.3.1 The Pressure Measurement System 134

Fig 3.3.2 Pressure Tapping Locations for the Turbine Rig 136

Fig 3.3.3 Nozzle Static Pressure Tapping Locations 137

Fig 3.3.4 Volute Static Pressure Tappings and Probe Hole Locations 138

Fig 3.3.5 Location and Numbers of Fixed Thermocouples 139

Fig 3.3.6 Thermocouple Positioning for Oil Temperature Measurement 140

Fig 3.3.7 Recovery Factor Calibration for the Thermocouple 142

Fig 3.3.8 Duct Areas and Thermocouple Positions 142

Fig 3.3.9 The Compressor Collector Volute Geometry 143

Fig 3.3.10 Determination of the Compressor Exit Swirl Angle Distribution 144

Fig 3.3.11 Details of the WedgeProbe 145

Fig 3.3.12 The Probe Calibration Wind Tunnel 146

Fig 3.3.13 Definition of Flow Angle 0 to the Probe 147

Fig 3.3.14 Thermocouple Recovery Factor for the Wedge Pmbe 147

Fig 3.3.15 Total Pressure Recovery Factor for the Wedge Probe 148

Fig 3.3.16 Calibration of Angle Factor with Flow Angle 149

Fig 3.3.17 Factor x as a Function of 0 for Different Mach Numbers 150

Fig 3.3.18 Factor y as a Function of 0 for Different Mach Numbers 150

Fig 3.3.19 Details of the Blanking Plugs for the Access Holes 153

Fig 3.3.20 Calibration for the Oil Flow Meter 154

Fig 3.3.21 The Shaft Speed Pickup Arrangement 155
CHAPTER 4
Section 4.1

Fig 4.1.1 The Volute Definition Parameters and Two Typical Cross Sectional Shapes 161

Fig 4.1.2 Method for Calculating the Volute Radial Velocities 162

Fig 4.1.3 Calculated Radial Velocities for the Volute at Engine Design Point 162
Section 4.2

Fig 4.2.1 Measurement Positions for the Internal Flow Survey 163

Fig 4.2.2 The Variation of Loss Factor Y within the Volute for Station 24 165

Fig 4.2.3 Flow Angle Measurements at Station 24 165





Fig 4.2.8 Dynamic Pressure Loss Coefficient Y as Averaged in the Axial Direction 168

Fig 4.2.9 Experimental Velocity Flow Vectors as Averaged in the Axial Direction 170

Fig 4.2.10 Theoretical Velocity Flow Vectors based on Free Vortex Theory 170
Fig 4.2.11 Comparison of Theory and Experimental Velocity Vectors 172,173
Fig 4.2.12 Theoretical and Experimental Mach Number-Azimuth Angle Plot at a Radius of 86mm 174

Fig 4.2.13 Tangential and Radial Velocity Distributions at the Nozzles 175

Fig 4.2.14 Nozzle Inlet Incidence Angle Around the Volute 176

Fig 4.2.15 Comparison of the Flow in the Volute for Different Conditions 177
CHAPTER 5
Secnon 5.1

Fig 5.1.1 Range of Power Absorption Available from the Compressor 179
Section 5.2

Fig 5.2.1 Total to Static Efficiency verses Pressure Ratio for the Turbine 185

Fig 5.2.2 Velocity Triangles for the Rotor 186

Fig 5.2.3 Total to Static Efficiency as a Function of U 2/C0 Ratio 187

Fig 5.2.4 Mass flow Parameter Variation with Pressure Ratio 188
8
Section 5.3

Fig 5.3.1 Velocity Triangles for the Nozzle Inlet and Exit 191

Fig 5.3.2 Nozzle Inlet Incidence Angles 192

Fig 5.3.3 Absolute Nozzle Inlet Mach Number 193

Fig 5.3.4 The Variation of Nozzle Exit Deviation with Azimuth Angle 195

Fig 5.3.5 The Variation of Nozzle Exit Mach Number with Azimuth Angle 195

Fig 5.3.6 Averaged Nozzle Deviation as a Function of Mach Number 196

Fig 5.3.7 The Variation of Rotor Inlet Incidence with Azimuth Angle 197

Fig 5.3.8 Total to Static Efficiency as a Function of Rotor Inlet Incidence 197
Section 5.4

Fig 5.4.1 Measured Gas Swirl Angles in the Turbine Exhaust - 50% Speed 199



Fig 5.4.4 The Variation of Total Temperature in the Exhaust Duct for Several Conditions 201

Fig 5.4.5 The Variation of Pressure and Density in the Exhaust Duct for One Condition 202
Fig 5.4.6 Comparison between the Energy Balance and Exhaust Traverse Efficiency

Detennination Methods 204

Fig 5.4.7 Comparison of Mass Flow Determination by Orifice Meter and Exhaust Traverse 205

Fig 5.4.8 Comparison between the Different Measures of Efficiency 206

Fig 5.4.9 Rotor Exit Deviation for 70% Non Dimensional Rotor Speed 207
Section 5.5

Fig 5.5.1 Examination of the Nozzle Passage after Rig Strip 208
Fig 5.5.2 A Comparison between the Two Methods for Calculating Rotor Inlet

Tangential Velocity 209

Fig 5.5.3 Volute Plate Insert 210
CHAPTER 6
Section 6.2

Fig 6.2.1 The Shaft Arrangement for the Mk I Rig 212

Fig 6.2.2 The Alternator Rig Installation 213

Fig 6.2.3 Details of the Mk I Rig Shaft Mounted in its Cartridge 214
Section 6.3

Fig 6.3.1 The Mk II Rig Design 217

Fig 6.3.2 The In-situ Balance Scheme 218

Fig 6.3.3 Force Diagram for the Balancing of the Alternator Rotor 219
Section 6.4 and 6.5

Fig 6.4.1 The Mechanical Integrity Spin Rig 221

Fig 6.4.2 The Geisler Soft Suspension Balancing Machine 223

Fig 6.5.1 The Mk III Alternator Rig 224
CHAPTER 7
Section 7.1

Fig 7.1.1 The Mk I Rotor Geometry and Stator Conductors 226

Fig 7.1.2 The Stator Conductor Thickness 227

Fig 7.1.3 The Effective Magnet Area of the Mk I Rotor formed by Two Conductors 228

Fig 7.1.4 The Stator Conductor Path Shape for the Mk II Rotor 229

Fig 7.1.5 The Stator Geometry forming the Coils and Magnet Shape 230

Fig 7.1.6 The Rotor Geometry Variables for the Optimisation Analysis 231

Fig 7.1.7 Results of the Optimisation Analysis 234

Fig 7.1.8 The Mk ifi Rotor and Stator Geometry 235
9
Section 7.2

Fig 7.2.1 The Carbon Fibre Composite Tube Manufacturing Rig 238

Fig 7.2.2 The Steel Encasement Shells and the Resulting Carbon Fibre Tube 239

Fig 7.2.3 The Hydrostatic Rubber Test 240

Fig 7.2.4 The Hydraulic Loading Test Rig 243

Fig 7.2.5 Results for the Bursting of 924 - T800 "Prepreg" Carbon Fibre Shells 244

Fig 7.2.6 Strain Gauge Readings for Shell Number 6 (Test (i) & (ii)) and 7 (Test (iii)) 244

Fig 7.2.7 The Interference Fit Test and Manufacturing Method 246

Fig 7.2.8 The Filament Winding Technique 247

Fig 7.2.9 Neodymium Test Pieces and Test Arrangement 249

Fig 7.2.10 Results of Mechanical Tests on Neodymium Boron Iron Magnets 250

Fig 7.2.11 Results of Compression Fatigue Tests on Neodymium Boron Iron Magnets 250

Fig 7.2.12 The Formation of a Stator from Two Etched Copper Sheets 251

Fig 7.2.13 Results of an attempt to Etch 2 mm Thick Copper Sheet 252

Fig 7.2.14 The Construction of the Wire Bundles for the Stator Conductors 253

Fig 7.2.15 Wire Wound Stator Constructed by using an Epoxy Fibreglass Board 254

Fig 7.2.16 The Pin Winding Jig for the Manufacture of Stators 256
Section 7.3

Fig 7.3.1 An Early Method of Forced Stator Cooling 260

Fig 7.3.2 Stator Cooling by Uniform Radial Flow with Shaft or Hollow Stator Feed 260
Section 7.4

Fig 7.4.1 The Effect of Number of Stages on Stage and Total Windage Loss 266

Fig 7.4.2 The Air Flow Meter for Low Mass Flow Rate Measurement 268

Fig 7.4.3 Apparatus for the Measurement of Stator Windage Drag Torque 270

Fig 7.4.4 Stator Windage Drag Torque (One side only) 271

Fig 7.4.5 The Energy Balance Rig for Windage Determination 272

Fig 7.4.6 Mass Flow and Pressure Rise for the Case of a Free Ventilating Disc 274

Fig 7.4.7 Comparison of the Windage Loss for Two Disc Diameters and Repeatability Tests 274

Fig 7.4.8 The Effect of Changing Air Gap on Windage Losses 275

Fig 7.4.9 The Windage Loss with Force Air Feed from Disc Tip to Bore 276

Fig 7.4.10 The Windage Loss with force Air Feed from Disc Bore to Tip 276

Fig 7.4.11 Variations in Power Loss for Different Cooling Mass Flows 277
List of Tables
Page

Table 1.3.1 Propeities of Materials for the Alternator Rotor 50

Table 1.3.2 Stress Equations for Rotating Discs and Rings 50

Table 1.33 Maximum rotor Diameters and Associated Radial Growths for Different Materials 51

Table 2.2.1 Creep Lives for Various Portions of the Turbine rotor at the Stated Temperatures 82

Table 4.1.1 Estimation of Volute Dynamic Pressure Loss Coefficient and Total Pressure Loss 160

Table 5.2.1 Measurements for the Energy Balance Method 181

Table 5.2.2 Basic Reading Error Estimation 183

Table 5.2.3 Fractional Error Estimation Analysis for Conditions (a) to (c) 184

Table 5.4.1 Fractional Error Estimation Analysis for the Exhaust Traverse 204

Table 7.1.1 Comparisons for Different Rotor Designs 233

Table 7.2. la Experimental Results from the Hydrostatic Rubber Tests 241

Table 7.2.lbTest Details for Fibredux 924 242

Table 7.2.3 Modulus Values Calculated for the Carbon Fibre based on Strain Gauge Results 242

Table 7.4.1 Windage Loss Predictions using Published Correlations 262
10
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1.1.1 Project History
In 1984, a design study was initiated within Rolls-Royce plc to investigate the feasibility
of designing a gas turbine engine to power a motorcycle. The main advantage of a gas
turbine in this application is the high power to weight ratio and the simplicity of the
engine. Although a very small engine was considered feasible, the principal difficulty
was harnessing the power output from a shaft rotating in the region of 70 to 150
k.r.p.m.. It was suggested that a direct drive alternator should be used to convert the
shaft power to electrical power and then drive the motorcycle with an electric motor.
However, an alternator with the speed and power capability required was not available
and this meant that a new design was necessary.
The project reopened as a joint venture between Rolls-Royce plc in 1986 and Imperial
College from which a proposal for a possible alternator design was drawn up - Besant et
a!. (1986). After further feasibility studies, Pullen (1987), the potential of the unit as a
lightweight portable generator, independent of the vehicle application, had become
apparent and research was supported by Rolls-Royce to enable a more detailed
investigation to go ahead. The gas turbine generator research programme was code
named the Small Scale Technology (S.S.T.) project due to the very small size of the gas
turbine engine relative to any of the current Rolls-Royce aero engines.
Serious research began in middle to late 1987 and continues to date. The primary
objective of this work was to try to discover whether any major difficulties existed with
the proposal as early as possible and hence increase confidence in the feasibility of the
project. This was carried out with detailed design, analysis and, to a limited extent,
manufacturing and testing of the major engine/alternator components. With the resources
that were allocated to the project, it has not been possible to build a complete prototype
engine generator, with this being seen as a second phase of the work, should it be
decided to do further development of the S.S.T. device. As yet, no major technical
reasons have been discovered which show that the project cannot succeed although many
design changes have been made in the light of test results.
1.1.2 Description of the Gas Turbine Generator
The current scheme is shown as Fig. 1.1.1 in which the important components have been
identified. This is the current scheme proposed for the demonstrator engine. It does not
present a fmal design scheme since further work is required to specify some of the
details, especially for the power converters and andillaries.
11
Fuel nozzle
Alternator cooling
air exit duct
Air filter
High speed disc

alternator
Compressor
Alternator cooling
air compressor Inlet air duct
Exaustda
- - , , ,_, , ,
,, %,
-I -4 I-4 I
jbcag5hull)0ul
,' ,'
'I
'S
'I
' "S
'iL ' itt,- ' i-ir ' ii

. ..'
,, , ,, , ,-' ,,,, ,,,
.\ _._%_.' -
F lF.
. . '
Roiling element
bearings
Engine shaft
tic bolt
Grill
Power converter
Fuel pump
Ancillaries Oil pump 0 20 40 60 80 100mm

I I I
cooling fans
0
Figure 1.1.1
The 50 kW Gas Turbine Generator
ROLLS-ROYCE - IMPERIAL COLLEGE
Collaborative Project
Oil tank S MALL SCALE TED.OLOGY
DEMONSTRATOR
ENGINE AND
GENERATOR
DATE - MARCH 199 SCALE - 2
DRAWN BY-KftPtJl EN
12
Detail design could be done after major components such as the alternator, turbine and
compressor have been proven and fmalised in terms of exact geometry. Further
modifications and improvements may also be desirable, should the generator be taken
into production. This aspect is discussed later in section 1.2.6.
Considering Fig. 1.1.1, the compressor, of centrifugal type, would draw atmospheric air
through a shrinking annular inlet air duct. For a shaft speed of 100 k.r.p.m.the air would
reach a pressure of 5 bar and would be fed into an axisymmetric collector.
From the compressor collector, the air would then pass into the axisymmetric chamber
surrounding the turbine volute before being ducted to a single can combustion chamber
into which most types of hydrocarbon fuels could be injected and burnt. A volute is a
type of duct which is used to connect a pipe section to a ring like passage, as often found
at the exit of a centrifugal compressor or entry to a radial turbine. The turbine volute
design for the engine is illustrated in Fig. 1.1.2. The combustion gases, now at up to
temperatures of 1200K would go into the turbine volute and then into the radial turbine.
A conical diffuser is employed after the turbine to recover a proportion of the kinetic
energy in the turbine exhaust gases.
At the design point, the turbine would produce 138 kW gross power output and the
compressor would absorb 78 kW, giving a net power of 60 kW. This output power is
used to drive the alternator rotor via a flexible coupling and electrical power is generated
in the stator. The net engine power output was designed to be greater than the 50 kW
electrical output to be generated by the alternator. This was to account for losses in the
alternator, losses in the engine bearings and to give some margin, should the engine
design power output not be achieved. The most likely reason for not achieving the design
power would be not reaching the expected component efficiencies.
Since there is no mechanical attachment to the shaft, such as a gearbox, the shaft can
rotate at any desired speed provided the alternator is configured to maintain sufficient
voltage as required by the load. This is of crucial importance for the single shaft gas
turbine engine, whose shaft speed for best efficiency can only vary in the range of 60%
to 100% of design speed. For much of the range, it is preferred to keep the speed at the
maximum value as explained later in section 1.2.5.
The bearings shown in Fig. 1.1.1, are rolling element, angular contact type which have
the capability to operate at around the design speed of 100 k.r.p.m. These would be oil
lubricated and would require an oil system to service them, comprising of a small
electrically driven pump, an oil tank, filter and pipework. The oil flow required by the
high speed bearings is small, being either oil mist or drip feed. The oil system would be
housed in the platform casing below the main engine housing, as would be the electronics
and the power converter.
It was intended that the machine be controlled electronically by monitoring shaft speed
and power and metering the fuel supply with a pulsed flow. The mark to space ratio
13
L
Figure 1.1.2 The Turbine Volute
14
of the pulses could be altered to vaiy the fuel flow in a system analogous to a D.C. motor
chopper drive. The fuel pump would also be driven by electric motor. The main
bulk of the equipment in the electronics case would be the power converter which is
required to convert the very high frequency, 6.7 KHz, alternator output to 50 Hz. This
would be done using a D.0 link in which the raw output is rectified to D.C. and a new
waveform at 50 or 60 Hz is produced using the Pulse Width Modulation (P.W.M.)
technique. P.W.M. is a standard technique which is widely used for many industrial drive
systems and is described in Lander (1983).
The electronics and oil system would be air cooled by an electrically driven fan blowing
air through the platform casing. It is possible that the fan, oil and fuel pumps could be
driven using one electric motor.
1.1.3 Applications and Advantages of the Portable Gas Turbine Generator
The generator has applications in the following situations:-
i) Where portable electrical power is needed - For example, where it is not

physically possible to reach the site with a national grid supply. Examplof this
include rural and remote areas, at sea, or where it is difficult reach the site with
cables as in the case of aircraft on a runway.
ii) Where the Dossibiitv of failure of the mains supply was an unacceptable risk -
Examples include hospitals or any public building, where an independent
electrical generator would be permanently installed as a backup.
iii) For land vehicle application - The generator could be used to provide electrical
power for the drive motors on board an electrically powered vehicle.
Application (iii) has been mentioned for completeness, but has not been considered in this
thesis since, in orderompare such a system and currently available vehicle drive
systems, extensive analysis of complete vehicle systems incorporating the S.S.T.
generator would have to be carried out. Further discussion of this subject has been given
in Pullen (1987). The usefulness of the S.S.T generator for applications (i) and (ii), was
considered to be more obvious and sufficiently clear to justify the initial development of
the S.S.T. generator.
Currently, applications (i) and (ii) are nearly always met with a low speed, 3000/3600
r.p.m. diesel engine driven alternator which, for 50 kW electrical power has a size of
around 2m x im x im and a weight of about 1000 kg for the total installation. This
includes a water cooling system for the engine. In such a unit, power conversion is not
necessary since the alternator output is 50 Hz or 60 Hz by virtue of the alternator shaft
speed. The fuel consumption of the unit is low due to the more efficient cycle of the
15
diesel engine with one manufacturer, Marlec, claiming a specific fuel consumption
(s.f.c.) of 0.276 kgfkW hr using a Perkins engine and Stamford alternator. The cost of
such a unit is currently between £5500-f6500. The simple cycle gas turbine engine
cannot match the diesel in terms of efficiency but is smaller and lighter. The current
estimates for the unit are a total weight of 40 kg and a size of 0.76m x 0.52m x 0.34m
giving a volume of about 0.13m3 . This represents a weight ratio of 1:25 and a volume
ratio of 1:15 compared to an equivalent diesel set. The design s.f.c for the unit is
predicted to be 0.39 kg/kW hr which is 41% higher than the diesel. Comparisons
between diesel and S.S.T. generators are given for off-design performance in section
1.2.5.
Clearly the S.S.T. gas turbine generator would be the best alternative in a situation in
which light weight and portability are most important, e.g. on field military applications
or aircraft auxiliary power units, and it would be less useful where power generation was
to be required for long periods. Indeed, for the former application, gas turbine generators
have been used extensively, proving that s.f.c. is not always the most important criteria.
In such applications, it is normal to drive the generator through a gearbox and this
method would be superseded by the high speed alternator concept on grounds of much
reduced weight and size. First cost of the generator would also be overshadowed by
weight considerations.
The majority of the market for stand alone generators is dominated not by weight and size
considerations but rather by a combination of weight, size, fuel consumption, first cost
and maintenance costs. The weighting of the importance of these considerations depends
on the application. It is very difficult to judge how much the drastically reduced of size of
the S.S.T. generator will offset the 30% lower fuel consumption of the diesel generator,
but the first cost and maintenance costs are very important criteria which can, to some
extent, be compared. For the diesel set, it is unlikely that manufacturing costs can be
reduced below the figures quoted previously simply because of the large amount of
material needed and the large number of components required., many of which need
machining. The engine and alternator used by Marlec are both likely to be already
manufactured in quantity for separate applications, and hence the cost of these items is
unlikely to be further reduced. In contrast, the gas turbine generator has very few parts
and would be cheap to assemble. However, it does contain some key components which
are conventionally considered to be the province of aerospace technology with high
manufacturing costs. Examples of these include the turbomachinery rotors and stators,
the combustion can and fuel burner, some of which are made from Nickel Chromium
alloys. Aerospace components are made to very high standards and in relatively small
numbers, hence the high cost. The type of technology which must be adopted for this
engine is that which has already been demonstrated by turbocharger manufacturers, with
turbine rotors being made under £10. The method of manufacture used for turbocharger
16
turbines is the lost wax process and this could be used for both the turbine rotor and
nozzles. A further reduction in cost for the 'hot' parts in the engine may be possible to
achieve by replacing the Nickel Chromium alloy with ceramic material. This depends on
the availability of a reliable ceramic material.
An attempt has been made to compare the selling price of the single shaft gas turbine
against a diesel engine using data available in OrBrien (1980). The information is based
on 1977 prices, and compares the cost of a two shaft gas turbine with heat exchanger to a
turbocharged diesel and an Otto petrol engine. The application of these engines is for
automotive use. From this data, it is estimated that the selling price of the S.S.T. engine
could be about 90% of a diesel engine of equal power for 400 000 units per year.
Calculations for this result are given in Appendix I. The most significant technology
change since 1977 has been in the development of computer aided engineering (C.A.E.).
Although this technology will have reduced design and manufacturing costs for both gas
turbine and diesel engines, it is believed that the effects of C.A.E. should be greater for
the gas turbine. The rational for this comes from the fact that gas turbines contain
complicated 3D geometries such as the radial turbomachinery. The turbine and
compressor rotors and volutes are examples of these. Such components can now be
specified by coordinate defmitions during design and analysis, and manufactured using
integrated computer software approach. In contrast, the components found in a diesel
engine are comprised of relatively simple shapes, which have been easily defined using
conventional engineering drawings and manufactured using manually controlled
machines. It is believed, therefore that C.A.E. is less likely to reduce design and
manufacturing costs for diesel engines as much as for the gas turbine.
The manufacturing costs for the high speed alternator with converter also need to be
compared to a conventional 3000/3600 r.p.m. machine. It is difficult to estimate
accurately the cost of the high speed alternator and power converter although material
costs are known. Two expensive materials are used in the rotors, namely high strength
carbon fibre composite and neodymium boron iron permanent magnet. However, due to
the small amount of these materials needed, the cost is quite low. The raw material cost
for the required 0.97 kg of magnet at £60 per kg would come to £58 and the required
0.11kg of carbon fibre composite would cost £82 at £735 per kg. The amount of copper
needed in the stators is vely low in comparison to that required in the low speed machine
giving large cost savings. Although the high speed alternator should cost much less than
the conventional low speed type, this saving will probably be offset, to some extent, by
the cost of the inverter.
An indirect cost associated with the second application of a generator is the space required
to house a diesel generator set. Clearly, in this application, where the unit would only be
used occasionally, fuel consumption would not be too important and small size would
give the gas turbine generator a clear advantage.
17
Maintenance and reliability are other issues which need to be considered. The gas turbine
requires minimal maintenance apart from inspection of critical components at specified
intervals. Inspection would have to be carried out to anticipate failures due to cracking in
components, especially the turbine rotor. However, as a design is established in service
and confidence can be increased, the time between inspections can be made longer. For a
diesel generator set, oil and water coolant levels would need to be checked regularly and
changed due to contamination. This is due to the oil burning and combustion product
contamination in the cylinders for the case of the oil, and corroson in the water system.
The oil in the gas turbine can be kept clean, does not get burned and hence requires few
changes if any.
In tenns of reliability, the gas turbine has only one major moving part and few ancilliaries
compared to a diesel with many moving parts and a complicated and very high pressure
fuel pump. The likelihood of leakages of oil, fuel and water on the diesel would be much
greater than fuel or oil leaks in the relatively simple systems used in the gas turbine.
In summary, the proposed gas turbine generator is considered to have a major advantage
over the diesel generator in terms of small size and low weight but the fuel consumption
of the diesel set is 30% lower. Manufacturing costs would appear to be comparable for
large scale production but would have the potential of being lower for the gas turbine
generator if ceramic material technology can be employed. The gas turbine generator is
likely to require much less maintenance and would be more reliable, given that a
particular design is proven in service.
It is recommended that more detailed cost analysis for the S.S.T. generator is carried out
although this can only be done accurately when a demonstrator has been built and a
design for production is finalised. The manufacturing cost will cbviously depend on the
number of units produced but it has been shown, for large scale production, that costs
should be comparable to those of a diesel generator set. For small scale production costs
would be higher but it is likely that units could be sold for a much greater price of
perhaps £20k - 30k in the applications in which portability is a paramount requirement.
1.2 The Gas Turbine Engine
12.1 Engine Requirements
The most important attributes which the engine must display are listed below: -
i) Low weight and size.

ii) Low manufacturing and raw materials cost
iii) Low fuel consumption Within the restraints of i) and ii)
iv) Output shaft speed acceptable to the alternator
18
The first of these requirements could be defined fairly clearly since the concept of this
type of generator relied on the unit being portable. The unit was envisaged as being small
and light enough to be carried by one or, at the most, two persons. This would include
the engine, alternator, and all ancillary equipment with the exclusion of the fuel tank
which would be attached separately. The starting battery would ideally be carried on the
unit, but could again be carried separately if necessary. The recommended maximum
carrying weight for a man is 27 kg for short distances given in the Woodson (1981) and
so a weight under 27 kg for the unit would be desirable, with the maximum being 54 kg
if it were carried by two men. The current estimated weight of the whole engine generator
is between these two figures but may possibly be reduced by careful design.
It is more difficult to specify a maximum size for the unit which constitutes portability.
However, it is considered that, if the low weight criteria is achieved, then a small size
will undoubtedly result.
To achieve low cost, it is important to have a simple design and fly to avoid the use of
expensive materials. The expensive components in the engine are mainly those used in
the turbine, i.e. the hot end of the engine. There is a direct compromise between expense
of the alloys used and the performance of the engine in terms of s.f.c. and specific
power. These factors have a bearing on the geometry of the engine.
In terms of engine output shaft speed, a lower engine speed would make the alternator
design heavier and probably more expensive, but a higher speed would make the design
more difficult as shown later in section 1.3.3. The maximum limit of the alternator speed
is still not known, since this depends on the success of the high speed alternator
development work. However, speeds much in excess of 100 k.p.r.m. for 50 kW output
are considered unlikely to be achieved, even with the disc design. The speed of the
engine can be independent of load but it was preferred to keep the engine speed constant
over as wide a range of loads as possible so that the alternator output voltage would
remain constant. This restriction could, however, be lifted if a switching mechanism was
available on the alternator for changing the coil connection circuit, to allow a constant
output voltage to be maintained for shaft speeds lower than design point. This possibility
deserves further investigation.
1.2.2 Choice of Engine Design to Meet the Requirements
The decision process used to select the particular gas turbine engine design was extremely
complex and took a number of iterations. Choices had to be made at a time when not all
the best information could be gathered, understood, or quantified. However, an attempt
has been made to go through the decision process methodically to highlight the choices
available and justify the design which was eventually chosen.
A summary of the main articles which had to be considered are shown in Fig. 1.2.1,
19
along with the relationships between them.
Shaft speed
<100 kx.p.m ENGINE
REQUIREMENTS
Low High
Low d.c speciiic Low cost
po'
heat
exchanger?
Prefer high P.R.

Prefer high PJ. Prefer high TE.T
ENGINE TURBINE
COMPRESSOR ' Tentative air CYCLE -
mass flow . mass flow
Atiribut
Suggested
TE.T.
Number of stages Number of stages
Axial or radial? Suggested P.R Axial or radial?
NUMBER Air mass flow

OF SHAFTS Thermodynamic
Turbine and
compressor operating envelope
geometry
Low
DUCTING Single Can? COMBUSTION cost
FEATURES Annular Can? CHAMBER
Reverse Flow
PRELIMINARY ENGINE
DESIGN SCHEME
KEY
I Main articles of consi&ration
(_) Specific questions

' Interconnection of decisions (with notes)
' Quantities decided aft choice of engine cycle
Figure 1.2.1 Matrix Decision Process for the Choice of the Gas Turbine Engine
The diagram is complex, and should be refered to in conjunction with the discussion of
each of the articles given shortly. The main purpose of the diagram is to illustrate the
20
interconnection of each of the articles with one another. With such a complicated decision
scenario, it was not possible to make all the choices by calculations but rather by the use
of engineering judgement. The main articles are discussed approximately in the order of
the decision process starting with the central issue of which engine cycle to use.
1.2.2 Choice of Engine Thermodynamic Cycles
All gas turbines are based upon the Brayton cycle in which air is compressed by a rotary
compressor, heated in a combustion chamber, and expanded through a turbine. A
development of this is to include heat exchanging between the turbine exhaust and
compressor exit. These two alternatives are ifiustrated in Fig. 1.2.2.

Simple Cycle Heat Exchange Cycle
KEY

Compressor Turbine C. C Combustion Chamber
Genemr -. Air Flows

Exchanger
Figure 1.2.2 The Simple and Heat Exchanged Gas Turbine Cycles
The performance of these cycles can be calculated given values of the pressure ratio,
turbine entry temperature (T.E.T.), compressor and turbine component efficiencies and
heat exchanger effectiveness. A clear description of the basics of the calculation method is
given in Cohen et a!. (1984). However, the clearest results, in terms of representation,
have been given in O'Brien (1980) and are shown in Fig. 1.2.3. From this diagram, it is
clear that the highest possible turbine entry temperature is required for both the highest
efficiency and specific work output. This temperature is restricted by the material
properties of the turbine, principally its the creep life, but also resistance to oxidisation. If
blade cooling is to be avoided on cost and practical grounds for a small engine, then this
21

temperature needs to be kept below about 1200 K for adequate creep life.
500
Tt*IIM INUT 1IMP!IATL*C
1172 1272 1372 1472 1572K

450 \200
\ \\\\\ \\
IAT THO AT
cuY
5
6
s6) 6
6 6'
6
r
1172
101
6 16%
12tX
4
Fo 1172 I 1272\ 12 \ 16
5 6 • 12
- 1372
250 ' I S 1472 12 %
6 1572 ICUPtRATO
4 -
S - -6 6S10
1372
200 1472
1572 K q COV!IY
ftEG(NEIA1OI)
ISO 200 250 kw 300 350

POWft PU UNIT OP MASS FLOW I/,.c
Figure 1.2.3 Performance Characteristics for Simple and Heat Exchanged Gas Turbines
The diagram is complex, and should be refered to in conjunction with the discussion of
each of the articles given shortly. The main purpose of the diagram is to illustrate the
interconnection of each of the articles with one another. With such a complicated decision
scenario, it was not possible to make all the choices by calculations but rather by the use
of engineering judgement. The main articles are discussed approximately in the order of
the decision process starting with the central issue of which engine cycle to use.
With the maximum turbine entzy temperature decided, the air mass flow can be evaluated
from the specific power. Sketched 1200 K curves have been added to Fig. 1.2.3, from
which the highest possible specific power for that temperature can be estimated as 180
kW/kg for a simple cycle engine, 160 kW/kg for an engine with a recuperator and 120
kW/kg for an engine with a regenerator. A recuperator is the term adopted for a static
sheet metal construction whereas a regenerator contains a moving disc or drum - see
Norbye (1976). This assumes that the optimum pressure ratio is chosen for each case.
The pressure ratio for the simple cycle would hence be 10:1 in this case, and may not be a
fair comparison given the difficulties of achieving this, as will be clear in later discussion.
By dividing the specific power by the required ouput power of 60 kW, the mass flows
for each alternative system come to 0.33, 0.38 and 0.5 kg/s for the simple, recuperated
and regenerated engines respectively.
22
The use of a heat exchanger yields a large improvement in s.f.c of up to 22% or 28% for
recuperated and regenerated engines respectively, compared to the simple cycle engine but
the weight of the heat exchangers was of major concern.
From engine specifications given in Penny (1970), the weight of a recuperator of 76.5%
effectiveness was calculated to be 22 kg, scaled to a 0.38 kg/s mass flow. Data given in
O'Brien (1980) allowed a similar calculation to be carried out for a regenerator of 90%
effectiveness giving a weight for this device of 31 kg. Unfortunately, these weights were
too high for the portable concept of the S.S.T. generator and so heat exchange could not
be used.
For the simple cycle engine, the optimum pressure ratio is 10:1, with the s.f.c. increasing
at an ever increasing rate as the pressure ratio is reduced. To enable pressure ratio to be
selected, the compressor and turbine components must be examined, since it is these
which dictate this parameter. The number of shafts to be used for the engine must also be
examined during this process.
12.3 Compressor, Turbine and Numbers of Shafts
A) The Compressor : There is a choice of two basic types of compressor as

illustrated in Fig. 1.2.4.
Rotor Blades Blades
A Typical
Blade
2 Stage
Device
A Radial Compressor An Axial Compressor
Figure 1.2.4 Types of Gas Turbine Compressors Available
23
To decide which type of geometry to use, the following items must be considered : -
i) Pressure ratio attainable per stage.
ii) Component efficiency at the mass flow required.
iii) Complexity of the components, ease of manufacture and hence cost.
iv) Weight of components
v) Surge margin
The maximum pressure ratio attainable per axial stage given in Cohen et a!. (1984) is
around 1.4:1 and so to achieve a pressure ratio of 10:1, at least seven stages are needed.
For a 5:1 compressor, the number of stages would be five. A radial compressor is
potentially capable of pressure ratio of up to 10:1 in a single stage but this is not always
practical as discussed later. However, pressure ratios in the range of 5:1 to 6:1 are not
difficult to achieve.
The axial compressor is nearly always used for large gas turbines due to its better
efficiency and, in the case of acm engine application, its smaller frontal area per unit mass
flow. Frontal area is not so important for generator set, since it is not in an airstream and
the increased diameter of the radial compressor is offset by the reduced length compared
to an axial. Although an axial compressor is more complicated and hence expensive to
manufacture, this is justified by the superior efficiency as compared to an equivalent
radial compressor. However, at the smaller sizes, the scale effects have a greater effect in
reducing the efficiency of the axial type than on the radial type machines. Particular scale
effects detrimental to efficiency include reduction in achievable ratio of tip clearance to
blade height, and the inability to manufacture thin blades of the correct aerofoil shape
required for an efficient axial compressor. At the S.S.T. size of engine, a radial
compressor may actually be better than an axial machine in terms of efficiency.
From consideration of manufacturing costs, the radial machine is cheaper to make due to
it having fewer components to manufacture. With no efficiency advantage on the axial
machine to compensate this, the choice has to be for a radial machine.
Whether one or two stages of radial compressor are used is another consideration. The
geometry of the interstage ducting for a two stage radial compressor is not good
aerodynamically - see Fig. 1.2.4, and the diameter of the second stage rotor would
probably be so small that its poor efficiency would offset gains in cycle efficiency with a
higher pressure ratio. These factors made the single stage radial compressor appear the
best solution. This choice was confirmed by the fact that it was the same choice as made
for numerous automobile gas turbines Norbyc (1976) and for all turbochargers of
comparable mass flow rate.
The pressure ratio for the radial type of compressor is dependent upon the square of the
tip speed of the rotor disc, and this is limited largely by the maximum permissible bore
stress in the disc. This stress increases with the square of the shaft speed. The maximum
24
stress in the disc also depends upon the material density and the disc and blade geometry.
The most important geometric feature which affects the bore stress is whether a central
hole is bored concentric with the disc. In Fig. 1.1.1, the compressor disc has such a hole
to allow a bolt to be passed through the compressor so that the turbine can be attached.
Alternatives to this could be either: -
a) A bolt passing through a hole through the turbine disc.
b) Multiple bolts holding the turbine and compressor attachment flanges
together.
c) A welded joint at the flange between the compressor and turbine.
Option a) was not acceptable since the stress problem was more severe on the turbine,
being of larger diameter than the compressor, and option b) was not considered feasible
given the small size of the flange. Option c) may be possible for a production engine but
was not considered suitable for the manufacture for a prototype engine due to difficulties
such as the welding the joint itself, and in the assembly of the casings between the
compressor and turbine.
In terms of materials, for low cost and density, aluminium would be a prime choice.
However, due to the strength deterioration of this material at temperatures above 450 K,
the maximum pressure ratio would be restricted to about 4:1. This is due to the
temperature of the compressor exit gas which rises with increased pressure ratio. The
properties of titanium make it extremely attractive but costs of this material and the
difficulty of casting it make this less suitable for a low cost engine. The only remaining
choice is a high strength steel. If a hole along the centreline of the disc was necessary,
then the maximum pressure ratio would be restricted to 5:1, due to stress limitations at the
disc bore. If a central hole was not used, in the case of a compressor/turbine welded
joint, then the pressure ratio could be raised to 10:1, still in steel. This is aspect is
discussed in more detail in section 1.2.6.
The surge margin is another important consideration, concerning the flow rate operating
range possible between surge and choke at a given speed. These terms are described
adequately in Cohen et a!. (1984). The surge margin tends to be reduced as the pressure
ratio is increased, but at 5:1, problems in this area are not encountered. However, at
pressure ratios above about 7:1/8:1, the surge margin can be small, making the design of
such a compressor difficult since a large number of diffuser vanes are required - Came
and Herbert (1980). Achieving a 10:1 design may not be practical for this reason,
especially at the small size.
To summerise, it was decided to use a 5:1 pressure ratio, single stage, radial compressor
for the demonstrator engine, to be manufactured in high strength steel. The penalty of a
reduced pressure ratio from the optimum of 10:1 meant that the design s.f.c.would
increase by 21 %. This was judged as being an acceptable penalty, given the benefits of
design simplicity.
25
B) Turbine : The choice of turbine can be either axial or radial as illustrated in Fig.
1.2.5.
Gas!
Exhaust
Diffuser
- - - - - - -
Gas Out
Volute
A Radial Inflow Turbine

GasIn ______
Gas
..p.. __•- Out
Stator Vanes
A Rotor Blade
r:i;!!fRotor
An Axial Flow Turbine
Figure 1.2.5 Types of Turbine Available
From an aerodynamic perspective, with the 5:1 pressure ratio, it is likely that two stages
of axial turbine would be required compared to one radial. In both cases, the rotors and
stators could be one piece castings but two stages of axial would be more expensive to
make than the one radial stage. This is due to the axial machine having more blades on
both rotor and stator, and requiring greater accuracy for the blade profiles. In teims of
cost and complexity, the radial turbine was considered more suitable than an axial type. A
size comparison between an equivalent radial and axial turbine is shown in Fig. 1.2.6,
taken from O'Brien (1980). It can be seen that two axial stages should be lighter than the
one radial stage which has a large solid mass of material contained in the rotor. However,
this would depend on how thin the axial discs and surrounding casings could be made.
Stresses would also be higher in the radial rotor which has a higher tip speed and a disc
shape which is poor from a stress point of view. Stress and weight considerations would
most likely favour the axial turbine over the radial.
26
Inlet to
Radial
Turbine
Radial Turbine
Inlet to
Ax

Turbine Axial Turbine
- - - - - - - - _
Figure 1.2.6 Size Comparison of a Radial and Axial Turbine for Equal Mass Flow
Another aspect to consider is the efficiency of the two types of turbine for the required
size. For small rotors, the tip clearance is likely to be a significant fraction of the blade
height, in which case the overtip leakage losses can be severe. This has a large bearing on
turbine efficiency. A radial turbine has larger blades than a comparable axial turbine and
so is less sensitive to tip leakage and hence has better efficiency at the small sizes.
Due to the advantages of lower cost and better efficiency outweighing benefits of reduced
weight and stress, radial turbomachinery was chosen for the engine.
The maximum expansion ratio of the turbine is dependent on material properties as with
the compressor, since a certain blade tip speed is required to efficiently extract the energy
from the hot combustion gases. Good creep capability and strength are required but these
characteristics are limited by cost considerations. It is essential that the turbine rotor is
cast in one piece using a material which is not overly expensive. The tip speed of the disc
is dependent upon not only pressure ratio but also T.E.T.. Increasing pressure ratio
increases the power to be extracted by the turbine, and an increase in T.E.T. causes the
nozzle spouting velocity to increase proportionally with the square root of T.E.T.. For a
turbine entry temperature of 1200K, it was found that the maximum pressure ratio for a
one stage radial would be restricted to about 6:1 for adequate creep life with castable
Waspalloy or MARM 002. Results published in Rodgers (1987) confirm that a life of
over 10 000 hours should be achieved for such a turbine. A single radial turbine at the 5:1
pressure ratio to match the chosen compressor would give an even greater creep life.
Splitting the turbine into two radial stages, or one radial and one axial, would reduce the
tip speed of both rotors compared to the one radiaL Two radial stages should not be
necessary from turbine life considerations, but may be desired, should a two shaft engine
be adopted. This aspect is discussed in the next sub section.
C) Numbers of Shafts : An important decision to be made was the number of rotor

shafts for the engine. The two choices were i) a single shaft onto which the alternator,
27
compressor and turbine would be mounted or ii) a two shaft engine. The two shaft
engine, shown schematically in Fig. 1.2.7, would consist of a "gas generator" shaft onto
which the compressor and high pressure turbine would be mounted and a "free power
turbine" shaft on which the low pressure turbine would drive the alternator.
Free Power Turbine Shaft
1st Stage
High Pressure
Figure 1.2.7 The Two Shaft Engine
The criterion for the decision reduced to whether the two shaft engine offered significant
performance or design benefits to outweigh its increased cost, complexity and weight.
The free power turbine design has nearly always been used for vehicle gas turbines since
the output torque increases with decreasing power turbine speed. This is ideal for direct
mechanical power drive. In contrast, the torque from a single shaft engine increases from
zero at the self sustaining speed to a maximum at full speed. However, with the electrical
power take-off, this torque characteristic is not such a disadvantage, since the shaft speed
can be kept at a value independent of the load.
Another consideration to be examined is starting, but it1ifficult to judge which design is
better. For the single shaft engine, the shaft has more inertia but should self sustain at a
lower speed since all the turbine pressure ratio is used to drive the shaft. The "gas
generator" has less inertia but would need to be accelerated to a higher speed and would
require an independent mechanical linkage for starting if this was to be done by the usual
means of an electric motor. The single shaft engine could probably be started using the
alternator as a motor, although this has yet to be demonstrated. The output shaft speed of
the two shaft engine is lower which makes the alternator design easier but will also make
the alternator heavier, so has an overall weight penalty.
The two shaft engine offers benefits for off-design performance, since there is more
flexibility to match the speeds of the turbines to the power requirements, but the
performance is likely to be lower at the design point due to the greater amount of ducting
losses in the turbine. It is difficult to compare the performance of a single to a two shaft
28
engine without having detail designs for both, along with characteristics for both
compressor and turbines. The closest information found for a comparison is given in
O'Brien (1980), which compares heat exchanged single and two shaft engines. In the
comparison, the two shaft engine has 25% higher s.f.c. at maximum power, equal s.f.c.
at 60% power, and 23% lower s.f.c at 30% power. These figures may be altered
depending on the choice of design point for each engine.
The requirement for the generator engine would bias towards better performance near the
maximum power and so would favour the single shaft design. The benefit of high torque
at low speed on the two shaft engine is not required for the application of direct electrical
power take-off.
D) Summary : By consideration of the attributes of compressors, it was decided to

choose a 5:1 single stage radial type machine for the demonstrator engine. Examination of
the turbine showed that a single stage radial machine was the best solution for use with a
5:1 compressor. The two shaft engine was considered, but rejected for the portable
generator on the grounds of increased weight and complexity.
1.2.4 Engine Layout, the Combustion Chamber and Ducting Features

Having chosen the compressor and turbine types, the lower portion of the decision
process diagram in Fig. 1.2.1 was reached. At this stage, it was necessary to consider the
alternator in the shaft arrangement, since it affected the ducting of the engine in terms the
requirement for it to be kept away from hot gases of the turbine and the volume the
alternator occupies.
A) Possible Component Orientations : There are twelve theoretically possible

arrangements of alternator, compressor and turbine on a single shaft. These are illustrated
in Fig. 1.2.8, with the relative sizes of the components being representative. Since the
alternator must be kept cool to avoid overheating the magnets and the composite strength
rings, it was decided to keep the turbine and alternator separated. Although heat shields
could be used to keep away heat from the turbine inlet and exhaust gases, conduction
along the shaft would be very difficult to prevent. The overheating restrictions of the
alternator cuts the number of alternatives down to numbers 1 to 4 in Fig. 1.2.8. The
manufacturer Garrett, have attempted to produce a lower speed machine based on scheme
number 5., Garrett (1987), but it is not known how successful the design was in keeping
heat from the turbine reaching the alternator, especially during shutdown.
Another consideration was the end thrust developed due to the aerodynamic pressure
loading on the turbomachinery rotors. These forces were evaluated for the 50 kW engine
by estimating the gas pressures on all radial faces of the rotor and multiplying these by
the area over which the pressures acted to obtain forces. For the rotor shrouds and for the
29
cutback portion of the turbine backplate, where the pressure varied continuously, a root
mean square average was taken of the pressures at the inner and outer radii. This
corresponds to an assumption of linear radial pressure profiles for these regions.
ltematc
1. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6. 8.
4*H H
7.
9. 10. 11. 12.
Figure 1.2.8 Theoretically Possible Component Arrangements
For the cases 1 and 3, the forces on the compressor and turbine rotors act against each
other and, with the correct sizing of seals, the net force can be reduced to zero. However,
for the cases 2 and 4, the net force cannot be reduced below about 700 N. The net axial
load of the shaft has to be carried by the axial thrust capability of the bearings. The
bearing alternatives available were high speed angular contact roiling element type or air
bearings. For both these bearing types, large axial forces would present major
difficulties. The recommended axial load on the angular contact bearings was only 90 N
and an air thrust bearing capable of maintaining a 700 N thrust would suffer from high
friction losses and instability problems due to having a high Reynolds number associated
with its the large diameter. Ducting problems of the compressor inlet and turbine exhaust
meant dismissing case 3, leaving only case 1.
B) The Combustion Chamber : The choice of combustor can be either a single can
type, multiples of this or an annular can. Reverse flow types were considered from the
start since the outlet from the compressor and ently to the turbine were close together.
Examples of these are shown as Fig. 1.2.9. The cost of the combustor is dictated mainly
by the number of fuel injection nozzles needed and, to a lesser extent, the complexity of
30
the sheet metal parts which make up the liner shape.
- Coolair
' Hotair
Outer casing Swirl vanes
0
Combustor liner I Fuel spray nozzle

Cooling corrugated joints
A Single Can Combustor (Reverse Flow)
A Multican Combustor I An Annular Combustor
Figure 1.2.9 Alternatives for the Combustion Chamber
The obvious choice for the S.S.T. engine is the single can type shown in Fig. 1.2.9 with
its simple geometry and single fuel nozzle. Unfortunately, this type of can has a pipe flow
exit duct which must be converted to an annular flow. To do this, a volute has to be
employed as described in section 1.1.2. The annular can, on the other hand already has
an annular exit duct passage but, in the opinion of Lucas Aerospace, requires a minimum
of four fuel injectors - Lucas (1987). The costs for this arrangement given by Lucas were
considered prohibitive and so the single can design was chosen, outweighing the expense
of having to use a volute. This decision could be reversed for later engines if a low cost
injector could be designed and manufactured and four used in an annular can.
31
C) Ducting Features : Since the shaft extended forward of the compressor, it was
necessary to have the air inlet duct a shnnking annulus - see Fig. 1.1.1. This was
aerodynamically straight forward but careful design was necessary to ensure that the
curvature in the duct was not too sharp since this would adversely affect the flow into the
compressor. The air coming radially from the compressor diffuser must have a
sufficiently low velocity that expansion into the compressor collector would not cause
unacceptable pressure losses. The feed from the combustor to the turbine volute required
careful design since this duct caused an obstruction in the case of the reverse flow can.
Fig. 1.2.10 shows the overall arrangement with the detail of the entry duct being shown
attached to the volute which is illustrated in Fig. 1.1.2.
/ 44
Combustion chamber I
/
{ Turbine
volute
Combustor to
volute joint duct
rotor
Compressor
rotor I__thI
Figure 1.2.10 Combustion Chamber to Turbine Volute Ducting Feature
The ducting arrangement employed was a design in which the combustor inlet gas
enveloped the turbine volute. l'his had the twofold advantage of insulating the skin of the
32
turbine volute from the ambient air and balancing the pressure on the inside of the volute
skin with the external pressure. This reduces creep in the volute since the stresses in the
volute skin are very low and the metal temperature would be somewhere between the
compressor delivery and combustor discharge temperatures. For manufacture, a very thin
pressed sheet volute can be used hence reducing the amount of expensive high
temperature alloy required in the design.
After the turbine rotor is the exhaust diffuser which is used to recover some of the energy
in the turbine exhaust gas as explained previously.
It is certain that some means must be used to silence the exhaust. This may take the form
of a sheet metal baffle which will inevitably produce a small back pressure, resulting in a
performance penalty. It is proposed to make the baffle into a small heat exchanger, thus
compensating for the pressure loss by the heat exchange. Various alternative ducting
geometries have been examined by Fletcher et a!. (1988), with the most promising of
these being illustrated in Fig. 1.2.11.
To Combustor _______
- I
- I Exhaust H H
Exhaust •-
-, Exhaust

•-ø"• Hot Flow Cross Section View
-- Cold Flow
Figure 1.2.11 The Exhaust Silencer / Heat Exchanger Unit
Performance studies by Stanley (1988), have shown that the benefits brought with a low
effectiveness heat exchanger may not compensate for the parasitic pressure drops in the
heat exchanger. The system would only be viable if the benefit in heat exchange covered
the pressure loss in the silencer and the additional weight increase was small as compared
to a plain silencer. A plain silencer refers to the case of sheet metal baffle consiruction
without the heat exchange arrangement.
12.5 Performance Prediction, Design and Off-Design

The performance of the engine, in terms of power produced and cycle efficiency, can be
predicted for a particular operating condition. This is carried out with the use of
33
thermodynamic equations and knowledge or assumption of the performance of
components in the engine. The design point engine conditions and component efficiencies
assumed for the compressor and turbine are given below :-
Turbine Entiy Temperature T03 = 1200K

Ambient Temperature TOl = 288K
Compressor Pressure Ratio P.Rc = 5:1
Turbine Pressure Ratio P.RT = 4.6:1
Compressor Lsentropic Efficiency = 0.79
TliseriC
Turbine Isentropic Efficiency IlisenT = 0.84
Air Mass Flow iii = 0.379kg/s
These conditions have been used, as shown below, to evaluate the design performance to
help give appreciation to the energy processes in the engine. The method is a vely simple
one, but is useful for illustrating the importance of component efficiency in the
calculation. The major assumptions made are that the mass flow of fuel is small enough
to be neglected and values for Cp and y are constant and estimated, where Cp is the
specific heat at constant pressure and y is the ratio of specific heats. These are defmed in
published texts such as Rodgers and Mayhew (1980).
A) Simple Design Point Performance Calculation :
T02s/Toi = (P.Rc) '' lIT = 50.286 = 1.584 (= 1.4) Eq 1.2.1

To2s = 456.2 K
'flisenC =
To 2 s - T01p' - T01 Eq 1.2.2
' =500.9K
'02
Pc = rhC( T 02 - T01 ) = 81.5 kW Eq 1.2.3
To3/Ts = (P.RT)T 1 / y = 4.60.248 (7= 1.33) Eq 1.2.4

r =821.7K
'04S
03 - Tff03 - Eq 1.2.5
lisenT = T
T= 882.3 K

PT = Ii1CPT(T03 -T) = 139.3 kW Eq 1.2.6
.. Net Power = 139.3 - 81.5 = 57.8 kW
1lcycle = Net Power = Net Power = 57.8 kW = 20.4% Eq 1.2.7

Heat Input thCI,rmb( T03 - T02) 283.5 kW
34
These calculations show how critical the component efficiencies are. As an example, a
1% fall in turbine efficiency will reduce the turbine power to 137.7 kW and the net power
to 56.2 kW. This reduced the cycle efficiency to 19.8%.
B) Off Design Performance : The engine is likely to operate under conditions

where it is required to supply less than the design point power. How much time it spends
at these conditions will depend on the duty of the engine. The efficiency of the engine
will deteriorate at these conditions due to :-
i) The thermodynamic cycle will not be as efficient - e.g T.E.T. or pressure

ratio is lower - see Fig. 1.2.3.
ii) The compressor and turbine component efficiencies may be reduced.
iii) Combustion efficiency may be reduced.
iv) Fixed losses become greater relative to the output power - e.g friction losses.
If the power output of the engine could be regulated by simply reducing the mass flow,
then the cycle would not have to be changed. This, however is not possible in a fixed
geometry engine due to the nature of the turbomachinery. The difficulty lies mainly with
the compressor which, at a certain speed, will only efficiently deliver a fixed mass flow at
a particular pressure ratio. With variable geometry the mass flow may be efficiently
reduced by a certain extent as discussed later in section 1.2.6.
The two methods for reducing the output power of a fixed geometry engine are either to
reduce the turbine entry temperature, at a fixed pressure ratio which reduces the turbine
power, or to lower the shaft speed which drops mass flow but with the penalty of a lower
pressure ratio. A combination of these methods can also be used. In order to assess
which is the best method to use, or which combination, can only be judged by complex
calculations suited to a computer methods. For this purpose, a performance prediction
code was written and is described in the next subsection.
The compressor and turbine component efficiencies will be impaired under off design
conditions mainly due to incidence on the stator and/or rotor blades. Incidence is the term
used to describe the condition where the flow angle of the gas relative to the blade does
not match the blade angle. This may cause the boundary layer of the flow within the blade
passages to separate, increasing losses.
Excessive tangential gas velocities from the turbine rotor are another source of loss which
cause the resultant turbine exhaust gas velocity to be high, hence increasing the wasted
exhaust gas kinetic energy. A more minor cause of component efficiency reduction is due
to the increased radial tip clearances causing an increase in overtip leakages. The radial tip
clearance will increase due to the reduction in centrifugal strain growth in the rotors as the
shaft speed is reduced.
The reduction in combustion efficiency can be minimised by good design for a wide
35
range of fuel air ratios and absolute air flows. This aspect is more of a problem for an
engine with heat exchange as discussed in section 1.2.6.
Fixed losses include bearing friction, rotor disc windage losses, as described in Chapter
7, and heat transfer losses from the hot parts of the engine. Although these losses are a
small percentage of power output at the design condition, the percentage loss increases as
the output power is reduced. Bearing friction and windage losses can be reduced by
reducing shaft speed and so this factor will favour shaft speed reduction as a means of
reducing power.
C) Computer Prediction Code : A computer code by Rushman (1989) was written to

predict the performance of the engine based on the following : -
i) Predicted compressor and turbine operating maps.

ii) Air and fuel/air gas properties as functions of temperature.
iii) Estimated ducting pressure losses based on mass flow.
Some of the more important results of the prediction are shown in Fig. 1.2.12.
25
20
100 krpm
15 9Okrpm
E 80krpm
> 10
U
TET= 1200K
0
5 60krpm
7Okrpm
I .
.
U
TET= 1100K
TET= 1000K
TET = 900K
TET = 800K
0'
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Engine Output Power - kW
Figure 1.2.12 Cycle Efficiency for Different Turbine Entry Temperatures

and Shaft Speeds
The lines plotted are for constant T.ET., with reducing speed. Each point represents a 10
k.r.p.m. reduction in speed as indicated for the 1200 K line. From this graph, it can be
seen that the tradeoffs between reducing speed and T.E.T. weigh in favour of the latter
for the best off-design efficiency. The implication is good for the generator, which is best
run at a nominal constant speed for constant voltage. At a nominal constant speed, the
36

speed will actually be required to increase by a small amount to compensate for the
voltage decrease as current is drawn from the alternator. This is due to the regulation of
the alternator as described in Fenocchi and Knill-Jones (1990).
When the power is reduced to about 20% of the full value, it becomes more efficient to
reduce the speed of the engine. This also has the advantage of reducing the fixed losses
as described earlier. This can be done without affecting final output frequency of the
generator, since this is created by the power converter. The voltage of the alternator
would reduce, but could be restored by switching the connections of the stator windings
from parallel to series connection. Since this is a step change, the shaft speed would also
have to be reduced to a particular value, with 60% speed being a good choice, since it
could also serve as a high idle speed. A diesel generator cannot be varied in speed, since
the frequency of the generator output is governed directly by the speed of the engine, to
which it is directly coupled. For this reason, the s.f.c. for a diesel at low powers in the
application of a generator is actually not so good.
In Fig. 1.2.13, a comparison between the S.S.T. generator and both naturally aspirating
and turbocharged diesels generators is given. The data for the S.S.T. generator is based
on results from the performance prediction code by Rushman (1989) and data from
O'Brien (1980) has been used for the diesel engines.
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
• • • I • I
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Power - kW
Figure 1.2.13 Comparison of Specific Fuel Consumption for the S.S.T.

and Diesel Generator
The results are for the basic engines, excluding alternator losses, and hence are slightly
lower than the generator design s.f.c.'s given in section 1.2.2. It will be noted that the
difference in part load performance of the S.S.T. engine relative to the diesel begins to
widen at powers lower than design. However, at very low powers, the difference begins
37

to close. The difference is further reduced when the gas turbine is allowed to change
speed. For some applications, a change in speed may be unacceptable if the power
demand is expected to change rapidly, and over a wide range. In such a case, the speed
controller could be set to keep the speed constant over the whole power range.
1.2.6 Development Potentialfrom the Current Engine Scheme
The performance of the current engine scheme can be improved in a number of ways.
These improvements may, however increase the manufacturing cost of the engine and the
weight of the unit. A list of alternatives is given below in increasing order of development
time and cost. Each of these is discussed separately.
A) Use of a heat exchanger with existing pressure ratio.

B) Increase of pressure ratio above 5:1.
C) Variable geometry.
D) Increase of T.E.T..
A) Heat Exchange : This alternative was mentioned in section 1.2.2, and was rejected
for the case of a portable generator. However, there will be many cases where s.f.c. is
considered more important than portability. Even with a heat exchanger, the weight and
size of the unit would be much less than a diesel, and could be moved on a small trolley.
Data has been given for the s.f.c. of a Garrett single shaft heat exchanged engine in
O'Brien (1980). This engine has a pressure ratio of 5:1, the same as used for the S.S.T.
engine and a regenerator with a 90% effectiveness. For comparison, this data has been
plotted, in Fig. 1.2.14, along with the s.f.c. of a naturally aspirating diesel.
1.0 .
N.A.Diesel
Heat Exchanged Single

Shaft Metal Gas Turbine
Reduce speed to 70%
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Power - kW
Figure 1.2.14 Specific Fuel Consumption Comparison for a Diesel and
Heat Exchanged S.S.T.
38
The s.f.c. for both engines is similar for most of the power range but, for the lower
power levels, a much lower s.f.c. can be achieved for the gas turbine by reducing the
engine speed. Reducing the speed at fixed T.E.T. on a heat exchanged engine does not
markedly affect the cycle efficiency. This is because the maximum cycle efficiency is
achieved at a much lower pressure ratio than for an engine without heat exchange - see
Fig. 1.2.3.
In Fig. 1.2.14, the power is reduced at constant speed by reducing T.E.T. This is for the
reasons of giving a nominally constant alternator voltage. However, as the s.f.c. starts to
increase steeply, the speed is lowered in a step change. A step change to 70% speed was
found to be more suitable than the 60% speed level used for the non-heat exchanged
engine to give the best overall efficiency. Since reducing the speed lowers the mass flow,
this allows T.E.T. to be increased to get to the same power level as before the speed was
dropped. The regenerator could be driven by a small electric motor, hence dispensing
with the large reduction gearbox, typically 5000:1 ratio with mechanical linkage to the
shaft.
If a recuperator was used instead of a regenerator, then the s.f.c. would be slightly lower
than the regenerator engine but still comparable to a diesel - see Fig. 1.2.3.
One difficulty which occurs with a heat exchanged engine is due tothe very low fuel air
ratios which occur at low power output levels. This can cause problems of poor
combustion efficiency with high CO and HC emissions being the worst result of this. On
the Ganett AGT1O1 single shaft engine, a variable area combustion chamber was used to
overcome this problem.
B) Increase of Pressure Ratio : Increasing the pressure ratio of the engine up to the
theoretically optimum value of 10:1 would decrease the s.f.c. at design point by 17% of
the value at 5:1 pressure ratio giving an s.f.c. of 0.307 kg/kW hr. This is not far away
from the figures for a diesel engine. It would have a even greater affect for off-design
conditions, since the shaft speed could be reduced, without affecting the engine cycle
severely. This is due to the fall of pressure ratio affecting the cycle efficiency less
seriously due to the shape of the curve shown in Fig. 1.2.3.
To achieve a higher pressure ratio requires higher tip speeds on the single stage
compressor and turbine, or multistage turbomachinery. For the compressor, it should be
possible to increase the tip speed by the required 26%, by using a solid disc in order to
compensate for the 1.59 factor on the bore stress. The problem of the reduced surge
margin may not be as serious with the S.S.T. engine as for an engine with mechanical
power off-take or an aero engine. This is because the engine operating conditions could
be controlled carefully during Iransients by means of the alternator load. This subject
certainly requires more investigation should it be intended to increase the pressure ratio
significantly.
39
If the current engine configuration is to be retained, then the compressor could be
attached to the turbine using electron beam or friction welding. The friction weld
technique is used routinely for turbocharger rotors and so should be straight forward.
However, some difficulty may result in the design of the casings which separate the
turbine and compressor. Only the turbine backplate is critical in shape, and so this could
be placed in between the turbine and compressor before welding, hence trapping it. The
compressor backplate casing could then be added as a two split halves.
The turbine could not be increased much in tip speed since it is a solid disc already and
near the limit in terms of acceptable creep life. Two stages would have to be used with the
simplest method being to add a single axial stage after a 5:1 pressure ratio radial turbine.
This could be a spigot fit mount onto a ready made stub and threaded section on the radial
turbine. Alternatively, two axial stages could be used. Again, these options would need to
be investigated fully, should the pressure ratio be increased significantly.
C) Variable Geometry : This could be used to improve the off-design performance of

a gas turbine engine by improving the component efficiencies and/or modifying the
operating characteristics of the compressor and turbine. This would allow a more efficient
thermodynamic cycle to be achieved for a given power demand. However, it is also likely
that a variable geometry turbomachine will not have as good an efficiency at the design
point as in the fixed geometry case due to the presence of features which can compromise
the aerodynamic flow passage geometry or introduce leakage gas flow. Variable geometry
is only possible on stators due to the high speed of the rotors and can be used at
compressor rotor inlet and exit and at the turbine inlet. On the compressor, the mass flow
can be reduced with the use of pre-swirl vanes or variable diffuser passages. Pre-swirl
vanes are additional stator vanes placed before the rotor, and the diffuser is the stator
which accepts the high velocity flow from the compressor rotor exit. It has been
suggested by Rodgers (1968) that these devices are best used together to achieve the
highest component efficiency. However, it is very difficult to design a practical variable
diffuser system and such a system is not known to exist. For the turbine, variable nozzle
geometry can be achieved by either pivoting the vanes or moving the nozzle sidewalls in
the spanwise direction. This area of work was investigated by Rogo eta!. (1984). They
concluded that the moving sidewall method was 1 to 2 % better in efficiency than
pivoting vane designs for lower than design mass flow. There was, however, very little
difference for mass flow rates greater than the design value. None of the variable
geometry schemes are particularly easy to implement mechanically and the system
requires controlling. Recent improvements in control technology should make the last
aspect easier to deal with. This is due to the reduction in cost of electronic controllers.
Since the engine can remain at a constant speed for much of the operating range, the
pressure ratio does not change and only T.E.T. is reduced. The nozzle exit velocity will
40
only decrease with the square root of T.E.T. and so the complexity of variable geometry
is not really of that much benefit. The prediction code by Rushman (1989) confIrmed that
the turbine was still operating at high component efficiency with the suggested operating
schedule for off-design.
D) Increase of T.E.T : This would be allowable if the required life of the turbine was
reduced or a material with better creep resistance was used.. The creep life reduces
drastically with increased temperature, as will be shown in Chapter 2, and so this option
is unlikely to be realistic. Higher creep life metals do exist, but these are likely to be too
expensive to be used for a low cost engine. However, if a ceramic material becomes
available which has sufficient reliability, then this would be an obvious solution since the
basic raw material is cheap. Although much research has been devoted to developing
engine ceramics, they have not yet been made sufficiently reliable, in terms of mechanical
properties, to be used for commercially.
An increase in T.E.T. would increase the specific power of the engine as shown in Fig.
1.2.3, but would do little for the s.f.c.. These would only come, if the rise in T.E.T. was
accompanied with the use of a heat exchanger or a higher pressure ratio engine. The heat
exchanger may be smaller and lighter than the size given in section 1.2.2 since the air
mass flow would be reduced in accordance with the increase in specific power.
1.3 High Speed Alternator
1.3.1 Background
The novelty of the S.S.T. generator is the use of an alternator directly coupled to the shaft
of a gas turbine to harness all the net power produced. Although direct drive alternators
are commonly used to generate electrical power from reciprocating engines and large
steam turbines, the novel feature for the S.S.T. generator is the very high shaft rotational
speed at which the alternator operates. This high speed is required by the small gas
turbine for it to operate at peak efficiency.
The major difficulty which is encountered in the design of high speed alternator rotors is
the large centrifugal stresses set up in the structure. For the rotor, these stresses increase
with the square of the rotational speed and the square of the rotor diameter. Since the
maximum rotor stress is the limiting factor, the peripheral speed must be constant for
geometrically similar designs, designed to operate at different speeds. Also, as a general
rule, the maximum power possible decreases for a given design type, with the inverse
cube of speed. This denvation of this rule is derived in section 1.3.3.
A graph shown as Fig. 1.3.1 has been taken from Garrett (1987), which shows more or
less this phenomena for what they refer to as conventional designs and their proposed
41
generators. 'Company' in one of the graph indicators refers to Garrett and PM to
permanent magnet. The design target for the S S.T. generator has been plotted on this
graph to show that it is beyond the even the proposed Garrett generators, and presents a
difficult target to achieve.
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
SPEED, KRPM
Figure 1.3.1 The S.S.T. Generator Design Target Compared to

Other Permanent Magnet Designs
The type of designs used for the graphs shown in Fig. 1.3.1 are permanent magnet type.
There are other types of generator design, but it is not considered that these are likely to
be better than the permanent magnet type for high speed applications. The different
design types are discussed in section 1.3.2.
In situations where gas turbines are useddrive generators, the high shaft speed of the
turbine is reduced using a gearbox. This system however, is difficult to implement for
very small turbine engines since the high shaft speed makes the gearbox design difficult.
The gearbox solution also detracts from the simplicity and low weight of the gas turbine
engine.
Recent developments in materials, particularly in the fields of high strength fibre based
composites and high flux strength rare earth magnets, have been the key to the feasibility
of the direct drive alternator. The new opportunities opened up have allowed design
studies to be undertaken and a suitable design concept to be selected. The design chosen
was a permanent magnet disc alternator - see Fig.. 1.3.2.
42
Stators
Stators
I
Rotors
Discs
Figure 1.3.2 The High Speed Disc Alternator Design
This particular design is the result of many design iterations and experimental work. To
begin with, electrical design calculations were cathed out in the Electrical Engineering
Department as descibed in Fenocchi (1987) which outlined the approximate size of
machine required. This was a much more primitive design than the one shown in Fig.
1.3.2 giving the approximate magnet sizes required, but not the shape. From this basis, a
realistic mechanical design was done. It was necessary to have an understanding of the
basic electrical design parameters so that both electrical and mechanical requirements
could be optimised.
Other design possibilities have been assessed to give confidence in the choice of disc
design. An analysis described in Bolton (1988) comparating all known geometries with
the disc design has increased confidence in the choice of the disc design. Examination of
specific alternative geometries in discussed later in section 1.3.6.
Some simple electrical and mechanical theory has been included to give some background
to the preliminary mechanical design of the disc machine and for the purpose of
assessment of other designs. Later sections in this report are concerned with the
development of design methods for the chosen disc design and the manufacturing and rig
testing programme.
1.3.2 Simple Electrical Theory for the Alternator
A) Voltage and Power Generation : Electrical power is generated in the alternator by

producing an e.m.f. in coils which drives a current through the load to which it is
attached. The power output, being the product of the terminal voltage and the current
43
(assuming a power factor of unity), is dependent upon the current and voltage being
sufficiently high. A high voltage and low current is preferred for this product, since the
power can be distributed to a load using thinner conductor wires for a given distribution
power loss.
The most compact designs have a number of separate coils, usually three, so that the total
power is simply the sum of the power outputs of all the coils. Three coils, or phases,
gives the highest ratio of output to number of transmission wires. The output voltage of
each coil has a different phase and can only be added vectorially. A voltage of over 240V
per phase is also required to make the alternator compatible with most electrical
equipment which operates at 240V per phase. The alternator output voltage needs to be
higher than 240V to allow for the voltage drop in the power converter. Even if the
frequency is changed to 50 Hz via a converter, this voltage is still required if a heavy
transformer is to be avoided
The basic equation which dictates the voltage (e.m.f.) induced is Faraday's law given
below:

e.m.f. = N dc/dt Eq 1.3.1
where N is the number of coil turns, and d4/dt is the rate of change of magnetic flux. The
flux for this case is simply the product of the flux density B and the area enclosed by the
coils which are subject to this flux density. This flux strength through the coils must
fluctuate with respect to time for e.m.f. to be induced.
B) The Effects of High Speed and Frequency Conversion : It can be seen from
equation 1.3.1 that a very high shaft speed is beneficial for generating a high e.m.f.,
since d4/dt is high. This means that the number of coil turns and/or the area of the coils
can be kept small, and hence a physically small machine can be achieved. As an example,
the 50kW disc alternator has a design weight of only 4 kg and has dimensions of 13 cm
diameter and 15 cm length. In contrast, a 3000 r.p.m. alternator would typically weigh
230 kg, have a diameter of 50 cm and a length of 70 cm. The volume ratio is 1:70. The
main penalty is, however, the severe mechanical constraints which mean both design
methods and materials are pushed to the limit. Another disadvantage of a high speed
alternator is the frequency of the output e.m.f. which is equal to the product of the shaft
speed and the number of flux direction change cycles per revolution. At 100 k.r.p.m. and
with four north and four south poles on a rotor, the frequency is :-
f=(lOOx 103/60)x4=6666.7Hz
The main difficulty with this frequency is that the output needs conversion so that it can
be used to drive other electrical equipment, most of which usually uses power at a
frequency of either 50 or 60 Hz. Recent developments in the field of power electronics
44
have allowed a solution to this to be both efficient and affordable. The switching times of
diodes and transistors have been reduced and current capability increased. The size and
the cost of these components has also come down and development in this area is still
progressing.
C) Factors Affecting Flux Density : The flux density is dependent upon the length
of the gap or gaps present between flux producing material as well as the magnetic
strength of this material. Into the gap(s), to be denoted "the air gap", is placed each stator.
The "air gap" is illustrated in Fig. 1.3.2 for the disc geometry. The addition of copper
windings and electrical potting insulation does not affect the "air gap" size in magnetic
terms since these materials have a relative permeability of about unity as given in Tennent
(1983). However, this gap can be reduced in magnetic terms by placing magnetic material
in the stator between the conductor wires but this may introduce other penalties such as
iron losses. These occur since the magnetic material in the stator experiences a changing
magnetic field and energy is required to continually realign the magnetic moments in the
material with the rotor field. This is commonly termed the hysteresis loss.
D) Stator Loss Considerations : The dominant loss in an alternator, called the

"copper loss" due to the internal resistance of the conductor coils is given by:

(ioss)copper = I2 xR Eq 1.3.2
where I is the current and R the resistance of the stator coils. It may appear from this
equation that having a high voltage and low current will always mean a lower power loss.
However, for a higher e.m.f., more coils are needed for a given flux strength. If the
e.m.f. is doubled by having twice as many coils, the total conductor length will also
double and so the conductor cross sectional area must be halved if the coil volume is to
remain the same. This will cause the internal resistance to increase by four times which
will counteract the benefits of halving the current.
The stator coils in which the e.m.f. is induced and from which the current is drawn must
have the lowest possible resistance. This will have the advantages of reducing the losses
to give highest efficiency, and of reducing the heat generated in the stator. Heat generated
in the stator is the main factor which limits the current and hence the power output of the
alternator due to the temperature limit of the materials used for the stator. The resistance
of the stator coils is given by the equation:

R=NpL/A Eq 1.3.3
where p is the coil material resistivity, L the length of each coil path, A the conductor
cross sectional area and N the number of coils. To give the lowest possible value of p.
copper is almost always used as the conductor material and this is why the resistance loss
is often referred to as the copper loss. The other three parameters N, L and A, have to be
45
fixed in the design to match the rotor geometry.
E) Permanent Magnet Machines : For the permanent magnet machine, the magnets
are mounted on the rotor in alternate magnetic pole directions. As the rotor turns, each
coil experiences a time varying magnetic field. The disc permanent magnet machine
shown in Fig. 1.3.2 is one example of this type. Alternatively, the magnets can be
arranged in a drum configuration as shown in Fig. 1.3.3.
Flux
Stal
Rüwi
Strength Shell
"Air (
Figure 1.3.3 A Drum Alternator Configuration
The magnets are orientated on the rotor, so that the flux direction is either radially
inwards or radially outwards, as opposed to axial on the disc machine. The stator can be
placed inside the magnetic rotor as an alternative to the geometry shown in Fig. 1.3.3.
F) Non-Permanent Magnet Machines : A major restriction with designs which do

not use permanent magnets is that slip rings and commutators cannot be used at these
speeds for the amount of current required - Bolton (1990). This rules out the use of
secondary flux producing windings and/or primary coils on the rotor. Since rotating coils
require slip rings, the flux must either be produced by permanent magnets mounted on
the rotor or be induced in the rotor.
If flux is to be induced in a magnetically passive rotor, a secondary stationary coil must
be employed. A rotor of varying thickness, axially or diametrically, is used to vary the
flux magnitude by varying the magnetic reluctance as the airgap in the magnetic ciituit
changes. The flux can, at most, vary from full flux to zero and does not reverse direction
as in a permanent magnet machine. An example of this is the Becky-Robinson or Lundell
46
alternator named after its inventors, an example of which is shown as Fig. 1.3.4.
Air gap(s) Stator windings Stationary
Fl
Figure 1.3.4 The Inside Coil, Stationary, Two Coil Lundell

A.C. Generator (Becky-Robinson)
The operating speed of this particular design is about 24 k.r.p.m, being a quarter of the
speed required for the direct gas turbine drive application. Again, the disc or drum
geometry can be adopted.
13.3 Materials and Mechanical Considerations
A) The Effect of Scaling on High Speed Alternator Design It is the aim of

this section to give general understanding of the mechanical constraints on the design and
the analysis methods which were sufficient for the preliminary study of the design
alternatives. Only the rotor is considered in this section since this is by far the most
difficult part of the mechanical design.
It is helpful at this stage to explain the derivation of the result, given in section 1.3.1,
which stated that the power output is proportional to the cube of diameter for a given
geometry, stressed to its maximum.
The first consideration is the restriction on rotor diameter d. For any disc, of any shape, it
47
can be shown that the maximum stress due to centrifugal loading ama,, is given by
amax cx d2
for geometrically similar rotors but also, for a fixed diameter: -
Gmax€X 0)2
where 0) is the operating angular speed, hence

d 1/CL) Eq 1.3.4
for a given (Ymax and geometry type.
The maximum length L, of the generator is restricted not by stress but by vibration. For
all shaft resonant frequencies for n = 1 to 00, the following relationship is valid : -
a ilL2 x '/1/A
where I is a characteristic shaft second moment of area, and A is the shaft cross sectional
area - see Beards (1985).
Since :-
I a d4, A a d2, then o a dIL2 which may be rearranged to give L a /d/co
Normally, rotors are designed to operate either below the first resonant frequency co or
within a window between two resonances coand If the ratios of shaft critical
speeds for all co to the design operating speed are to be constant, i.e. the designs are
geometrically similar and operate between the same shaft natural frequencies, then : -
a co and taking d a 1/co hence :-

La 1/co Eq 1.3.5
It is now necessary to consider the output power of a geometrically similar alternator as a

function of its diameter and length. The power output is proportional to the area of the
primary coils and the cross sectional area of the conductors. It is fairly easy to see that the
output wifi be proportional to the length for a given diameter but the relationship between
power and diameter is not always easy to derive. For a disc machine, shown in Fig.
1.3.2, the coil area is proportional to the diameter of the machine squared and the
conductor cross sectional area is proportional to diameter. The linear rule for the
conductor cross sectional area arises due to the stator circumference increasing
proportionally with radius. This makes the total output proportional to the cube of
diameter. For a drum machine, the coil area only increases with diameter but the
conductor area can increase with diameter squared if the air gap is scaled proportionally.
This is only true if the flux through the stator can be kept constant by virtue of the use of
48
thicker magnets, made possible with the larger diameter rotor. Hence, the power output P
at a given speed is described by :-

Pad3L Eq 1.3.6
but we also have P a co from Eq 1.3.1. If the terms d and L are substituted by 0) from
equations 1.3.4 and 1.3.5, then the maximum power output, for a particular geometric
design, is related to speed co in the following way :-

Pa 1/& Eq 1.3.7
Gas turbine engines of a geometrically similar design, and operating conditions, have a
power output which decreases with the inverse square of speed. Geometrically similar
design and operating conditions imply that the gas turbine compressor rotor will have a
constant peripheral speed and hence the intake area decreases with the inverse square of
speed, since the diameter is inversely proportional to the speed. For example, an engine
design type with a 100 k.r.p.m design speed will produce four times the power, if the
design speed is dropped to 50 k.r.p.m, and the engine is scaled up twice, in terms of
linear dimensions. Since the maximum alternator power, for a particular design, reduces
with the inverse cube of speed and engine power decreases with the inverse square of
speed, the higher the speed, the more difficult it is to design an alternator which will
absorb all the engine power. This law of scaling gives further understanding to answer
why special new design concepts must be adopted high speed alternators.
B) Material Properties and Stress Loading Considerations : Table 1.3.1 gives

a list of typical average properties for suitable engineering materials for the alternator
rotor, including those used for structural purposes and those for magnetic properties.
The values quoted for design strength contain margins to account for variation in
properties from the average values and to give adequate low cycle fatigue life. With the
material properties given in Table 1.3.1, it is now possible to show with some simple
calculations the restrictions imposed by the high shaft speed on the maximum allowable
radii of a) a solid thick disc and b) a radially thin ring for each material. This is done by
consideration of the inertia forces generated by the rotation and the stresses required in
the structure to balance the inertial forces. The theory for this is adequately described in
Benham and Warnock (1984), with the important results given in the form of equations in
Table 1.3.2, where is the design stress, p the material density, V Poisson's ratio, E
Young's Modulus and 0) the shaft speed in radians/sec. The radii for the case of the thin
ring are often denoted the free hoop radii since any material above this radius must have
support from material below this radius. From this calculation, the rim radial strain
growths can also be computed. A minimum rim radial growth is important in types of
machine which need to have small radial clearances.
49
Max Strength Design Strength Modulus Density
MPa MPa GPa Kg/rn3.
Duralumin 350 250 71 2750
Strong Alum.
Alloy 600 450 71 2800
Mild Steel 250 200 210 7860
EN24T Steel 700 600 210 7800
17/4 PH Alloy
Steel 1100 850 210 7800
Titanium Alloy 750 600 112 4540
Glass Fibre * 750 560 38 1930
CarbonFibre* 2500 1500 160 1650
Keviar Fibre * 2200 1500 70 1300
Softlront 165 130 206 7870
Somarium
Cobalt f 90 (300) 50 (200) 130 8300
Neodymium
Boron Iron - (1600) - (1200) 160 7550
* - Assumes matrix with epoxy resin unidirectionally filament wound.

- Materials especially pertinent to magnetic flux production/carrying.
0-Compressive strength (Neodymium not recommended to be used in tension)
Table 1.3.1 Properties of Materials for the Alternator Rotor
Solid Disc Thin Ring

Maximum radius, rmax 2 i(8a4)/(3 + v)po) 2 2 Gd! p0)2
Rimhoopstress,G0 Gd p0)2 rm 2 (1+3V)/8 Gd
Rim radial displacement, & (G x rm )I E (a0 x Tm )/ E
Table 1.3.2 Stress Equations for Rotating Discs and Rings
The results of calculations for the material properties given in Table 1.3.1 are shown in
Table 1.3.3.
50

Maximum Radii Associated Radial Growths

a) Solid Disc b)Thin Hoop Radial Grth-a) Radial Grth b)
mm mm mm mm
Duralumin 446 28.8 0.062 0.10

Strong Alum.

Alloy
59.3 38.3 0.149 0.25

Mild Steel
15.2 23.8 0.009 0.015

EN24T Steel 41.3 26.5 0.051 0.076
17/4 PH Alloy

Steel 49.1 31.5 0.086 0.13

Titanium Alloy 53.5 34.7 0.109 0.19

Glass Fibre * 51.3 0.76

Carbon Fibre * 91.0 0.85

Keviar Fibre * 102.6 2.20

Soft lion 19.1 12.2 0.005 0.008
Somarium
Cobalt 11.6 7.4 0.002 0.003
* Note that diameters for solid discs have not been given since the material is not isotmpic and the
tensile stress field in a solid disc is highly bidirectional.
Table 1.3.3 Maximum Rotors Diameters and Associated Radial Growths

for Different Materials
Initial electrical design calculations by Fenocchi (1987) showed that for the disc design, a
total magnet surface area of around 9000 mm2 would be needed using rare earth magnets
(samarium cobalt or neodymium). This is counting the area of only one of the two sides
of each disc. By inspection, it can be seen from Table 1.3.3 that solid discs or a single
drum of samarium cobalt could not be made anywhere near large enough to give this
area. The rotor shaft could be replaced by a stronger material, as a disc, and the magnets
held onto this such as turbine blades are held in a disc. If four stators were to be used, as
suggested by the electrical study, then the cross sectional area for each magnet becomes
281 mm2 , which is equivalent to a square of 17 mm x 17 mm. These blocks could then
be mounted on a disc as shown in Fig. 1.3.5. This is not intended to represent a design
solution, rather to show the stresses which would result if the magnets could be held onto
the central octagonal disc.
51
The centrifugal force on a magnet can be calculated from the equation:
F = mmrco2 Eq 1.3.8
where mm is the magnet mass per unit length and rmm is the mean radius of the magnet
about the centre of rotation.
100 000 r.p.m.

>< Magnet Centre
of Gravity
Magnets
17 mm x 17 mm
E
J:
01
I oI Radius of
Rotation
Figure 1.3.5 The Approximate Size of Magnets Mounted on a Disc
For the geometry given in Fig. 1.3.5, mm is equal to 2.2.kg and rmm is 29 mm. The force
on each magnet is then 6.99 MN and the maximum magnet stress, at the magnet root, is
equal to this force divided by the surface area of the joint between the magnet and shaft.
This is 411 MPa and is not acceptable, being far in excess of the ultimate fracture stress
for Somarium Cobalt. The magnets could be more compact by using a better shape than a
square, hence lowering the 411 MPa stress, but it is not possible to lower the stress
below the 90 MPa allowable for Somarium Cobalt material.
It is therefore necessary to contain the magnets from the outside with a strength shell and
keep the magnets permanently in compression. A choice between neodymium or
samarium cobalt is easy, since tensile strength is now not needed and neodymium is
stronger magnetically, has a higher compressive strength and less dense than samarium
cobalt.
The choice of strength shell material can now be made from Table 1.3.3. It can be seen
that the allowable radii of composites far exceed those of metals. Of the composites,
carbon fibre gives the best choice of high strength and high modulus, the latter being
52
important for minimising the radial disc growth under spin. A large radial growth would
increase the problem of locating the magnets on the shaft In addition, Keviar, an aramid
fibre, does not bond as well as carbon to the epoxy matrix material. For these reasons, it
was decided to use carbon fibre for the strength shells.
1.3.4 Preliminary Design of the Magnet Carrying Disc-Mk 1
The primary parameter to be chosen for the Mk I rotor design was the magnet area which
could be allowed within the stress constraints. The larger this was, the higher the output
per stage and the fewer stages required. This has implications for the cost of the machine,
the complexity and the vibration characteristics of the shaft. This area per disc was
approximately the same as that chosen for the magnets in Fig. 1.3.5 but with a more
compact geometry. A diagram of the design of the Mk I alternator rotor disc is given in
Fig. 1.3.6.
Carbon Fibre
081 nets
069,6
065,6
a ,.1
Figure 1.3.6 The Mk I Rotor Design
It was decided to fix the inner diameter of the hub onto which the magnets are located at
40 mm. This was initially fixed by the electrical designer to give sufficient room for the
stator conductors on the inner periphery of the stator. From this, the outer diameter of the
magnets was increased until the stress in the carbon fibre shell reached the maximum
allowed. This stress was calculated in a simple analysis. An aluminium ring was inserted
53
between the magnets and the carbon ring to cushion the magnet corners and to provide
electrical damping against non synchronous fields, set up in the stator by the primary
current as explained in Fenocchi (1990). The shape of the magnets was chosen to give
the maximum area at the lowest overall diameter for stress reasons. However, a small gap
was left between each magnet to reduce the magnetic leakage. The size of magnet and
rotor diameter were calculated iteratively with the final calculation being given below.
Fig. 1.3.6 should be referred as an aid to understanding the calculations. The axial length
L of the magnet is taken as 24 mm but this does not affect the maximum diameter of the
rotor.
Step 1: Calculate force F exerted on strength ring by magnets
F = mmr& = 0.0427 x 0.0267 x (10472) 2 = 125 kN Eq 1.3.9
Step 2 : Calculate the pressure "P"m of the magnets on the ring
= 8F1 27tr 1L = 8 x 125 000 127t x 0.0348 x 0.024 = 191 MPa Eq 1.3.10
where rd is the inner radius of the carbon fibre strength ring
Step 3 : Calculate the pressure "p" on strength ring due to the mass ma of aluminium
above the hub (The assumption made here is that the material in the hub can support
itself and does not add load to the carbon fibre)
"P"a mr&,21CrL Eq 1.3.11

= 0.029 x 0.029 x (10472)2t2t x 0.0348 x 0.024 = 17.6 MPa
where r is the mean radius of the aluminium above the hub.
Step 4 : Calculate the hoop stress a 9 in the carbon ring of thickness t

, H
ae = {("p'm+ p a)rci/t)+PJcm 2& Eq 1.3.12
= (191 + 17.6) x 106 x 0.0348 /0.006 + 1650 x 0.03782 x (10472)2
=1468MPa
where p is the carbon fibre density and r is the mean radius of the carbon fibre.
l'his carbon fibre stress is just below the design stress of 1500 MPa, see Table 1.3.1, and
hence is nominally acceptable. The compressive stress in the magnets is a maximum at
the outer radius, just above the pressure calculated in Eq 1.3.10 and also is acceptable. It
should be noted that this analysis is not rigorous but gives a reasonable approximation of
the mean stresses in the materials and shows the feasibility of the design.
13.5 The Keeper Discs
An important part of the design is the keeper discs which complete the magnetic circuit
54
for the rotor as illustrated in Fig. 1.3.7.
Keeper Disc
- - -
I I
Magnetic Rotor
Figure 1.3.7 The Keeper Disc for the Disc Alternator
There are two keeper discs placed on each end of the magnetic rotor disc assembly to
complete the flux path. They must be ferromagnetic but need not be permanent magnetic
since they only act as a path for the flux generated by the magnets on the other rotor
discs. These discs must extend to at least the maximum magnet radius and for the Mk I
design this was 32.8 mm. From Table 1.3.3 it can be seen that this radius is less than the
maximum for the high strength steels in solid disc geometry but above that for a thin
hoop. This showed that a design should be feasible, although careful attention to stress
levels was required since other factors, such as the joint to the magnet disc made the
design very difficult. In Chapter 2, various designs of this component are given in detail.
An alternative to a rotating keeper was to use a thick ring of stationary ferrite mounted
next to each end magnet discs with a small clearance. The ferrite would conduct the
magnetic field but have only low induced eddy currents. The primary difficulty with this
design was the attractive force of the ferrite to the rotor. In theory, each side load should
cancel out but, if the clearance varied, then fluctuating net axial forces and moments could
be imposed on the rotor giving vibration problems. A non uniform clearance would be
expected with realistic component tolerances. Another, though less important,
disadvantage would be the increased total air gap in the magnetic circuit
1.3.6. Examination of Alternative Alternator Design Concepts
Two groups of alternative designs will be examined in this section, one group (A) being
different rotor constructions for the disc concept and the other, (B), being totally different
55
geometries. Some of the ideas were suggestions made by Rolls-Royce plc for
consideration mainly as a way of avoiding the uncertainties associated with the use of
composite containment shells.
Al) Metal Strength Shells

The simplest variation was to use a metal strength ring instead of carbon fibre for a
similar disc design. Since the properties of metals are well researched and are generally
isotropic, this solution is potentially desirable. An extensive analysis was performed
based upon the method described in section 1.3.4. and scaling of similar geometry. As a
means of comparison of different strength shell materials, the rotor geometry was taken
to be the disc design shown in Fig. 1.3.8.
077,(
08 1,6
Dimensions in mm
Figure 1.3.8 The Mk II Geometry used for the Metal Strength Shell Analysis
This particular design is a modified version of the Mk I design and is denoted the Mk II
design. Th difference between the Mk I and Mk II designs is explained in Chapter 7.
The Mk II geometric shape, in terms of the ratios of all the dimensions could be be scaled
up or down for the analysis.
This geometry was simplified, for the purpose of the analysis, to allow it to be specified
56
in teims of five characteristic dimensions. These are : -
r, - Radius to inside of magnets

Radius to outside of magnets
rb
- Radius to outside of strength shell
S - Fraction of magnet material in annulus between ra and rb
Axial rotor thickness
L -
A diagram of the simplified alternator disc design is shown as Fig. 1.3.9, where these
dimensions are illustrated. The aluminium ring was ignored since the effect of this was
relatively small as evident from the calculations in sections 1.3.4.
Axial TI
,0
Reduced Magnet Area

due to Spacing = 25%
IC
:.S=O.75
Figure 1.3.9 Simplified Geometry for the Strength Shell Comparison
The ratio of Ta to rb and a value for S were taken from the Mk II rotor geometry,
considered the best design at the time of the analysis. This allowed the number of
variables to be reduced to two, these being the magnet outer radius rb and the strength
shell thickness t, which was simply the difference between Tb and r.
The next step was to form an equation relating the hoop stress (N in the strength shell to
Tb and t. The load exerted by the magnets on the shell was evaluated by calculating the
mass of magnet material, the force exerted by the magnets and hence the effective
57
pressure on the shell. The equations are as follows :-

Geometry assumptions ra = O.63rb, S = 0.75
Mass of Magnets mm= 7(rb2-ra2 )Pm' Eq 1.3.13

Pm = magnet density
Total force exerted by magnets Fm = mm &(rb-ra )/2 Eq 1.3.14

Co = angular velocity radls
Effective Pressure "p " = F/2itr,L Eq 1.3.15
The hoop stress in the strength shell can be calculated from thin wall cylinder theory, first
assumed to be the sum of the stress due to the magnet 'pressure' and the self weight of
the strength shell. Hence :-
Shell hoop stress 00= pzrbw2(rb +t/2)2+ "p"r,/t Eq 1.3.16
Pz = density of strength shell material Z
This is an implicit cubic equation but it can be solved iteratively to obtain a value for Tb
for a given value of shell thickness t.
The equations used for forming equation Eq 1.3.16 are accurate for thin shells but start to
deviate when the ratio of t : Tb exceeds 0.1 . Since some of the solutions to equation
Eq 1.3.16 did not satisfy this criterion, a new equation based on the Lame' equations for
thick walled cylinders described in Benham and Warnock (1984) was formulated to
replace Eq 1.3.16. The new equation was easier to form by using the ratio k = Tjrb and
the outer radius r rather than t. The maximum hoop stress is then given by :-
a0 =(3+V )/2pZo{rC2 +rb2 (1-v)/(3+v)} +"p"(k2+1)/(k2- 1)

Eq 1.3.17
This equation was solved iteratively for Tb for a given value of a, and hence the relative
power output for each maximum rotor size could be assessed.
The power output per alternator stage is approximately proportional to the cube of the
rotor radius, for a particular geometry as shown in section 1.3.2. Choosing the magnet
outer radius as a convenient radius for the purposes of comparison :-
Pczrb3 Eq 1.3.18
Since it was not known exactly what power the Mk 2 alternator would produce at 100
k.r.p.m., the comparison of power output between rotors with different strength shells
was done by taking a value of unity for the power produced by one stage of the Mk 2 and
58
scaling accordingly, thus :-
- (r Sh11 7)
Eq 1.3.19
She11 Z—
(rMk7)
Estimates based on experimental measurements at 30 k.r.p.m, to be reported in Fenocchi

(1991), indicate that the maximum power of the Mk 2 design should be about 12- 15 kW
depending mainly on the magnitude of heat generation from electrical and mechanical
losses and how effectively this heat can be removed.
The results from the solution to Eq. 1.3.17 are plotted and shown as Fig. 1.3.10, from
which it can be seen that the maximum permissible sizes of rotor for metal strength shells
are very much lower than for those with carbon fibre.
45 Stren2th Shell
Material
40
• Carbon Fibre
35 • 17/4PH Steel
Alum. Alloy
o Titanium
j 30 • Carbon Fibre
.... 25
('Thin Wall
20 Cylinder Theory)
15
:io
E
.s
0 .
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Strength Shell Thickness -
Figure 1.3.10 Maximum Alternator Rotor Sizes for Different Strength Shell Materials
It is noteworthy that there is little benefit in having a metal strength ring greater than 3-4
mm thickness, whereas the optimum thickness for the carbon fibre is above 10 mm. This
is due to the large difference in specific strengths and hence free hoop radii for these
materials. In practice, the thickness of the carbon fire shell is likely to be limited by
stability as the thickness of the shell wall approaches the axial length of the shell.
The comparison of the power generation capability of rotors with different strength shells
is given in Fig. 1.3.11. This shows the carbon fibre strength shell is up to 5-6 times
more effective. In terms of the number of stages, about 15 discs would be needed for a
59
metal strength shell design instead of four, giving an alternator length of 375 mm. Such
an rotor length would be unacceptable for the compact generator concept and would need
a number of bearings to support it.
1.2
1.1 Strenith Shell
Material
1.0
• Caibon Fibre
0.9 • 17/4PH Steel
Alum Alloy
0.8 o Titanium
1::;
0.5
.,
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Strength Shell Thickness - mm
Figure 1.3.11 Relative Power Comparison for Rotors with Different

Strength Shell Materials
This analysis confirmed the initial decision that a design based on a metal strength shell
was not a viable solution if an alternator of 100 k.r.p.m capability was to be achieved.
Au) Internal Metal Disc Design

A design suggestion was given by Rolls-Royce, Coplin (1988), as a possible alternative
to the carbon fibre strength shell design. This design is shown in Fig. 1.3.12.
Stators
Magnetic Steel
Figure 1.3.12 Internal Metal Disc Design Scheme
60

The rotor disc steel must be magnetic for the design to work so that the gap between the
magnets does not affect the magnetic circuit. However, if the magnets abut directly onto
the steel on the outer rim, the magnetic flux will leak from one magnet to another rather
than going across the air gap and into the stator coils. To reduce this, a ring of non-
magnetic material must be added between the magnets and the steeL A distance of 4 mm
was chosen as a compromise between flux leakage, and lost magnet height, with
aluminium being the best choice from density considerations.
The first step was to compute the stresses for a modified design similar to that shown in
Fig. 1.3.12. The design which was analysed was modified so that the aluminium spacer
rings could be added, and the ratio of magnet inner and outer diameters changed to the
optimum value. It was necessary to use the finite element method for the analysis, the
method of which will be described in detail in Chapter 2. The results of the analysis are
given in Fig. 1.3.13, in which the hoop stresses are shown for 100 k.r.p.m. spin.
'tre ;s Values MPa

U I IMA.XSTRI
1787 I 'POWER 91
11.88 Pa'
1599 1MIN STR
I_I! I IPOWER0I
1411 I I-o.00 I
: !Pa
J.22i
F
1035
_E
846
_D
653
C
470
B
282
94
Figure 1.3.13 Finite Element Analysis showing Hoop Stresses for the
Internal Metal Disc Design
Details of the modified design dimensions with a summary table of stresses, neglecting
stress concentrations is given in Fig. 1.3.14, from which and it can be seen that the
stresses are unacceptable.
If it is assumed that stress concentrations can be reduced by careful design, the worst
bulk stress appears in the disc below the magnets as about 1500 MPa. This could
possibly be reduced to 1400 MPa by further design iteration. This is approaching the
bore stress at 1200 MPa.
61
Average Hoop and Radial Stressr'
Hoop MPa Radial MPa
500 45
600 196
1000 950
1400 1100
1400 1100
1400 1100
- - -
Figure 1.3.14 Details of the Analysed Design and Bulk Stresses
To reduce this stress to an acceptable level, the whole disc size must be scaled down to
give a maximum stress of 850 MPa for a high strength magnetic steel. The stress in a disc
scales with the diameter squared and the power output decreases with the cube of
diameter hence the power output per disc comes down by :-
3/
'Reduced - ( 850\/2
l400) = 0.473
P 36mm -
The total magnet thickness has also been reduced for this design from 10 mm to 5 mm
and the flux strength in the air gap would be reduced by 16%. The output would now be
40% of the power output of the design using carbon fibre. This implies that 10 stages are
required to obtain the 50 kW, and the overall length again would be unacceptable. Even
this is probably optimistic because of the neglect of stress concentrations in the analysis.
The design does, however appear to be better than a plain steel strength shell.
Aiii) Titanium Lobed Disc

A design type was considered which worked on the principle of retaining the magnets in
a machined titanium carrier as shown in Fig. 1.3.15.
62
net Pieces
Titanium Holder
Figure 1.3.15 The Titanium Lobbed Disc Geometiy
The analysis was similar to that outlined in section 1.3.4 but this time the tensile stress in
the hoops carried the force of the magnet. Again, the maximum allowable diameter was
found to be much smaller than the design using carbon fibre and at least 10 stages would
be needed to achieve 50 kW total output
Aiv) "Drum" Disc Configuration

The design shown in Fig. 1.3.16, is essentially the same as the disc design but the rotor
shaft is now in the form of an external drum.
This design was suggested as a means of keeping the shaft stiffness high so that shaft
vibration problems could be reduced. However, serious disadvantages were apparent
such as increased windage and the difficulty in assembly and cooling.
The rotor can either be overhung, or supported at one end by an air bearing depending on
the axial length of the rotor.
Carbon Fibre
Magnets
1fl flF' "1 RF'

T1 lfl F 1R1.::+k
T"<
- - - S
Output
Wires

Clearance (f Statx Discs
Air Bearing
Figure 1.3.16 The Drum Disk Configuration
63
Av) Annular Magnet Design : The annular magnet concept arose as an alternative after the
magnet manufacturers, Crucible Magnets Ltd. made it known that a one piece magnet
could be magnetised into eight poles. Thus the two annular faces of the magnet have
each, four North and South poles interspersed. This type of design is shown in Fig.
1.3.17.
Neodymium Boron
Carbon Fil Iron Permanent
Magnet
Figure 1.3.17 The Annular Magnet Rotor Design
The annular magnet design was attractive from a manufacturing point of view to reduce
complexity of assembly. Analysis of the concept was much easier than for the segmented
design since the structure was axisymmetric and formed of a number of concentric rings.
For the purpose of the analysis, a Fortran program was written which would give
stresses and displacements for the combined loading of internal and external pressure and
centrifugal forces on a thick ring. The Lamé equations from Benham and Warnock (1984)
were used in the computation.
The methodology to the solution was to compute the stresses for the annular magnet, at
100 k.r.p.m. for a range of external pressures to find what value was required to prevent
tensile stresses occurring in the magnet. A similar computation was done for the strength
shell but this time the thickness required to keep the magnet in compression for the given
internal pressure was found. The hub was assumed not to be loading the magnet at
100 k.r.p.m. The next step was to evaluate the exact static dimensions of the hub, magnet
and strength shell to achieve the condition calculated at spin. The stresses in the assembly
when stationary could then be found and this was done by graphical means knowing that,
if the surfaces were no longer in compression, each of the interfaces must be at a
particular radius for both materials.
The results showed that the amount of interference required would mean that the carbon
fibre would be stressed up to the same level statically as for 100 k.r.p.m. spin. A thicker
64
strength shell was also required compared to a segmented design since the mass of dense
magnet material to be contained would be more. For the annular magnet, there will
always be a "dead" zones between the magnetic poles since there must be a finite distance
for the flux to change direction. These "dead" zones, although only 2-3 mm do have a
significant effect. However, the overall diameter is not increased because there is no
purpose for the duralumin ring since there are no corners to cause stress concentrations
and electrical harmonic eddy current damping cannot be done.
Further investigation of the annular magnet concept was abandoned for the following
reasons :-
(i) The interference fit could only be carried out by expanding the carbon fibre -
technique which seemed feasible but required extensive research.
(ii) The "dead" zones meant that a thicker carbon fibre shell would be required
raising concerns about the stability of the strength shell.
(iii) Tensile stresses as well as magnet separation would occur in an overspeed

which a segmented design may survive.
(iv) It was not easy to lock the magnet onto the hub to prevent possible slippage,
since any features cut into the magnet would be source of stress
concentrations in the brittle magnet material.
Bi) Permanent Magnet Drum Type - Internal Rotor

Instead of using a disc geometry, the rotor/stator geometry can be in the form of a drum
as mentioned in 1.3.2. This type of geometry similar to that adopted by Garrett for a 75
k.r.p.m. direct drive gas turbine driven alternator - Garrett (1987). A diagram of this
type of design is shown as Fig. 1.3.18.
It
SlrengL
Figure 1.3.18 The Permanent Magnet Drum Type Alternator -Internal Rotor
65
The diameter of the drum must be below the free hoop radius of the strength shell and,
with a metal strength shell, it is unlikely that this would be sufficiently high enough to
keep the length of the drum down to an acceptable level. A carbon strength ring would
probably solve this particular problem but main drawback with this design is that the
strength ring has to be in the air gap which reduces the flux into the stator. Other
disadvantages of this design over the disc machine include
i) The risk of radial rubbing due to differential thermal expansion of the rotor
and stator and growth of the rotor under rotation. The mean radial growth of
the rotor would be small due to centrifugal forces, but the structure would
not grow uniformly but rather like a "threepenny bit" due to the segment
magnets. This happens on disc designs but these do not require close radial
clearances. Rubbing of the rotor can only be avoided by generous clearances
in the air gap and therefore a further flux reduction.
ii) Eddy current losses in the ferrite flux return cylinder could be too high.
iii) Cooling of the rotor would be more difficult although stator cooling may be
easier.
Bii) Permanent Magnet Drum - External Rotor Type

This type geometiy is similar to Bi) described earlier but the magnets are now placed
outside the stator. The advantage of this is that the strength ring is not in the air gap and
hence there are no restrictions imposed on the thickness of the strength ring or on the
material used. This permits the use of much larger rotor diameters. A diagram of this
arrangement is given as Fig. 1.3.19.
"arbonFi'
Magnet
- -
Stator
Vinding
Figure 1.3.19 The Permanent Magnet Drum Type Alternator - External Rotor
The ferrite ring can also be eliminated but flux return now has to be done using steel
under the carbon strength ring and inside the stator. Alternatively, the inner steel tube may
66
be replaced by fenite which would help support the stator windings but could cause
problems of eddy current heating. The outer steel tube can carry some of the load if it is
fitted inside the carbon fibre shell by thermal shrinking. Again, the disadvantage of this
design is that cooling could be difficult.
Biii)Non Permanent Magnet Machines

As mentioned in section 1.3.2, alternative designs are available which use a rotor of
varying thickness or diameter to modulate a DC field set up by a stationary winding.
Figs. 1.3.20 and 1.3.21 show disc and drum variations respectively.
D.C. Windings
Windings
Figure 1.3.20 A Non-Permanent Magnet Disc Generator
An assessment of currently available designs of this type has been done, Bolton (1988),
showing that many of the designs suffer from insufficient power capability. For most of
the designs, the flux only changes from a maximum to zero rather than from a maximum
to a maximum of opposite sign as for the permanent magnet machines. Iron losses due to
the high frequencies are a major electrical problem. These could be minimised if soft iron
was used for the rotor but the difficulty with this is again the very small diameter allowed
for a soft iron rotor - see Table 1.3.3. If a high strength steel could be used, then rotor
diameters could be increased and perhaps a design may be feasible. Steels however,
suffer from hysteresis losses which causes heating and a loss of efficiency.
Major difficulties on the mechanical side apart from stress include the frictional resistance
of air on a lobed disc. This must be overcome either by evacuation of the air gap or by
creating a uniform rotor using non-magnetic inserts. The latter is preferred since rotor
cooling would be difficult in an evacuated environment.
67
Flux path
Ferrite
Stator windings
Figure 1.3.2 1 A Non-Permanent Magnet Drum Generator
1.4 Identification of the Main Research Areas for the S.S.T Project
1.4.1. The Gas Turbine Engine
A) Literature on Small Gas Turbines : Similar gas turbines have been successfully
built at the size required although they are not common. Examples of these include the
Rover Co. Ltd family of engines detailed in Penny (1970), and those by Ford, Chrysler,
General Motors and other car manufacturers described in Norbyc (1976). These engines
have mainly been research exercises, carried out by automobile manufacturers, with the
intention of using them for vehicle application with mechanical drive, via a step down
gearbox. Some details of engines similar to the S.S.T. design are given in Rodgers
(1987), Weaving (1962) and O'Brien (1980), being manufactured by the companies
Solar and Garrett. These are engines of single shaft type with some engine performance
figures being given. This has been useful for estimating the performance of the S.S.T.
engine. However, details of the design of the engine or particular components are not
given. This is understandable given the commercial confidentiality of design methods.
B) Experience of Rolls-Royce In Small Gas Turbines : Rolls-Royce plc,

although a leader in gas turbine technology, have not ventured into the area of very small
engines until recently. For this reason, knowledge of small scale technology, especially in
some key areas, needed to be generated. For certain components in the engine, such as
the centrifugal compressor and combustor, there was proven experience for sizes of
68
machine 10 times the mass flow or greater. Due to this, these particular components could
be aerodynamically designed with some degree of confidence within the Company.
Aerodynamic rig testing of the compressor and combustor was to be used more as
confinnation exercises and was carned out by Rolls-Royce.
C) Radial Turbine Research : There was very little experience of designing radial
turbines within Rolls-Royce since this type of turbine had not yet been used for any of
the Company's engines. Associated with this was the volute ducting passage, which was
also a new geometry. For this reason, the main thrust of the research for the engine was
directed at the turbine with the commissioning of a test facility being an integral part of
this exercise. This is described in Chapter 3. The turbine rotor was aerodynamically
designed at Rolls-Royce and the volute and nozzles were designed at Imperial College.
The extent of the work described in this thesis covers the extensive aerodynamic testing
of the volute and turbine given in Chapter 4 and 5 respectively. A research programme
could be extended beyond the first turbine geometry, if desired, by using the results from
the tests to improve design methods, in order to improve the efficiency.
D) Structural Analysis Methods : Another research area for the engine included
the stress analysis of radial turbomachinery rotors which requires the use of finite element
(RE.) methods. These methods were required not only for the engine, but also as an aid
to the design of the turbine and alternator test rigs as described in Chapter 2.
E) High Speed Bearings : It is intended, to use roffing element bearings for a

demonstrator engine. Although rolling element bearings are available which
manufacturers claim to have the 100 k.r.p.m. speed capability, the life of the bearings
depends very much on loading, damping, lubrication and cooling. Experience from rig
testing has been gained at speeds of up to 40 k.r.p.m. but confidence in the life of the
bearings at full speed can only be gained by rig testing at this speed. Some experience
gained with the use of high speed rolling element bearings is discussed in Chapter 6.
The bearings used for the turbocharger rig are the floating bush type. This type of bearing
is extremely rugged, but suffers from having too much radial play and frictional losses to
be used for the engine. Excessive radial play prevents tight tip clearances, which are
essential for high component efficiency of the turbine and compressor. More details of
this type of bearing are given in Chapter 3.
A potentially attractive solution to the bearings is the air bearing. Design codes are well
established for low speeds but these designs can suffer from instabilities at higher
speeds. Improved methods of damping need to be established and tested to allow this
type of bearing to operate at the higher speeds. Air bearings have been used successfully
by other small turbine manufacturers but access to the design methods is restricted for
reasons of confidentiality. Only limited work has been done to date on air bearings for the
69
engine at Imperial College - Dioh (1988).
Magnetic bearings are another possible option, having no need for a fluid lubricant The
viability of this system depends on whether the electrical power and control unit can be
made small enough and for an acceptable cost.
F) Control Systems : Electronic control systems are commonly used for aero gas
turbines for fuel control and in some cases, variable geometry actuation. Such systems
are generally designed to be extremely reliable, to military specification, and this is
reflected in the cost. Low cost control systems have been developed for the control of
CNC machines and robots and it is this type of technology which it is proposed to adapt
Although reliability is still important, a failure of the control system would not be
catastrophic as in the case of an acm engine. The application of a low cost control system
and the appropriate software has to be developed and tested. This is best canied out after
the demonstrator is built although much work has been done in the area of simulation.
This work is described elsewhere, Georgantis (1989), and is not covered in this thesis.
1.4.2 High SpeedAlternator
A) A New Design Concept : As far as is known, no alternator has been built with
the speed and power output required for this generator. This has made virtually all aspects
of the alternator design a research exercise with a large number of uncertainties. In
addition, the disc design was not an improved version of something available for lower
speeds but a new concept.
B) Research Tasks Carried Out : The design and development of the alternator
was a combination of mechanical and electrical research. The mechanical element of the
work was much higher than would be necessary for lower speed devices. This, however,
does not detract from the difficulties of the electrical behaviour of the alternator due to it
having to handle large currents at frequencies in the order of 7 kHz. An attempt is made
below to separate out the most important research tasks covered in the alternator research
programme : -
i) Mechanical Tasks
High speed rig development.
• Air frictional resistance of small high speed discs.
• Manufacture and mechanical testing of new materials for the rotor.
ii) Combined Mechanical with Electrical Tasks

• Magnetic rotor geometric design and strain analysis techniques including
new applications of finite elements.
• Stator conductor shape, mechanical construction and cooling techniques.
70
iii) Electricai Tasks
• Theoretical e.m.f. and regulation prediction methods
• Evolution of methods for predicting synchronous and commutation
inductances.
High frequency power conversion.
The first two groups of tasks form work which is reported in this thesis. The work
concerning group (iii) has been reported to some extent in a number of reports - Fenocchi
(1987), Fenocchi and Knill-Jones (1988), Fenocchi (1990) and will form part of a
doctoral thesis to be submitted in 1991. The research tasks (i) and (ii) are described in
Chapter 6 and 7.
1.43 The Author's Contribution to the Research Programme
The scope of the project and work carried out has been considerable, covering a large
number of engineering disciplines. It has hence involved a large number of individuals
who have contributed to the work. A fair proportion of the work has been carried out by
undergraduate and Masters students for project work, but this has meant close
supervision and involvement with their work.
In an attempt to specify the work carried out, and by whom, a summary list has been
given in Appendix II.
71
2 DEVELOPMENT OF STRESS AND VIBRATION ANALYSIS
TECHNIQUES FOR HIGH SPEED ROTOR DESIGN
2.1 The Need for Accurate Mechanical Stress and Vibration Assessment
Due to the high rotational speed of the shaft for the engine generator the material on the
shaft is subjected to high accelerations. The force on material in the shaft is proportional
to the material density and the radius of rotation and must to be balanced by internal
stresses in the material. The shaft speed is dictated by the requirements of the
turbomachinery rotors which must have certain blade tip speeds to enable sufficient work
to be done on or extracted from the gas for the given pressure ratio. Although the blade
tip speed is dependent upon the rotor tip diameter, the ratio of compressor tip to intake
diameter and turbine tip to exit diameter are fixed to give the best component efficiencies.
The compressor intake and turbine exit diameters are fixed by the engine mass flow rate
since it is this parameter which determines the compressor inlet and turbine exit flow
areas.
The diameters of the turbine, compressor and alternator rotors had to be in excess of the
maximum diameters allowed for a thin metal ring at 100 k.r.p.m., see Table 1.3.3, and
so a careful selection of the geometiy of these components was essential to avoid an
overstressed design. The geometries of the rotor components which make up the rotor
assembly are complex and hence the stresses in these components could not be accurately
predicted using analytical stress methods. Analytical methods refer to calculation by direct
solution of stress and strain equations, being non-numerical. For this reason it was
necessary to employ the finite element method as a tool to analyse design geometries to
ensure that stresses were acceptable. Analytical methods, such as rotating cylinder
theory, nevertheless were employed to indicate the order of magnitude of stresses likely
to be found. It was not only important to keep the maximum stress below the ultimate
tensile strength, but to ensure that there was adequate margin to accommodate safe fatigue
life for all components and creep life in the case of the turbine rotor which would operate
within the creep regime.
Although stresses would occur in the casings, mainly due to differential thermal
expansion, these would not be nearly as great as those on the rotor. This makes the
design of the casings much less critical except for some of the hot stator parts around the
turbine. Examples of these are the volute, the nozzle ring and the turbine backplate seal.
Another important area of consideration is vibration. Destructive shaft vibrations can
occur in any rotating system and the gas turbine generator shaft is not an exception. As
the shaft rotates, there are periodic forces on the shaft due to residual out of balance
masses, forces originating from the rolling elements in the bearings and aerodynamic
forces on the compressor and turbine rotors. If the frequency of these forces matches the
72
natural vibration frequency of either the shaft components or the shaft itself then the result
may be a failure, either from instability or high cycle fatigue. It is impossible to ensure
that all the natural frequencies never coincide with the frequency of the forces but
precautions must be taken to avoid obvious problems. It would be foolish to have the
shaft natural frequency, the whirling critical, match the shaft speed for any period with
the possible exception of this occurring momentarily during a rapid acceleration from one
condition to another. The turbine blade natural frequency should not match the frequency
with which the blade passes the nozzle, but the blade passing frequency could match the
shaft critical speed without causing damage. The reason for this is that the whole mass of
the shaft has so much inertia that only large forces, such as the out of balance force can
affect it seriously.
Again, classical vibration analysis methods are unable to cope with the complex shaft
geometry and so the finite element method has to be employed. For many cases, such as
the turbine blade, or the whole shaft, a model similar to that used for the stress analysis
can be used, reducing the amount of effort required in the modelling.
2.2 Axisymmetric Models for Design and Stress Analysis of Rotating

Components
2.2.1 Basic Methodology -Illustration using the Turbine Rotor
A) The Design Boundary Conditions The first consideration is to establish the

geometric boundary conditions for the design. These may be fixed or negotiable. As an
example, the shape of the blades on the turbine, in terms of dimensions and angles, is
fixed by the aerodynamic designer. However, the limits to the disc axial length is
negotiable, but a minimum length is desirable such that the overhang of the turbine on the
shaft is reduced. The profiles which are to be designed and those which are fixed are
The shape used for the negotiable profiles will affect the stresses in the rotor disc, and to
some extent, those in the blades. For this particular turbine, the blade geometry was
about a half scale of an existing turbine design. However, due to scaling effects and the
attachment features of the disc to the compressor disc, the original turbine design had to
be modified, especially the rotor disc.
Another important feature is the interface of the disc and the blade approaching the rotor
inlet plane. Ideally, the disc would extend right up to the inlet, forming an axially thin
section called the backplate. In this case, the backplate would be supported by material at
the disc bore and this would increase the loading in a highly stressed region.
73
- Profiles to be Designed
- Proffle Fixed by Aerodynamic Designer
Minimise
Blades - 14
plate-like 3D shap
- -
Attachi
Typc LflSC - Solid
Specified Axisymmetric Body
Figure 2.2.1 The Turbine Rotor Features
Experimental studies by Hiett and Johnston (1963), carried out by progressively cutting
away the backplate of a particular turbine, have shown that the performance penalty
incurred by such action is slight. It is therefore accepted practice to cut back the backplate
since it presents a worthwhile tradeoff of reduced stress against performance penalty. A
cut back backplate is illustrated in Fig. 2.2.2.
Full Disc Weh mM

Backpl
BackI
Blades
Figure 2.2.2 The Cutback Backplate
B) Input to the Finite Element Program Initially, a good disc shape was
estimated from viewing other designs of turbine, and this was divided up into elements of
74
either eight or six nodes. This is shown in Fig. 2.2.3.
8 4
Noded
1ement
6Nodec
Element
- - - -
Figure 2.2.3 The Turbine Disc and Blade Divided up into Elements
Each face of the elements had to be exactly coincident with a face of another element, or
be on an edge boundary. Eight and six noded elements were used in preference to four
and three noded elements since this increased the accuracy of the solution and allowed
curves to be fitted along the element faces.
A finite element package was available at the College, written by PAFEC Ltd - PAFEC
(1987), and this chosen for the analysis because of its flexibility and user friendly
graphics systems. The package is used extensively in industry, and so there was every
confidence in its ability to perform the analysis accurately. Checks were made on the
finite element solution, by analysing problems for which the analytical solution was
known, such as thin discs and rotating thick wall cylinders.
The elements used for the analysis are listed and described below.
PAFEC Designation Number of Nodes Description

36210 8 j Isoparametric element for axisymmetric
36110 6 ' Fourier application.
36620 8 j Isoparametric elements for plane stress,
36610 6 tplane strain and axisymmetric problems.
The elements used for the disc were of PAFEC type 36620 or 36610, which were of
axisymmetric type. The rectangular or triangular shapes shown in Fig. 2.2.3, were
actually solid bodies of revolution about the centreline axis. For the blades, they were
75
approximated by first fmding the thicknesses of a blades at the position of the nodes.
These thicknesses were then resolved into planes perpendicular to the plane viewed in
Fig. 2.2.3 and multiplied by the number of blades, which was 14. The elements used to
represent the blade were plate elements of PAFEC type 36210 in plane stress, in which
the plate thickness was set to average of the nodal thicknesses. The blade model hence
gave approximately the correct loading on the disc, being of the right weight and
dimensions as the 14 individual blades.
Initially, the elements had to be specified in a data file giving coordinates of the nodes,
and the correct order of nodes. The order of the nodes, denoted the topology, had to be in
the correct sequence as shown in Fig. 2.2.3. The analysis could then be run, with the
mesh generated. The mesh could be viewed in another PAFEC program named PIGS
(PAFEC Integrated Graphics System). Inevitably, there were mistakes in the mesh due to
errors in the data file, and the data file had to be corrected and rerun. The included angles
of the elements were restricted to be in the range 45° to 135° for eight noded elements,
and 30° to 120° for six noded elements. PAFEC gave warnings and error messages if
these conditions were not met.
A later version of PIGS allowed meshes to be generated in the graphics mode from which
data files could be created by the program. This cut the mesh generation time drastically
since typing errors were eliminated, and the element shapes could be seen immediately.
Other information which had to be given in the datafile included the material properties:
density, modulus, Poisson's ratio and the loading. The majority of the loading consisted
of the inertial forces due to the spinning of the disc. Another, less important force was the
tension applied, via a bolt, to hold the turbine attachment onto the compressor attachment.
C) The Output of the Analysis : The results of the analysis could be viewed in two
ways. The first way was using the PIGS program which would show the stresses as
contour plots. Examples of these are shown in Figs 2.2.4 and 2.2.5. Different stresses
could be viewed including the principal stresses, the shear stresses, and the Von Mises
equivalent stress. The latter is derived from the Von Mises criterion of yielding given in
Benham and Warnock (1984), shown as equation 2.2.1 : -
2ay=(a1 - a2 )2 +(a2 a3 )2 +(a31 )2 Eq2.2.1
where ap a2 and a3 are the principal stresses and ay is the Von Mises equivalent stress.
The PIGS program would also show the deflections of the structure, exaggerated by a
selected amount Alternatively, output datafiles could be viewed, which gave the stresses
and deflections for each node. In practice, the best method was to use the graphical
output to locate the likely point of maximum stress and then look into the data file for an
accurate figure.
76
iress Values in MPa
A -26
B - 79
C - 132
D-186
E - 239
F - 292
0-345
H - 398
I - 452
J - 505
MaxValue-530
Figure 2.2.4 Hoop Stress Contours for the Disc and Maximum Stress for the Blade
- Combined Centrifugal Loading at 100 krpm and Bolt Tension
iress Values in MPa

A -23
B - 80
C - 136
D -196
E - 248
F - 304
0-360
H - 416
I - 472
J - 528
Max Va1uc. 550
Figure 2.2.5 Von Mises Stress Contours for the Disc and Blade
- Combined Centrifugal Loading at 100 krpm and Bolt Tension
77
D) Using the Results of the Analysis : The stresses in the structure could be
compared to the strength properties, given for the material, and hence it is possible to
determine whether : -
i) The structure would fail due to the ultimate tensile strength being exceeded.
ii) The stresses would be too high to give sufficient low cycle fatigue life.
iii) The stresses would be too high to give adequate creep life.
iv) The stresses would be high enough such that the structure would fracture if
the maximum size of defect allowed in its specification occurs at the point of
maximum stress.
Failure to meet condition i) would automatically imply failure to meet ii), iii) and iv). Low
cycle fatigue may be caused when the stresses increase from zero to maximum each time
the engine was started. The number of cycles that the rotor can withstand must be
compared to the number of engine starts likely to be encountered. The Von Mises
equivalent stress is more pertinent to cases i), ii) and iii), since these modes of failure are
associated with the shear strain energy in the structure, whereas fracture is related to the
maximum value of absolute tensile stress. For this reason, the Von Mises stress was
examined first, followed by the hoop stress (i.e. the stress perpendicular to the element
plane) and then the other principal stresses. The Von Mises and hoop stresses have been
given in Figs 2.2.4 and 2.2.5.
In view of the existing uncertainties in, for example, the maximum defect size and the
engine duty cycle, the assessment had to be simplified and was based on the assertion
that, the lower the maximum stress in the structure, the better the safety factor would be
for the turbine irrespective of whether a particular design just met all the above criteria.
The method employed was to analyse a particular geometry, and then modify it,
especially in the areas of high stresses. The approach was an integrated design and
analysis method and iterated towards an optimum solution.
If the best geometry could not be estimated, then a number of designs had to be tried to
see which one looked promising. This approach was constrained by the following : -
a) The resulting profile definition of the disc was not so complex as to make the
manufacture of the disc either impossible or overly expensive.
b) The profile was a good compromise against other negotiable boundary
conditions such as the position of the attachment.
c) The number of redesign iterations was halted, once it was judged that a
position of diminishing returns was reached.
How these factors are all weighed up is really a matter of engineering judgment since it is
not possible to sensibly quantify these constraints.
78
E) Assessment of the Final Design : Figs 2.2.4 and 2.2.5 show the final
optimised geometry and it is with this that the design integrity and life can be assessed
under the criteria i) to iv). The methods used are fairly simple, but do indicate how the
results of the stress analysis are used, giving a reasonably good answer. However, the
methods would not be sufficiently accurate to use for a commercial engine design.
Manufacturers of turbine components have their own codes of practice to evaluate the life
of components based on many years of experience and experimental work. These
methods are held within companies for reasons of commercial confidentiality.
Another simplification in the analysis has been the exclusion of the effect of differential
thermal expansion in the turbine which will be another source of stresses. Results taken
from Large and Meyer (1981), show that, for the radial turbine analysed there, the bore
stress only increased by 9% over an isothermal disc when the predicted temperature
distribution was added to the disc. This is probably due to the shape of the turbine disc
which is thick and thus able to conduct the heat easily. Large and Meyer (1981) turbine
ran at a much higher temperature, with a T.E.T of 1589K, which would make the thermal
stress more severe than in the present case. The effect of thermal stresses was therefore
excluded in the analysis.
i) Is the Ultimate Tensile Stress Exceeded?

The maximum Von Mises stress of 550 MPa occurs at the bore of the disc. On the blade,
the maximum stress is about 350 MPa. Although the analysis shows a stress of 420 MPa
just above the top of the disc, this would not be present in the actual turbine, due to local
thickening of the blade by a factor of 1.5 to 2, in the form of a web which is not easy to
model. This thickening would bring the stress down to below 350 MPa in that particular
region.
Since the ultimate tensile strength of all metals is dependent upon temperature, the metal
temperature needs to be established at the point of high stress. The most accurate way to
establish this is by carrying out a heat transfer finite element analysis of the turbine. The
temperature of the gas in the blade passages has to be specified, along with other
boundary conditions such as the shaft attachments and heat transfer coefficients
throughout the blade passages. This work has been done by ATh (1987) for the turbine
of twice the size and this analysis predicted temperatures of 450CC at the disc bore
and 600CC at the highest stressed place in the blade, and 700CC in the blade where the
stress was 240 MPa. These temperatures occurred under conditions of maximum power.
The material Waspalloy was initially selected as a likely candidate material for the
turbine, the properties of which were published in Inco (1977). From their data, the
ultimate tensile strength and yield strength were plotted against temperature shown in Fig.
2.2.6. From this graph, the ultimate tensile strength at 700CC, 600C and 450CC was
found to be 960 MPa, 1140 MPa and 1200 MPa respectively.
79
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Tempeitui-°C
Figure 2.2.6 Properties of Waspa2loy for Increasing Temperatures
These properties are for typical properties, and so a reduction of about 10% could be
used as a conservative estimate for minimum properties. The highest ratio of actual stress
to ultimate tensile occurs at the bore with a ratio of 1:2.1. This indicates that the turbine
will actually be able to overspeed to 144 k.r.p.m before failing by overload. In reality, the
bursting speed would be higher than this, smce yielding of the bore would relieve the
stresses in this area, redistributing the load to the rest of the disc.
ii) Is the low cycle fatigue life sufficient?

For the most accurate life assessment, experimentally determined low cycle fatigue data
which gives plots of stress verses cycles to failure should really be used. In absence of
this information, an approximate method can be used to generate this data based on a
method given in Shigley (1972), as shown in Fig. 2.2.7.
1200
1100
1000
700
600
500
400
1 1o 4 io5 106
Log Nixnber of Cycles
Figure 2.2.7 Low Cycle Fatigue Estimation for Waspalloy at 450CC
80
From this figure, it can be seen that the turbine bore would survive in excess of 1 million
cycles of starts and stops of the shaft and hence there should not be any likelihood of
failure due to low cycle fatigue. The cycles to failure graph in Fig. 2.2.7 is actually for
loading going from maximum tension to maximum compressive load, whereas the actual
stress will only go from zero to maximum tensile. The analysis is therefore conservative.
iii) Is the creep life sufficient?

Since the material used for the turbine rotor operates at elevated temperatures, the metal
will grow at a rate depending on the local temperature and stress resulting in a creep
strain. At a certain value of creep strain, the material will fail. The time to failure is called
the creep life. A useful method for determining the effect of both stress and temperature is
the Larson Miller parameter P given in Benham and Warnock (1984), defined by the
following equation : -

P = T (C + log t) Eq 2.2.2
where T is the temperature, t is the time in hours, and C is a constant. The time t can
represent the time for a particular strain to be reached, or the time to rupture. From data
for a similar material to Waspalloy, the Larson-Miller parameter was plotted based on the
time to rupture in hours, temperature in Kelvin, and the constant equal to twenty. This is
given in Fig. 2.2.8, on which the Larson-Miller parameter is shown for a stress of 550
MPa.
1000
100
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Larson-Miller Parameter P x 1000
Figure 2.2.8 The Larson-Miller Parameter for a Similar Material to Waspalloy
To establish the worst case of lowest creep life, the whole range of temperatures and
stresses must be examined as shown in Table 2.2.1.
81
T-K amax 1Qgt t-hrs
1073 26 27000 5.16 146000
1023 132 24600 4.05 11140
973 240 23300 3.95 8 840
923 240 23300 5.24 175 300
873 400 22000 5.20 158660
823 345 22400 7.22 16.5 x 106
773 452 21 500 7.81 65.2 x 106
723 550 21000 9.05 1.11 x iO
673 450 21600 12.09 1.2x iO
623 400 22000 15.31 2.06 x iO
Table 2.2.1 Creep Lives for Various Portions of the Turbine Rotor at the Stated
Temperatures
From the list of creep lifetimes, it can be seen that the shortest creep life is about 9000 hrs
at full power. This compares to a requirement for the generator to last about 5000 hrs.
However, this calculation assumes that the engine will operate at full power for all the
time. Although the duty cycle for the engine is not known, it is unlikely that this would
be the case. For off design conditions, the creep life would be greatly extended due to a
reduction in temperatures and/or stress. Even a fifty degree temperature drop will give an
increase in life of 20 times at the worst combination of temperature and stress for the full
power condition.
iv) Is fracture likely for a given defect size?

The turbine is likely to be manufactured using the casting technique and will inevitably
contain defects due to porosity and inclusions of foreign matter. There are techniques
available, such as X-rays, for non-destructively testing the turbine to discover whether
any defects are present. However, there is a lower limit to the defect size which can be
detected and so it is assumed that the maximum size of defect present is that which just
evades detection. An analysis was performed, Etemad (1988:!), based on a 1 mm defect
being present at the place of highest stress. This showed that the stress intensity factor
was a quarter of the fracture toughness of the material, so that the turbine disc was
unlikely to burst.
2.22 Design and Analysis of the Alternator Keeper Discs
Another type of disc which could be analysed by similar methods to the those used for
the turbine was the alternator keeper disc. An early design of keeper disc for the alternator
is shown in Fig. 2.2.9.
82
Flat vertical face presented
to the magnet rotor
8 pins on a pitch circle
Balancing land
Figure 2.2.9 An Early Design of Alternator Keeper Disc
The disc is axisymmetric, apart from the location pin fittings, and hence can be accurately
analysed using 2D methods. The requirements for the disc are quite unusual in that disc
must present a flat face to the magnets right up to the magnet outer diameter and must not
protrude axially beyond that face. The maximum Von Mises stress allowed was 800 MPa
in 17/4 PH steel. This was the same figure as that used for the compressor impeller - see
later, section 2.3. However, since a flange with holes on a pitch circle had to be placed
directly beneath the face which abutted the magnets, the stress would have to be below
one third of this value at the flange. This was assuming a stress concentration factor of
three for the pin holes. Since the maximum stress on a plane disc always occurs at the
bore, it was necessary to incorporate a feature into the design to relieve the stress at the
flange.
The first design suitab1e for 100 k.rp.m. is shown in Fig. 2.2.10. This geometry was
found after numerous iterations and satisfied the maximum stress criterion.
83
C
Ic I ,u
Figure 2.2.10 The First 100 k.r.p.m Keeper Disc Design
With the flat side requirement it was found that the disc would suffer flowering
displacement, and this would bias the stresses onto that side. Flowering is the term used
to describe a non symmetrical disc distorting axially as shown in Fig. 2.2.11.
— Original Shape
- Deflected Shapeunder Spin
Flowering
flection
aggeration
SI
————a——— p — — — — —
SYMMETRICAL SYMMETRICAL FLAT

FLAT SIDED DISC
IDEAL DISC SIDED DISC
Figure 2.2.11 Flowering of a Flat Sided Disc and a Design Shape to Reduce it
84
Such a disc is rarely encountered for other high speed discs which are, in the main, used
in turbomachines. The geometry was complicated to machine and the critical stress point
lay in the undercut section. This would be difficult to polish and so this design was not
favoured.
Another approach was adopted for a new generation of designs which was based upon
the theory that, if an ideal tapered disc was cut down the middle and joined back to back,
then the resulting shape would not flower as much since internal bending moments would
counteract each other. If the flowering effect could be reduced, then the stress on the flat
face could be reduced. This is also ifiustrated on Fig. 2.2.11. Unfortunately, this did not
bring the benefits hoped for due to the ratio of inner to outer radii on the disc being too
small, but did result in a disc of acceptable stress which could be machined more easily
than the previous one. The design of keeper disc is shown as Fig. 2.2.12, with the
results of the finite element analysis : -
Stress MPa
754 - JI
675 - I I
595 -K'
516 -G'
437 - F'
357
278 -D'
198 -CI
119 -B1
39 -A1
Flange
Containing
Pin Holes
Figure 2.2.12 The Keeper Disc Design Incorporating Symmetzy
This design still suffered from difficulty in manufacture, but led to a new idea of having
the disc made in two pieces with an outer disc interference fitted onto a core piece. In this
way, the undercut was formed easily - see Fig. 2.2.13. Since the outer disc could have a
smaller diameter bore than the outer portion of the design in Fig. 2.2.12, the stresses
were reduced. The symmetry idea was dropped since the amount of stress reduction it
brought was small compared with the extra weight and complexity of this type of disc.
The amount of interference fit between the plug and the core piece had to be computed
85
accurately. If insufficient interference was used, then the outer disc could separate from
the core due to strain growth under the centrifugal load.
Figure 2.2.13 The 2-Piece Keeper Disc Design
If it was too much, then the residual interference fit stress would add to the stresses due
to centrifugal loading and cause overstressing. The limits between the two effects
mentioned were widened by having the interference fit only over the lowest diameter
portion of the outer disc, which would have the smallest strain growth due to centrifugal
load. A 2D axisymmetric model was generated for the outer disc, which gave the radial
growth at the bore, as well as the maximum stresses in the structure. Again, iteration was
necessary on the geometry of the disc, to obtain the lowest stresses. The core was
analysed using thick wall cylinder theory given in Benham and Warnock (1984), which
gave the radial growth. The minimum interference allowed was equal to the difference
between the radial growth of the disc and the core, at the design speed plus margin for
overspeed and safety. The temperature difference AT required between the disc and core,
for a slide fit assembly, was computed using the equation taken from Benham and
Warnock (1984): -

Ar+ 8r=aATr Eq 2.2.1
where r is the disc I core interface radius, a the coefficient of thermal expansion, or a
small clearance of 0.05 - 0.1 mm and Ar the interference fit.
86
22.3 2D Design and Stress Analysis Method as used for the Compressor Rotor
The compressor analysis is described at this point, since it leads into section 2.3,
concerning the 3D analysis. The compressor rotor is a one piece corrosion resistant steel
component comprising of an axisymmetric disc with integral thin curved blades. Views of
the rotor are shown in Fig. 2.2.14.
31.76
Range
Q
-------
Minimise
Dimensions in mm
DETAIL OF BLADE / BACKPLATE INTERFACE
Directi
flowei
Figure 2.2.14 The Compressor Rotor
The shape of the blades and the axisymmeiric hub profile were designed at Rolls-Royce
and the blade thicknesses for the aerodynamic calculations were based upon experience of
previously mechanically sound compressor designs. As with the turbine, the main
variable which could be altered was the axisymmetric profile on the rear face of the disc.
It was prefered to make the axial length of the rotating assembly between the compressor
and turbine rotors as short as possible for reasons concerning shaft vibration, as
discussed previously. The diameter of the central hole could be changed, although it
87
could not be less than 6 mm since it was necessary to pass a tie bolt through this rotor -
see Fig. 1.1.1.
The important difference between the compressor and turbine was the requirement that
the backplate must not be cut back since this would incur serious performance penalties.
It was therefore necessary to make the backplate as thin as possible in order to reduce the
amount of material above the free hoop radius. The result is a disc section whose
stiffness, at the outer diameter, is comparable to the blades and cannot be modelled
accurately without a 3D model of the stnicture. If the blades were to be modelled in 2D,
as for the turbine, then it would be necessary to assume that the blades are absolutely
perpendicular to the disc, and do not bend in the plane of the analysis. The top of a blade
is shown in Fig. 2.2.14, from which it can be seen that the blades are attached obliquely
to the disc. As the disc flowers, the blades will bend in all directions, giving much less of
a stiffening effect than would be modelled by the 2D analysis, which would assume
blades perpendicular to the backplate.
To create a 3D model of the rotor is a substantial task in both datafile preparation and
computer run time. It was therefore decided to get close to the best design by other means
to reduce the number of iterations in 3D.
Although the backplate and blades could not be modelled adequately in 2D, the bore
stress would not be overly affected by what happened in the blades, which were thin and
light, but rather by the shape of the disc. It was therefore considered worthwhile to model
the disc alone in 2D, to achieve a low bore stress and then go onto 3D to model the blade
and backplate stresses. At first, a simple disc was created by plotting the blade hub line
and using a flat backplate. This was meshed as shown in Fig. 2.2.15.
Hub line co
blade p
lat backplate
profile
Bore line
Figure 2.2.15 2D Axisymmetric Mesh for the Compressor Disc
The results of the analysis, taken from the stress data file for an angular speed of
100 k.r.p.m. spin, are summarised in Fig. 2.2.16. From these results, it is clear that the
88
highest stress region is at the bore.
Minimum Stress
=-I5OMPa
r
Max Radiai
=56OMPa
Max Von Mises

=115OMPa
Max Hoop
= 1150 MPa
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Figure 2.2.16 The Main Results from the 2D Analysis of the 'Flat-Back' Compressor
Another area of high stress occurs half way up the backplate. This is due to the flowering
effect causing bending of the backplate. This is highlighted by the deflected shape
diagram and the compressive stresses in the blade hub profile.
Increasing the axial thickness of the disc at the bore and reducing the amount of material
in the backplate should reduce the bore stress. However, removal of material in the
backplate would also weaken this part, increasing the bending stress. The blades would
reduce the bending stress by their stiffening effect and increase the bore stress due to
increased weight loading. The design policy adopted for the 2D optimisation was to
design a shape in which the backplate stress and bore stress would both be minimised,
but the backplate stress could be higher than the bore stress, since it would be reduced by
the addition of blades, whereas the opposite was true of the bore stress. The effect of the
blades had to be estimated since it would not be known accurately until the 3D analysis
was carried out.
After about 15 iterations of different geometries, the best shape was found and used for
the 3D mesh.
By careful design, the maximum Von Mises stress in the bore was reduced by a factor of
almost two. It was found that the effect of blade stiffening was less than that estimated,
and so it was necessary to go back to the 2D analysis for a few more iterations in which
the backplate was stiffened at the expense of increased bore stress. This geometry was
found to be optimal when analysed in 3D, and so no more 3D analysis was necessary.
The results of the final 2D analysis are given in Figs 2.2.17 - 2.2.20. The use of the
results for life assessment is given in Section 2.3.
89
100 000 r.p.m. 100 000 r.p.m.
Stress MPa Stress MPa
A- 35 A- 32
B- 106 B- 97
C- 176 C - 161
D- 247 D- 226
E - 318 E- 291
F - 389 F - 356
G- 459 0- 420
H- 530 H - 485
1- 601 I - 550
3 - 672 3 - 615
Figure 2.2.17a Von Mises Figure 2.2.17b Hoop Stress

Stress Contours Contours
100 000 r.p.m.

Stress MPa
A- -44
B- 36
C - 121
D- 204
E - 288
F - 371
0- 454
H - 537
I - 620
3 - 704
Figure 2.2.17c Radial Stress Figure 2.2.17d Deflected Shape

Contours (Exaggerated)
Figure 2.2. 17a-d - Scalloped Back Compressor Rotor Disc Stresses and Deflected Shape
90
2.3 3D Analysis of the Compressor Rotor
In this section, the principles and basic methodology for undertaking the 3D analysis is
described. The specific details of how the analysis was carried out is outside the scope of
this thesis, being reported by Etemad (1988:1). However, it must be said that this
analysis required three months to carry out and involved extensive dialogue with the
technical staff at PAFEC Ltd to solve the particular difficulties caused by such a large
computation. Three MicroVax workstations, connected via an Ethernet network were
required to process the large files generated during the analysis.
In all finite element computations, the use of symmeuy is recommended to reduce the
number of elements in the computation. The computation time is approximately
proportional to the cube of the number of elements, and so the usefulness of this is
obvious. Another benefit is due to having a much simpler mesh to generate. For the 2D
cases, axisymmetry was used to model a solid body of revolution. For the compressor
rotor, with blades, there are no flat planes of symmetry, as is evident by viewing Fig.
2.2.14. However, a section of disc can be extracted which, if repeated sixteen times, will
form the complete disc. This is illustrated below in Fig. 2.3.1.
The cut lines for the section must contain a complete blade, and it is convenient to have
the cut lines follow the same path as the blade hub line, only rotated around by plus and
minus 11.25° (i.e. one half of a blade spacing). These profiles then have to be connected
to the bore hole to form two sides. The resulting solid piece of disc is named a "skew-
pie" section. The boundary conditions which must be applied to the section are simple in
principle, since each node on the cut surface is restrained such that it moves consistently
with its opposite number on the other cut surface, preserving spatial continuity. In
practice, to do this in the analysis model is quite difficult given the complex curvatures
and large numbers of nodes on the interface. Examples of opposite nodes are given as X
and X' on Fig. 2.3.1.
As a way of validating the model, a simple disc without the blade was created first so that
the results could be compared an analysis of an 2D axisynimetric model The 3D model
was successfully run on the computer and found to agree with the 2D model within 1%.
The blade was modelled using 75 eight noded semi-loof curved shell elements and could
be analysed on its own by restraining the hub line nodes from movement. It was then
added to the disc by extending the root so that it could be embedded into the disc. This
was necessary for compatibility of the two types of element used for the blade and the
disc. The geometry of the backplate now had to be modified to incorporate the profile
designed using the 2D axisymmetric model. As stated previously, a further iteration on
the design of the backplate profile was needed to arrive at the final design.
The 3D disc in the final model contained 150, twenty-noded isoparametric brick elements
and took several hours of CPU time to run.
91
Blade hub line
kplate line
Attachment
- - - - - U
Bore line
Figure 2.3.1 The Skew Pie Cut Geometry used for the 3D Cyclic-Symmetric Analysis
The graphical output of the Von Mises stress is given in Fig. 2.3.2 and the most
important results are given below : -
Maximum Von Mises Maximum Principal Stress

Equivalent Stress
Disc Bore Region 800 MPa 720 MPa
Backplate Region 530 MPa 680 MPa
These results were used for the life assessment of the rotor made in 17-4 PH steel using
material properties given in Armco (1988).
92
I S I I I S I I I I
93
The highest stressed region was at the bore which was estimated to be at a temperature of
less than 2000 C. By plotting the minimum material properties against temperature, the
minimum 0.2% proof stress at this temperature was found to be 885 MPa, and the UTS,
980 MPa. This gave an overspeed margin of only 5% to yield. If the bore did yield as a
result of overspeed, then this would not be serious since, when the rotor reduced in
speed again, the bore stress would be permanently reduced due to material at a larger
radius taking up the load.
The low cycle fatigue life can be estimated, again using the method given in Shigley
(1972), and described in section 2.2. The generated low cycle fatigue graph is shown in
Fig. 2.3.3 along with some experimental fatigue data given in Armco (1988).
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
io
Log Number of Cycles
Figure 2.3.3 Low Cycle Fatigue Estimation for 17-4PH Steel
From the graph, the number of cycles for reverse bending is 14,500 as opposed to a
likely 1000 engine starts. As with the turbine, the loading goes from zero to maximum
stress, from engine startup to full speed, without a compressive loading cycle. This is
therefore less detrimental than fully reverse cycling. However, there will be numerous
cycles of smaller magnitude due to changes in the speed and temperature, which cause
differential thermal expansions. Without a detailed duty cycle for the engine, the
cumulative action of all the changes in stress cannot be calculated, but the safety factor on
life based on engine starts, indicates that the rotor stress should give an acceptable life.
A creep analysis is not necessary for the compressor since the low temperature means that
the material does not enter the creep regime.
A fracture analysis has been carried out for the compressor, based on the presence of a
1mm crack atthe worst position in the bore. With a material fracture toughness of K =
2500 Nmnr 3 a from Armco (1988), the stress required to cause a burst was 2200 MPa
shown in Etemad (1988:!), and hence disc burst should not occur.
94
2.4 Analysis Particular to the Alternator Magnet Disc
2.4.1 The Geometry of the Alternator Magnet Disc
The magnet-holding rotor, shown in Fig. 2.4.1, is the fourth type of disc which has been
analysed using finite element stress analysis. The disc is made up of a number of
components whose individual geometries are not complicated, but the complete assembly
is difficult to model accurately using analytical techniques. The components also have
different material properties. However, the disc does have a cross sectional geometry
which does not change through the thickness of the disc. The principle of the design is to
pre-stress the carbon fibre strength shell by driving a steel plug into the centre of the
assembly. Hence the magnets will not separate from the aluminium alloy core when spun.
The aluminium alloy on the outside of the magnets is there both to cushion the corners of
the hard magnet to prevent it indenting the carbon shell and for eddy current damping
purposes as explained in Fenocchi (1990).
In this section, as with the 3D compressor analysis, the principles involved and
limitations for the different finite element models will be discussed rather than the exact
details of the analysis which are described in Etemad (1988:!).
2.4.2 2D Axisymmetric Analysis of the Alternator Magnet Rotor
The early analysis was done by approximating the structure as a 2D axisymmetric disc to
supplement the analysis done using analytical stress methods. This is illustrated in Fig.
2.4.1.
Carbon Fibre
. _______ Aluminium
on Fibre
iinium
net
iüium Magnet
Aluminium
Steel
- - - -i-- .- . -
Figure 2.4.1 2D Axisymmetric Analysis of the Alternator Magnet Rotor
95
The limitations of this analysis were as follows : -
a) The magnets were assumed to be a continuous annulus which carries hoop

stress and has a total mass greater than the eight segments.
b) The interfaces between the materials were assumed to be bonded so that the
assembly acted as a solid disc, not loading the carbon fibre as in the real
structure.
c) There was no provision for modelling the interference fit in the PAFEC F.E.
software.
d) The method would not model the effects of stress concentrations such as
those of the magnet corners onto the carbon fibre, through the aluminium
alloy.
The analysis did show, however, that the stress distribution in the axial direction did not
vary significantly, and this suggested that a 2D analysis in the plane of the disc face
should be a more appropriate model. Attempts to model a joint which only existed in
compression were unsuccessful. In reality, the magnets would separate from the hub, due
to the strain expansion of the carbon fibre ring. This would most likely result in the rotor
going out of balance, followed by failure of the rotor.
It is now known, to some extent, how to overcome difficulties a), b) and c) by use of the
following : -
a) Use non-hoop carrying elements as done in the turbine analysis and reduce
the magnet density to account for gaps in the magnets.
b),c) If the interference fit is modelled by a pseudo thermal expansion technique,

and separation failure is assumed to occur if the radial stress between the
magnet and aluminium alloy core becomes tensile - see later.
Further work was not done with this type of model due to problem d), and due to the
wedge shape of the magnets which was used for the latest rotor design. This design
could not be modelled at all accurately in a 2D axisymmetric system even with the
changes to point a).
2.4.3 2D Finite Element Models in the Plane oftheDiscFace
Initially, the whole disc was modelled in the plane of the disc as shown in Fig. 2.4.2.
This model does not incorporate the interference fit, and is therefore not a good
representation of the true stresses in the disc. Effectively, the model assumed that all the
parts were perfectly bonded together. However, it does clearly show that there are
significant stress concentration effects due to the segment magnets.
96
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Another two useful points were understood, partly as a result of the analysis. The first
was the cyclic symmetry which was exhibited by the structure, which should be correct
as it was with the compressor rotor. It was therefore decided to model only a
segment of the rotor, by dividing a magnet about its radial plane of symmetry which lay
on a radial plane. Running both models allowed any mistakes in the boundary conditions
for the cyclic symmetry to be discovered and corrected. The second involved the stresses
which were reached in the aluminium alloy. These were much higher than the yield
stress, and hence the aluminium alloy would support more load in the model than in
reality. To overcome this required the use of yielding elements as described later. The
mesh for the cyclic symmetric analysis, for the Mk II design, is shown in Fig. 2.4.3.
Figure 2.4.3 The Mesh used for Cyclic Symmetric Analysis of the Mk H Rotor Design
An interference fit was put in the structure model in the PAFEC - FE package using the
puesdo thermal expansion technique. If a coefficient of thermal expansion was given to
the bore plug, and the plug was raised to a temperature above that of the rest of the rotor,
then this would have the effect of an interference fit The high temperature in the bore
plug would not affect other material properties if these were not specified as temperature
dependent. The amount of temperature rise used was adjusted to give the same growth of
98
the carbon fibre ring as that which the actual rotor could be manufactured to give.
Without the centrifugal loading, the whole of the rotor was in compression except for the
carbon fibre. It was found that the stresses in the aluminium alloy carrier between the
bore plug and the magnets were far beyond yield. This was expected, since large
displacements were necessary to obtain the desired expansion of the carbon fibre. Upon
manufacture, the aluminium alloy was found to yield in the hoop direction but did not
distort significantly in terms of axial thickness or crack. The combination of moderate
tensile hoop and moderate compressive radial stress allowed the material to flow well in
yield since the Von Mises stress was high, but the absolute tensile stress was low. To
model this using the PAFEC-FE package, yielding elements had to be employed for the
aluminium alloy. It was necessary to specify the stress-strain curve for the material for
post yield as a number of gradients which described the work hardening attributes of the
material The stress-strain curve was found experimentally by tensile testing a sample of
the particular aluminium alloy used in the rotor. With these properties, the high stress in
the aluminium alloy in the rotor model was relieved and more load was placed on the
carbon fibre. Unfortunately, it was not possible to view the results of the analysis on the
graphics program PIGS and so stress values had to be obtained tediously by looking at
the output file. Fortunately, the analysis without the yielding elements could be used to
assist in the location of likely areas of high stress.
If the rotor model with the interference fit was subjected to centrifugal loading then the
onset of tensile stresses within the magnets would only occur after a certain speed. The
greater the interference fit, the higher the rotor speed before this took place. The correct
amount of interference fit, as measured by the expansion of the carbon fibre before spin,
could be put into the rotor to ensure that tensile stresses would only appear at or above
100 k.r.p.m. The tensile stresses would not appear in reality but they can be interpreted to
mean that the magnets would start to separate from the aluminium alloy carrier. l'his
phenomenon is shown graphically in Fig. 2.4.4 for the Mk II rotor. The magnet to
aluminium alloy contact stress is plotted against speed with each line representing an
increasing interference fit. As a result of this analysis, it was considered that the Mk II
rotor would only be suitable for operating up to 85 k.r.p.m. since the a 0.279 mm
interference fit was the maximum allowable if the carbon fibre stresses were to be kept
below the 1500 MPa design value. A new design was therefore carried out, based on this
result and further geometry optimisations described in Chapter 7. This design was
denoted the Mk ifi rotor and is illustrated in Fig. 2.4.5.
99
300
20O
e100
10
-100
:E -200
-300
-400
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Speed k.r.p.m
Figure 2.4.4 The Effect of Interference Fit and Spin Speed on the Magnet/Core
Stress for the Mk II Rotor
18.0
75.0 Neodymium
Boron-Iron
magnets
071.5
e Il t11 -
Aluminium
alloy spider
092.0
Aluminium
alloy ring
Steel core
Carbon-fibre
ring
All dimensions in mm
Figure 2.4.5 The Mk ifi Rotor Design
An analysis has been carried out for the Mk ifi design with a diagram similar to Fig.
2.4.4 presented as Fig. 2.4.6.
100
100
-- I I I I I I
_MklIRotorO.084mm...... __.
Interference Fit
/
' 0 --
I
:E /
-,,-------
Mk ifi Rotor- 0.084 mm
•- InterferenceFit
IU200 •---.
.*__-
S..
S..
U300 -
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Speed - k.r.p.m
Figure 2.4.6 The Effect of Interference fit and Spin Speed on the Magnet/Core
Stress for the Mk Ill Rotor
have
This diagram shows that the amount of interference fit required appears tobeen much
reduced compared to the Mk ifi design. This was considered due to the wedge effect of
the aluminium alloy spider, which maintains the interference fit by virtue of allowing a
compressive hoop stress.
Further analysis of the Mk ifi magnet rotor has now been carried out by Pask (1990).
The main findings of his work in this area were : -
a) The carbon fibre ring should be modelled as an orthoiropic structure which

will give stress values at the inner ring diameter of 15% higher than if the
carbon fibre is modelled as an isotropic material.
b) A titanium rather than aluminium would be a preferable material for the

spider since the reduced yielding would mean less interference fit would be
required for the same speed capability.
c) The analysis developed for the Mk II rotor needed further development for
application to the Mk ifi geometry. This was due to the problem of hoop
stress being carried across the magnet/spider interface.
The latter difficulty has not yet been resolved and requires a model which will prevent
tensile stress being carried and allows shear movement across the particular element
interfaces of the magnet and spider. This may unfortunately be beyond the current
capabilities of the PAFEC-FE software.
101
2.5 Shaft and Component Vibration Analysis
The fmite element method is a powerful and well established technique for predicting the
resonant frequencies of complex structures and has been used extensively for the design
of many of the shafts used for rig testing and for the engine and alternator. For the
method, a model of the shaft must be built up of Fourier axisymmetric elements. The
types used were coded 36620 and 36610 for eight and six noded elements respectively as
described in PAFEC (1987). These were the same type of elements as used for the turbine
stress analysis.
The first shaft to be analysed by the method was an existing shaft, delivered with the Mk
I high speed rig. The PAFEC graphics package, PIGS allowed the analysis to be
displayed for each natural frequency, known as a mode, in the form of exaggerated
deformed structures which showed the mode shapes. The Mk I high speed rig shaft
dynamic analysis output is shown in Fig. 2.5.1 overleaf which also shows the mesh
clearly. Since the bearing stiffnesses were not known exactly, the analysis was run for a
number of bearing stiffnesses within the likely range of values expected.
A graph showing the changes in the resonant frequencies with bearing stiffness is given
in Fig. 2.5.2.
100000
Operating
Speed
r.p.m.
10000
1000
ob '7
'0
Bearing Stiffnesses - N/rn
Figure 2.5.2 The Resonant Frequencies for the Mk I High Speed Rig Shaft
The natural frequency of a simple undamped spring mass system is equal to 1 1k/rn where
k is the stiffness and m is the mass - see Beards (1985).
102
IIODEI t 1
I
Model- 91.6Hz(5496rpm)
FRE HZ I
CID 11tt 1 I
I
MQDE =1 2
FREO HZ
-c
_________
Jo I at+ . Mode 2 - 584 Hz (35 040rpm)
P1IJDE - Mode 3 - 873Hz(52380rpm)

FRED 1Z
60T3j*2
Mode 4 - 2370 Hz (142 200 rpm)
Figure 2.5.1 Shaft Vibration Modes for the High Speed Rig Shaft with Test Disc
103
For a situation such as a shaft on bearings, the same will apply except the spring can be
the bearings or the shaft, in bending or torsion. The mass can be the whole shaft or part
of the shaft. Since the entire shaft obviously has the highest mass, and the bearings are
much less stiff than the shaft, the first two modes are the translational and angular modes
of the whole shaft on the bearings. These are often termed the bearing bounce and rock
modes. These modes often do not cause serious problems because the bearings have to
move almost as much as the shaft. Energy can hence be taken out of the system provided
that there is damping in the casings which hold the bearings or in the bearings
themselves. The third critical is usually the worst since the main stiffness component is
due to the shaft stiffness. A shaft could vibrate in this mode with little or no displacement
at the bearings and, since there would not be any means for external damping, such a
shaft would probably fail very quickly. For the shaft shown in the analysis in Fig. 2.5.1,
this is not the case, since the right hand bearing is shown to move a substantial amount
and so this design may be safe to operate, or at least run through that critical speed.
As a means of validating the method a test was performed on the rig shaft by running it
up to speed and detecting the shaft vibration in the form of displacement measurement
with a capacitance probe. The shaft was made to a good standard and was balanced to a
high degree of accuracy. The bearing stiffnesses were measured statically and these
values fed into the vibration analysis model. The details of the experiment are outlined in
Pullen (1988), in which the the first critical speed was predicted with only a 2% eor on
frequency for the most reliable method of bearing stiffness determination.
Analysis has also been performed on the shafts listed below, with the results of the
analysis included in Appendix ifi.
(i) Mk I Alternator High Speed Rig - Overhung 2 x 24 mm thick Mk I Rotors

(ii) Mk I Alternator High Speed Rig - Overhung 2 x 10 mm thick Mk H Rotors
(iii) Mk I Alternator High Speed Rig - Three bearing support 2 x 10 mm thick
Mk II Rotors
(iv) Mk H Alternator Rig -2 x 10 mm thick Mk H Rotors
(v) Turbine Rig Shaft
(vi) Proposed Engine Shaft
The first five of these shafts have been manufactured and run successfully to high
speeds, some up to k.r.p.m. without failure. The analysis has proven extremely valuable
in differentiating between vibration caused by resonances from that produced simply due
to inadequate balancing for the alternator rigs - see Chapter 7. The results of the analysis
on shaft (iii), reported in Pullen (1989), showed that the three bearing system would
result in a number of resonances at the operating speed. Unfortunately, the analysis in
this case, was done after the modification, but nevertheless, it was able to confirm that
the problem was due to resonances.
104
3 DESIGN, MANUFACTURE AND COMMISSIONING OF THE
RADIAL TURBINE TEST FACILITY
3.1 Description of the Turbine Rig Requirements and Available

Existing Facilities
3.1.1 The Rig Functions and Air Requirements
It was necessaiy to construct a turbine test facility which would simulate as closely as
possible the operation of the turbine in the engine. The complete turbine includes the
volute, stator nozzle vanes and rotor as illustrated in Fig. 3.1.1.
- - - -
I AxesofProbeTraversing I
I
r Stator Vanes I
I
- - - - U
or
I
Exhaust
Air Out
Duct
I
- - - -
Voluh
Figure 3.1.1 Turbine Components and Probe Traversing Axes for the Turbine Rig
The rig was required to fulfil the following functions:-
i) To allow the performance of the turbine to be determined experimentally, for

a range of operating conditions with good accuracy.
ii) To determine the gas flow properties within particular places in the turbine
and exhaust to aid future improvements in the design and understanding of
the loss mechanisms.
The former function would allow the results to be used in engine cycle calculations which
would give a more accurate estimation of design and off-design engine performance or
may show that the turbine design requires improvement. The results would also be useful
105
for comparison with the predicted performance for the turbine. The second function was
satisfied by having more instrumentation. This was carried out by having additional static
pressure tappings between the components which make up the turbine, and provision for
the traversing of a pressure measurement probe within the volute and exhaust ducts.
Typical traversing paths are shown in Fig. 3.1.1. The probe must traverse in three
mutually perpendicular axes and for this, a gantry must be provided. Flows within the
stator nozzles and rotor passages could not be examined by these means due to the small
passage height of the nozzles and the rotation of the turbine. This could be done using
Laser amenometry if transparent windows were fitted to the rig to create optical paths to
the nozzle and rotor passages.
In the engine, the design point turbine operating conditions are as follows

Turbine Entry Temperature 1200K

Total to Static Pressure Ratio 4.7: 1

Rotational Speed 100 000 r.p.m.

Gas Mass Flow Rate 0.387 kg/s
The obvious simulation condition to use for the turbine rig would be the same conditions
as found in the engine. However, it was decided to use a much lower turbine entry
temperature of 350 - 390 K, for the following reasons.
i) Instrumentation at the high temperature of 1200 K is very difficult or

impossible due to the material capabilities of the various devices
(thermocouples, velocity probes etc).
ii) The high cost of producing a "one-off' rotor, st.ator and casings in Nimonic
or similar high temperature material.
iii) The cost of heating up the supply air to 1200 K (640 kW at design point
mass flow).
To use a lower turbine entry temperature for rig testing is a widely accepted practice
although this does mean that the Reynolds Numbers at various stations in the turbine will
differ from the high to low temperature case. This will affect the shape of the boundary
layers and the frictional losses for each case since these are governed by the Reynolds
Number. Frictional losses are one of the contributors to the total loss. The boundary
layers in the turbine passages are generally believed to be small, relative to passage
height, due to the accelerating flow and so the effects on the gas flow itself should be
small. The frictional losses in each case will vary but it is not possible to quantify the
effects exactly. However, it can be shown by crude calculations, based on fully
developed pipe flow, that the product of friction factor and dynamic pressure, a measure
of frictional loss, does not vary by more than 20% for the two temperatures, since
106
changes in the various parameters compensate each other. Another approach to assess the
differences between the rig turbine and the actual engine turbine is by using published
correlations for the effect of Reynolds number on turbine efficiency. Two such
correlations were used, with the equation given in Holeski and Futral (1967) predicting
an efficiency fall of between 2.9 % and 3.3 % from the rig turbine to the engine turbine.
A correlation by Hiett and Johnston (1963) similarly predicted the fall to be 3.1%. This
fall in efficiency had to be taken into account, if the turbine test results were to be used
for engine performance evaluation.
With a 350-390 K temperature, it is possible to use materials such as aluminium and
epoxy which are much easier materials to work with. The temperature chosen was as low
as possible to reduce the cost of air preheating but had to be sufficiently high so as not
give sub-zero temperatures in the exhaust and hence avoid ice formation in the turbine.
The temperature drop across the turbine rises with increased pressure ratio, and so the
highest inlet temperature is required for the highest pressure ratio. Another benefit, is the
reduction in shaft speed which is required so that the ratio of blade tip speed to gas Mach
numbers remains constant. Since Mach numbers scale down with the square root of the
temperature, the rig design point speed Nrig will reduce to the following
Nrig = 390 x 100 000 =57000 r.p.m. Eq 3.1.1

I 1200
This reduction in speed makes the shaft and rotor design much easier in terms of stress,
vibration and bearings but the reduction in temperature will also affect the turbine air
mass flow required as shown below.
Mass Flow 390K = (puA39oK at Inlet = (P/390R )x (MI39&4')A = 1200 = 1.75

Mass Flow 1200K (puA)l200K at Inlet (P/l200R )x (Mil200yR)A 1390
since P, R and M are the same and the small variation in y is neglected. The mass flow
required at design point is then 1.75 x 0.387 = 0.677 kg/s.
The air heating requirements can now be calculated based upon this mass flow rate and a
rise in temperature from 290K to 390K :-
= ih {(CpT) - (CpT) } Eq 3.1.2

= 0.677 x ((1.0119 x 390) - (1.0039 x 290)}
= 70kW
The turbine will produce torque on the shaft and this needs to be absorbed with a reaction
torque by providing some means of braking. It was important to establish the value of
this torque so that sufficient braking can be applied at the right speed. The maximum
torque can be calculated by first calculating the maximum power output This can be done
using the equations 1.2.4, 1.2.5 and 1.2.6 with a turbine inlet temperature of 390K. The
107
power absorption requirement is about 80 kW which is equivalent to a torque of 13.4 Nm
at 57 k.r.p.m., found by dividing the power by the speed in radians per second.
3.1.2 Supply Air and Facilities
It was intended to place the turbine rig in a test cell which had already been used for
testing turbocharger radial turbines for several years and so a number of facilities were
already available. A schematic of the test cell facilities is given in Fig. 3.1.2.
Electric Air Cyclone and

Heaters 4" Orifice
Paper Filter
Plate (BS1042)
Howcn
Compressed
Air Supply
Limb Control

Valves Control Emergency

Valve Shutoff
Valve
2 x 3" Orifice
' Plates
To Other Rig
EXISTING AIR SUPPLY
Blanking Plate
Gate Valves
Inner and Outer Limbs
To Turbine Rig
Cooling Water
Regulator Pressure
Gauge
To Rig
Bearings
II IIUIT £VL'..I'.,A
From Rig
Bearings
Electric Oil
Pie-Heater
Figure 3.1.2 Available Rig Facilities for the Turbine Rig
108
A) The Air S ystem : The air is supplied by one or two Howden screw type compressors,
each of which can deliver up to 0.5 kg/s air at a pressure of 60 p.s.i.g.(5.08 Bar
absolute). With pressure losses in the pipework between the Howden and the turbine rig,
the maximum pressure ratio which could be achieved was 4.1: 1, at full mass flow. A
maximum pressure restriction of 60 p.s.i.g. on the settling tank at the Howdens meant
that higher pressures could not be achieved. These restrictions were not known about at
the start of the rig design. This limit meant that it was not possible to achieve the full
design conditions, but conditions were achievable at slightly reduced speed which were
almost equivalent to the design point.
The compressor delivery air is fed through a two stage filter consisting of a cyclone
separator and paper filter. The cyclone filter removes large debris and water droplets.
Water settles to the bottom of the filter and can be prevented from accumulating by
opening the valve of a bled pipe whilst there is air pressure in the system. The paper filter
is a standard large diesel engine air filter, the condition of which needs to be checked
annually, even though this is quite a laborious task.
There are three orifice plates in the system for measurement of air mass flow as evident
from Fig. 3.1.2 and these are discussed in section 3.3.4.
Air heating is achieved by means of an electrical heater stack with three elements, two at a
rating of 36 kW and one at 9 kW, giving a total of 81 kW. This was adequate to meet the
heating requirement specified previously. The temperature is regulated by an Ancomms
DC2000 controller which pulses power to the first element based on the difference
between the temperature set on the controller and that of a particular thermocouple,
selected on a channel on the controller. If the steady state power requirement exceeds 36
kW, then one or two of the other 'booster' elements can be switched in.
The pipework from the heater stack to the rig is approximately 25 m long. The reason for
this long length is that the supply to the rig was branched off from a second rig as an
expansion to the overall facility. This caused two difficulties, the first of which was the
thermal inertia of the pipework. At rig start-up, the hot air from the heater stack was
chilled by the initially cool pipes. If the controller used the turbine entry thermocouple for
feedback, then the heater would overheat since it could not achieve the temperature
required at turbine entry. This problem was overcome by first selecting the thermocouple
at the heater stack exit for control until the pipework was heated up and then the control
could be switched to the turbine entry thermocouple. The pipework was lagged to reduce
heat losses.
The second difficulty concerned leakage losses in the pipework due to the large number
of joints and fittings in the system. Any air which leaked away after the measurement
station would affect the actual mass flow reaching the turbine. The problem had not
become apparent during previous turbocharger turbine testing, since the pressures used
were much lower than those required for this turbine. The majority of the leakages were
109
sealed by remaking joints. It was not possible, however to seal the pipework completely
without major work and so a small leakage mass flow had to be accepted. This flow was
quantified by pressurising the pipework with the turbine blanked off and measuring the
fall in pressure from the time the feed supply was shut off. Since the air volume of the
pipework could be computed, the change in the product of density and this volume at a
given pressure would yield the leakage mass flow as a function of pressure. This is
shown in Fig. 3.1.3.
0.0015
0.0010
0.0005
0.0000
0 1 2 3 4
Gauge Pressuie - Bar
Figure 3.1.3 The Leakage Flow for the Turbine Rig Pipework
From this graph, it can be seen that the leakage at the maximum pressure ratio of 4.1:1 is
0.0011 kg/s which corresponds to 0.16% of the actual turbine flow. This leakage flow is
very small, but could be accounted for later in the data processing.
The cell itself was serviced by large fans, used for supply and extraction of the air in the
cell. This was important so that the turbine exhaust air did not significantly change the
conditions within the cell.
B) The Oil System :- An oil system was available which had been used to supply the
bearings of a medium sized turbocharger - See Fig. 3.1.2. The oil pump generated a
supply pressure of 125 p.s.i. after which the oil was fed into a heat exchanger to cool the
oil. Economy water was used as the coolant, being turned on at the main control panel in
the laboratory and by a valve at the heat exchanger. A regulator could be used to reduce
the pressure to that required at the bearings and to keep this pressure constant irrespective
of changes in oil temperature. The flow from the rig bearings drained into a tank at
atmospheric pressure from where it could be returned back to the pump. A heater was
provided in the oil tank to preheat the oil during rig start up. This allowed the temperature
to be rapidly increased to that which was near to the normal steady state value. The
available flow metering system was found to be inadequate in terms of accuracy and was
modified as detailed in section 3.3.5.
110
3.2 Design and Manufacture of the Turbine Test Rig
3.2.1 Brief Discussion of Available Turbine Test Methods and the Method Chosen
There are two basic methods for evaluating turbine performance which are :-
Type A - Direct Measurement of Torque

i) Electrical reaction torque dynamometer
ii) Fluid reaction torque (oil or air)
Type B - Energy Balance Methods

i) Measurement of energy rise to a fluid(s) used in devices providing reaction
torque
ii) Measurement of energy extraction from inlet to exhaust of the turbine
The devices of type A work on the principle of allowing the shaft bearing housing and
reaction rotor casing to rotate freely about the shaft axis on low friction bearings. The
torque generated in the rotor will equal that on the casings under steady state conditions.
For non steady state conditions, it is possible to relate the rotor torque to the casing
torque by taking into account the angular acceleration of the rotor, established by
recording the speed transient. The torque on the casings can be measured by placing a
force transducer on a lever arm at a known radius.
The first type A(i) has been used successfully for turbine testing at Imperial College and
this device is detailed in Dale (1990). This particular dynomometer has so far been limited
to a speed of 50 k.r.p.m. and works on the principle of eddy current damping. It is only
able to absorb 12 kW and so would not have adequate capacity or speed capability for
testing the S.S.T. turbine. Given the size of rotor required for 12 kW, it was considered
very unlikely that such a device could be built to absorb 80 kW and so this option was
not considered feasible.
The second type A(ii) uses a smooth or vaned rotor mounted on the rotor shaft which
absorbs energy by pumping and viscous shear. The fluid must be constrained to flow
either axially or radially at outlet so that all the angular momentum in the fluid is
converted to a reaction torque on the casings. A reasonably simple version of this device
is to use a standard radial air compressor as the reaction rotor. However, all services to
the bearing housing and compressor such as oil feeds and valves must be connected in
such a way as not to impart any torque on the system. The torque range of the
compressor is also restricted due to the narrow power bandwidth between the limits of
surge and stall. This problem can be overcome by throttling the inlet, but this would
mean having a gas tight frictionless seal of substantial diameter at the compressor inlet
which becomes subatmospheric under operation.
If oil is used for the reaction fluid, then this reduces some of the problems found in the
111
air type device. However, the design of such a dynamometer is not an easy task although
it is now known that such a device exists, having used to test turbines of similar power
and speed of the type required to be tested - Winterbone et a!. (1990). Even if this type of
device was known about at the time of commencing the rig design, it would have been
imprudent to embark on an 'in-house' design and development project just for the
dynamometer due to resource restraints.
It was decided to choose the second type of method, given as B for the test rig and a
schematic of the rig is given in Fig. 3.2.1 along with the measurements which were
taken.

ATMOSPHERIC
OIL SUPPLY COMPRESSED
. ENTRY AIR SUPPLY
Plate
To, Ps
Valve
;- To and Ps
-
I
-
Figure 3.2.1 The Energy Balance Method for Turbine Performance
112
Atmospheric air is drawn into the load compressor via a bell-mouth and the flow rate of
air is measured with an orifice plate type air meter. Both the inlet and exit air of the
compressor may be throttled to change the compressor load, as described in more detail
later on. The feed air for the turbine comes from the compressed air supply, and a heater
and orifice plate air meter are situated in the line. A metered oil supply feeds the bearings.
The reasons for choosing this type of method are given below :-
i) The rig could be based on a commercially available turbocharger with

minimal modification.
ii) Only steady state testing was required and so this did not warrant the
complexities of a direct measurement method which may be used for
unsteady testing.
The energy flows are computed from a knowledge of the fluid temperatures and the
specific heat capacity. For the flows in and out of the turbine, total temperatures and the
total specific heat capacity must be used. Since there are three flows in and three flows
out, only five of the energy flows need to be known to establish the sixth energy flow
since all the energy flows sum to zero. In equation form :-
{Iii([CpTo] 01 - {[ CP TO ]j)},mp ^{th([CpTo] 0 - {[CpTo]}01

{m([CpTo] 0 - {[ CP TO ]j} Wrbjne =O Eq 3.2.1
Measurement of the energy flows in and out of the compressor and bearings is straight
forward but this is not the case with the turbine exhaust flow which requires use of a
traversing probe - see later section 3.3.4. For this reason, the majority of the performance
of the turbine was established using method B(i). For the conditions where the exhaust
traverse was done, this also allowed the performance to be computed by two independent
means. The casings of the rig, open to atmosphere, must be insulated to ensure that stray
heat losses are minimised.
3.2.2 The Rig Rotor andBearings
A) Bearings, Turbine Tip Clearance Determination and Vibration : As stated

in the previous section, the rig was to be based around a commercially available
turbocharger. The type chosen was a Holset H3 unit, with a turbine similar in size to that
being tested. A diagram of the H3 turbocharger housing is shown in Fig. 3.2.2. The
advantage of using a tried and tested design not only reduced rig development costs and
time, but decreased the likelihood of a failure which would almost certainly mean the loss
of the turbine wheeL The only disadvantage concerned the amount of radial play in the
type of bearings used for a mrbocharger this restricted how small the blade tip to shroud
113
clearance could be made. It was essential to evaluate what the minimum clearance could
be and so avoid any possibility of blade rub onto the shroud. The clearance on the
turbocharger turbine was measured to be 0.64 mm whereas it was intended to have a
clearance of 0.25 mm or lower for the actual engine. II 0.64 mm clearance was used,
then this would certainly be safe but would be far from the actual engine clearance.
Piston Ring Seal
rn
0
0
iting Bush
ring Sleeve
Section AA
End
Figure 3.2.2 The H3 Bearing Housing used for the Turbine Tests
The method used to establish the minimum allowable tip clearance was based on
determination of the maximum shaft excursion at the position of the turbine wheel.
Firstly, the maximum radial movement in the bearings (unpressurised) was established by
rocking the shaft from side to side and measuring the displacement 20mm from the
compressor bearing using a dial indicator gauge. Using similar triangles, the actual play
(radial displacement) in the bearings was evaluated. This procedure is illustrated in
Fig.3.2.3. The radial displacement of the shaft at the bearing is calculated from equation
3.2.2 below and was found to be 0.076mm :-
sk Eq 3.2.2
Lb/2 (Le + Lb12)
114
- -I
Figure 3.2.3 Evaluation of the Maximum Bearing Displacements
The next step was to find the maximum displacement at the worst possible place on the
blade resulting from the maximum displacement at the bearings. It was not satisfactory to
assume that the shaft itself would not deflect since the worst scenario would probably be
during shaft resonant vibration. Instead, a fmite element analysis of the shaft was carried
out using the method detailed in Chapter 2, section 2.5. Although the analysis is unable
to give actual displacements, the ratio of displacements is given. Blades cannot be
modelled in the analysis and so the deflected shape diagrams, exaggerated many times,
had to be extrapolated to find the deflections at the blade tip. This is illustrated in Fig.
3.2.4. Since the deflected shape depends upon the beanng stiffnesses, it was necessary
to run the analysis for a range of stiffnesses which would encompass all possibilities.
The floating bush type of bearing, being a journal bearing mounted in a rotating squeeze
film, is complicated to analyse. Using empirical data from a Rolls-Royce confidential
report regarding static squeeze films, the stiffness was estimated to be 1 x 1O N/rn. Due
to uncertainty in the accuracy of this estimate, the range of stiffnesses used in the analysis
was two orders of magnitude above and below this.
115
TU A&1
'I.
Figure 3.2.4 Deflected Shaft Shape and Maximum Blade Tip Excursion
A graph showing the frequency of the vibration modes has been given as Fig. 3.2.5, in
which it can be seen that modes 1,2 and 3may be encountered.
116
1000000
100000
s-
- r.p.m.
10000
1000
100
io 3 ió6 ià
Bearing Stiffness - N/rn
Figure 3.2.5 Resonant Frequencies of the Rotor for Different Bearing Stiffnesses
It was not clear which modes should be chosen as the first and second modes since the
frequencies of these modes cross over as the bearing stiffnesses are increased. At first,
there was concern that there may be problems due to resonances causing vibration which
could cause shaft failure. However, for the commercial turbine shaft, the turbine wheel is
heavier that the aluminium substitute and would have lower natural frequencies. Hence,
the same resonant modes would also be encountered which obviously do not cause
failures. The reason for this is most likely due to the type of bearings which have
excellent damping capabilities.
The worst case for the highest ratio of turbine tip to bearing movement occurs for the first
vibration mode where up to 0.28 mm radial excursion could occur.
The next item to check was the growth of the turbine due to thermal expansion and
centrifugal loading. For most turbine rotors, the radial displacement of the blades due to
centrifugal stress and thermal growth is significant. However, with the cold flow turbine,
the stresses are much reduced and so are the temperatures which can even be sub-
ambient. A 2D axisymmetric analysis of the rotor with blades has been done, using the
methods detailed in Chapter 2, section 2.2. From this, the displacement of the blade tip
has been found along with the stresses in the rotor which are discussed later. The
maximum displacement was 0.025 mm at the inlet with a 0.0015 mm displacement at the
rotor exit for the 57 k.r.p.m. non-dimensional design speed. Thermal growths were
calculated based on a mean temperature along a radial line to the blade tip. These again
were small, being only 0.043 mm at the inlet and -0.010 mm at exit. The temperatures
were based on the design point. The radial growth at the inlet summed to 0.068 mm but
117
this would not affect the tip clearance which is axial. The net change at the exit came to
0.005 mm which is negligible.
Axial growths would occur if there was a temperature differential between the
turbocharger casing and the shaft. The maximum difference between the oil exit
temperature and turbine casing temperature was estimated to be 40°, and so the
differential thermal expansion can be calculated based on the length from the turbine to
the thrust bearing. This is determined from the thermal strain growth as shown in
equation 3.2.2.
e = = a.AT => L = a.T.L =15x10-6 x 40 x 0.100 = 0.06 mm Eq 3.2.2

L
where a is the coefficient of linear expansion and L, the shaft length. This displacement
is very small and would affect the axial displacement rather than the radial which was the
clearance causing most concern.
It was decided to use a 0.41 mm clearance to give a 1.5 safety factor on what was already
a conservative estimate for the minimum radial clearance required.
B) Design of the Turbine Rotor : The design of the turbine rotor blade passages
was determined by the geometry intended for the engine, defming the disc hub profile,
but leaving the attachment to the shaft and other features to be designed. The turbine rotor
was to be mounted on a steel shaft which was designed to be compatible with the
standard bearing housing. The requirements of the rotor where to :-
i) Withstand centrifugal loading at speeds up to 62 k.r.p.m..

ii) Transmit the maximum torque without slippage.
iii) Have provision for balancing correction.
As mentioned earlier, the reduction of speed from 100 k.r.p.m. to around 57 k.r.p.m.
much reduced the stress loading which is proportional to the square of speed. For a given
material density and disc design, the reduction is by 68%. Using aluminium, a material of
lower density than Waspalloy, also reduced the stress by a further factor of 67%,
although the aluminium has a maximum stress limit of about half that of Waspalloy. The
stress reductions made it possible to have a central hole in the disc. It was hence decided
to use a similar attachment method as used for the compressor rotor which consists of a
light interference spigot fit.
The highest stress region in the turbine rotor was situated at the bore. This was computed
in the same fmite element model as used for the strain growth determination. This stress
was well below the yield stress and was hence acceptable.
A diagram of the turbine on its shaft is shown in Fig. 3.2.6, with the features such as the
balancing correction points, the torsional locking devices and the air seal being illustrated.
118
Balancing Land
Balancing Corrections
Compressor Rotor
Semi- circle Section Groove
Steel Spider
Balancing
- Land
Balancing Correction
I ROTOR SHAFT I
Figure 3.2.6 Rotor Shaft Features
The balancing was done in a similar way to that which is described later in Chapter 6,
using a Geisler soft suspension machine. The normal procedure for turbocharger
balancing is to balance the turbine wheel and shaft assembly together by removing
material from two different planes. The compressor is separately balanced about its
central bore and so, when assembled on the shaft in any position, the assembly should be
in balance. The worst case, when assembled, could be the sum of both out of balances.
In the case of the turbine rig, the compressor rotor was modified such that it could be
locked into a unique position. For this reason, the turbine and compressor could be
balanced together, and this gave greater balancing accuracy.
The torque to be transmitted in the shaft reached a maximum of about 15 Nm, which was
about five times the torque normally transmitted in the shaft of a Holset H3 turbocharger.
119
If any slippage occurred between the shaft and compressor or turbine rotors, the results
would be disastrous, causing a very rapid overspeed.
The air seal was added to the rotor, such that the pressure at the back face of the turbine
could be reduced to lower the axial load on the bearings to the same value as the
turbocharger turbine. There was concern that the thrust bearing would not have sufficient
capacity to work in the opposite direction to what it normally experiences. Due to the
amount of clearance needed to compensate for shaft excursions, it was discovered later
that the seal would not work very affectively. However, later examinafion of the thrust
bearing showed that the design had the same thrust capacity in both directions and so the
concern was unfounded.
C) Manufacture of the Turbine Rotor : The turbine rotor was defined as an

axisymmetric profile blank, into which fourteen passages were cut, as defmed by a set of
3 dimensional coordinates. The rotor was, for the most part, manufactured by an outside
company since it was necessary to use a five axis milling machine to cut the blade
passages. After milling the passages, which formed the blades, the blades had to be
polished to remove the machining marks. Unfortunately, there were some grooves of up
to 0.5 mm depth perpendicular to the flow in the rotor exit region which could not be
removed. These may have reduced the turbine efficiency slightly although by what
amount was difficult to assess.
3.2.3 The Turbine Housing
The turbine consists of three basic components : the volute, the stator nozzles and the
shroud. All these components are illustrated on the design scheme given as Fig. 3.2.7.
The design and manufacture of these components is discussed in the next three sections.
A) The Volute : It was necessary to commence design of the volute casings before the
actual duct shape had been defined due to timescales on the project. For this, and other
reasons, it was decided to use an axisymmetric aluminium casing which would be filled
with epoxy, allowing the volute duct to be machined in the epoxy. The aluminium casings
were to be coated in PTFE release agent so that the epoxy could be extracted after the
volute half passages were machined.
The epoxy was made thick enough to accommodate all likely designs of volute. Other
advantages included :-
i) The epoxy could be replaced and a new volute machined if, desired, without
the expense of remachining all the external casing features.
ii) The epoxy volute was much easier to machine and polish than would be one
machined straight into aluminium.
iii) Pressure tapping instrumentation was much easier - see section 3.3.2.
120
U
a.
1 .I
121
The test rig volute was to be designed to simulate the aerodynamic flow in the engine
volute and so it was important to manufacture the flow passage to be the same. However,
one difficulty was the air feed into the rig which came vertically down from the test cell
ceiling. For the engine, the inlet flow would actually come from a 900 bend - see Figs.
1.1.1 and 1.1.2. The flow in this bend and in the feed pipe to the volute would be
accelerating, and so the effects of these different entry conditions were not considered
serious. An entrance duct shape had to be designed specially for the rig and this was done
using the computer package "SWANS" by PAFEC Ltd since the duct needed to go from a
rectangular shape to a circle. The inlet duct is shown in Fig. 3.2.8, with cross sectional
views.
Inlet Plane
Section changin
from rectangular
to circular duct
Section Interfa Casing Joint

profile I level
Cwved sect Imerfe
Inlet profile
Volute start
Figure 3.2.8 The Inlet Duct on the Test Rig Volute
The volute passage shape was designed by the method to be described m Chapter 4, with
the resultant geometric defmition kept as simple as possible. It was, essentially, a surface
generated by circles in which the radius r and centre position, defined by X and R, vary
as simple functions of the azimuth angle around the engine centreline - see Fig. 3.2.9.
This type of definition was preferred to a point coordinate type, since the surface area of
the volute was high and, in some areas, the radii of curvature were small. A point
defmition of sufficient resolution to defme the surface with a 5 mm resolution in the
meridional direction and up to 3 mm around the inlet section diameter would require in
excess of 13 000 points.
122
Volute Axis
Figure 3.2.9 The Volute Passage Definition
if the volute is split into two halves along a plane perpendicular to the engine axis, then
there are regions where not all of the surface can be seen from directly above as shown in
Fig. 3.2.10.
Milling BaU Cutler
Split line
Oveihang
sty,
1/,
2% 1',',
/ / 1,4
EpoxyBase"\'//"
, /
Figure 3.2.10 Overhang in the Volute Half Passage
123
To machine the true surface would require at least a 4-axis CNC mill whereas only 3-axis
CNC milling facilities were available at the College. For this reason, the surfaces were
modified with the "overhang" trimmed off. In practice, this meant that for each volute
half, only semi-circles had to be machined, with the "overhang" being machined off
automatically. The axial position of the split was chosen in such a way as to make the
change in shape of the volute passage minimal. In Fig. 3.2.10, the problem has been
grossly exaggerated for clarity but in reality, the area lost by removing the overhang was
negligible relative to the passage area of the volute.
Since the volute half sections were composed of arcs, a ball type end mill cutter was
selected for the machining. The radius of the cutter was kept as large as possible so that
the machined passage would have the minimum amount of excess material where the
cutter had not passed. It was not possible for the cutter to pass over all the surface since
this would require an infmite number of cutter passes. The maximum radius of the cutter
was restricted by the smallest radius section of the volute which was just below 11 mm
and so a 10 mm cutter was selected.The task of producing the CNC code for the volute
was cathed out by a postgraduate research student as an exercise in CAD/CAM and is
reported in Awan (1990). Various commercially available automatic CNC code producing
packages were investigated, including "DOGS NC" by PAFEC Ltd. but these could not
machine the surfaces satisfactorily. The difficulty, in the case of "DOGS NC", was that
the cutter path did not follow the natural curvature of the surface and left islands of
material. It was decided that a special purpose CNC code producing program would have
to be written, which would allow the cutter to follow the surface curvature. This meant
that each cut would follow the path of a spiral helix, moving in the x, y and z coordinates
simultaneously. Polishing of the remaining machining marks was relatively straight
forward since only small ridges had to be removed between shallow cutter path troughs
which followed the correct surface.
B) The Stator Nozzles : The nozzles were of a complex shape but were two-
dimensional allowing them to be machined all together from a solid aluminium ring using
the 3-axis CNC milling facilities available at the College . The defmition consisted of x
and y coordinates. The vanes were cantilevered from an annular base plate with the the
other sidewall being a plane annular ring which was to be spring loaded onto the nozzles
using an '0' ring seal as shown in Fig. 3.2.11.
124

Sidewall Ring
'Y Ring
Nozzle Baseplate
Figure 3.2.11 The Nozzle Vane Structure and Sealing Mechanism
C) The Turbine Shroud : The turbine shroud consisted of an axisymmetric turned

component which had to match the rotor to give the required axial and radial tip
clearances. The tip profile of the blade was defined by 21 coordinate points rather than a
small number of arcs. For this reason, a CNC machine had to be used for the
manufacturing process. The profile of the shroud is not the same as that of the blade tip
and cannot be made by merely offsetting the cutting tool on the CNC machine by the
clearance value in the x and y directions as illustrated in Figure 3.2.12.
Actual Cutter Cutter Radius In

- -CNCcode
Radius
cY x
Clearance by x and y Offsets I Clearance by False Tool Size
___________________
Figure 3.2.12 Creation of the Correct Profile for the Turbine Shroud
However, a 'trick' can be played on the machine to avoid having to generate new profile
coordinates. If a false cutter radius in used for the CNC code generation, carried out by
the CNC machine processor, then the coordinates of the blade can be used. The
difference between the false and actual cutter radii is then the same value as the required
clearance.
At first, it was attempted to machine the shroud using a copy lathe and CNC milled
template. This was unsuccessful since the profile was asymptotic to a line of constant
axial distance near the region of the rotor inlet This caused the stylus of the copy lathe to
slip.
125
Fortunately, a CNC lathe became available but the controller was limited to cutting simple
lines and arcs. The way of defining arcs on the controller was extremely difficult and so it
decided to use a large number of straight lines with each line being no longer than 0.5
mm. More coordinates had to be generated for the lines from the original data and this
was done using the "DOGS" software by PAFEC Ltd.
•was.
After manufacturing the shroud, it,considered prudent to check the profile relative the
turbine rotor profile. This was done by setting up the shroud in a four jaw chuck on a
lathe. The rotor was mounted on a spigot which was held and aligned in the tool post.
The rotor was moved inside the shroud, until the required 0.042 mm clearance was
achieved at the rotor inlet position. The clearance was then checked along the curved
profile with the use of piano wire feeler gauges, made from steel guitar strings.
32.4 The Compressor- Rotor, Intake Ducting and Throttling Valves
A) The Rotor The duty of the compressor, as stated previously, is to absorb the
power developed by the turbine. From section 3.1.1, the maximum power absorption
required from the compressor was shown to be about 80 kW at the non-dimensional
design speed. This power level at the particular speed determined the minimum size of
compressor wheel. However, if it was made too large, it would absorb too much power,
and not allow testing to be done at lower pressure ratios. This is due to the physical limits
on how much the power absorption can be reduced, which is discussed later in this
section.
The power absorption of the compressor depends on the product of the mass flow and
the temperature rise of the air as shown in equation 3.2.1. The maximum mass flow of
the compressor is determined by the actual rotor inlet area, normal to the vane passages
and the rotor speed, whereas the temperature rise will mainly depend on the rotor exit tip
speed. If a characteristic plot of mass flow against speed and pressure ratio is known,
then this will allow the mass flow to be determined for the speeds at which the turbine is
to operate. The power absorption can then be determined approximately from the
standard equation for a centrifugal compressor given as equation 3.2.3.

=,LU2 Eq 3.2.3
where W is the power, th the mass flow and U is the rotor exit blade tip speed
The constant i is mainly present due to the slip factor and can usually be taken as around
0.85. Unfortunately, for the initial running of the rig, the compressor chosen would not
achieve the power absorption requirement. This compressor was the 100 mm diameter
unit, fitted as standard to the H3 turbocharger. This compressor is a good match for the
126
turbocharger turbine operating at a turbine entry temperature of around 1000 K and up to
100 k.r.p.m., but could not absorb enough power at the lower speed of 57 k.r.p.m...
The absolute power absorption reduces as a square law as shown in equation 3.2.3, and
the mass flow reduces approximately as a linear function of speed. The reduction of
power absorption is hence a cube law with the value at 57 k.r.p.m. being a fifth of that at
100 k.r.p.m.. A larger rotor was hence fitted which would give greater mass flow and
temperature rise. For this particular rotor the inlet area was greatly increased as well as
the exit diameter.
To enable the new rotor to be fitted, it was decided to modify the existing compressor
volute housing rather than fit a new housing which would not be compatible with the inlet
and exit ducting, nor the bearing housing. This involved machining a new shroud profile
in the housing which had to be canied out using a manual lathe since the CNC lathe was
unavailable at the time. Having bored out the inlet to the conect diameter, material was
gradually removed using a hand held cutter, whilst using the rotor as a template. The use
of engineering blue revealed the high spots. The method, although crude, worked
surprisingly well. The profile was not required to be very accurate since a nominal 0.5
mm clearance specified. Such a large clearance would reduce the efficiency but not the
power absorption capacity.
B) The Inlet Duct and Throttle Valves : The intake duct and throttle valves are
used for the purpose of reducing the load of the compressor so as to achieve different
operating conditions for the turbine. The power absorption is essentially controlled by
reducing the mass airflow. It is not possible to change the specific power, i.e. the
temperature rise, since this depends on the rotor exit tip speed. The setup is illustrated as
Fig. 3.2.13.
The inlet air enters via a bell-mouth to the orifice plate according to the geometry
requirements of the British Standard (1984) for orifice plates. The inlet is protected from
blockage by a mesh arranged so as not to disturb the flow into the bell-mouth. This was
to prevent the rapid overspeed of the rig, should any material block the flow of air to the
compressor. The inlet air can be throttled by using a remotely controlled butterfly valve
before passing through a 900 bend. The bend was only necessary due to space restrictions
in the test cell. The settling chamber was required to take out any flow disturbances
resulting from the bend. It consisted of a plenum chamber which contained aluminium
honeycomb section and fine gauze to stop any particles from entering the compressor.
At the exit of the compressor was a duct in which was housed another butterfly valve,
controlled remotely using a Bowden cable linkage. During rig commissioning, it was
found necessary to duct the air leaving the exit duct with metal piping away to extraction.
This was due to the problem of hot compressor air heating up the test cell and smoke
which, under certain conditions, was given off from the compressor duct.
127
Remotely
Atmospheric Air Intake
Controlled Butterfly Throttle
Motor . Valve
k Orifice Plate
BS 1042
900 Pipe Bend
Bell Mouth and

Protection Mesh
Flow Sraightener
Settling Chamber
Exit Air
Cable Controlled
Exit Throttle Valve
I
Compressor
Figure 3.2.13 The Compressor Inlet Ducting and Throttle Valves
The smoke problem was found to be caused by oil seepage past the compressor oil seal
and into the compressor air flow as oil mist. The high temperatures which the compressor
exit air reached, caused the oil mist to vapourise further, and burn in some cases. There
was concern that the oil seepage may have noticeably affected the results of the tests but
this was considered unlikely since the oil level in the the tank did not appear to go down
throughout many hours of testing, indicating that the leakage oil flow rate was negligible
in comparison with the inlet oil flow rate.
Further consideration of the oil seal leakage revealed that the seal will only be effective if
the pressure behind the rotor is greater than the bearing chamber pressure, which is
vented to atmosphere. Under the conditions for which the compressor was designed to
operate, this will always be the case. However, in the rig operation, the pressure balance
goes the opposite way when the exit throttle is quite well opened or if the inlet valve is
partly closed. Although the compressor exit pressure is always above atmospheric, the
rotor exit static pressure may be well below this due to the high velocity of the air at this
station. As a general rule, the power, i.e. the mass flow, should be reduced by first
closing the exit throttle up to the surge point, and then closing both the inlet throttle and
exit throttle together. In theory, the limit by which the mass flow can no longer be
128
reduced would be where the compressor inlet pressure falls beyond the point where
atmospheric pressure cannot be reached at the exit. This will cause surge, whatever is
done with the exit valve. However, a different limit was reached before this point, and
this was where the mass flow was too low to cool the compressor casings which
conducted heat from the volute and the inlet air was heated up. This caused the exit air
temperature to rise further still, and before long, a runaway situation developed. The
range of power absorption available is given in Chapter 5.
3.2.5 The Traversing Gantry
As specified in section 3.1.1, it was necessary to provide a traversing mechanism and

support gantry for the probe for the two types of flow investigation shown in Fig. 3.1.1.
A traversing mechanism was already available, bought specifically for the purpose of
remotely traversing small probes. This mechanism, manufactured by 'Time and
Precision', is illustrated in Fig. 3.2.14. The probe is mounted onto the mechanism by a
collet. This collet was found to have insufficient purchase on the probe to prevent
slippage and so was modified by using a locking pin and clip. The translational
movement and rotation were controlled by stepper motors with a resolution accuracy of
0.0125mm and 0.02°respectively. A ball lead screw converted the translation axis stepper
motor rotation to linear drive. The rotary position could be determined by the indices
provided but linear positions could only be checked, if necessary, using vernier callipers.
Information concerning the actual probe is given in section 3.3.4. The traversing
mechanism had to be supported by a rigid gantry due to the cantilever type of mounting.
The gantry was to be used for both the volute investigation, and the exhaust traverse.
The first of these applications is illustrated in Fig. 3.2.15. Here, it was necessary to
move the traversing mechanism radially and rotate it around the axis of the rotor shaft, so
as to gain access to all the holes into the volute. It was essential that the probe be aligned
accurately with the volute casings to obtain measurement precision and prevent seizure or
snagging of the probe during entiy to the access holes. For this purpose, adjusting bolts
and locknuts were provided to allow the gantry height and inclination to be set true with
the volute casing. Dial indicator gauges were used in setting the gantry true.
The rotary movement was provided using a large diameter rolling ball bearing for
precision and low friction. The motion was driven remotely by an DC electric motor via a
chain and sprocket which was adjusted to eliminate any backlash. The motor was
controlled using a variac to alter the input voltage, and a switch for direction.
The radial motion was achieved using a special purpose slider, based around ground steel
rods and linear ball bearings to give a low friction, precision device designed and built by
Pask (1989). The position was adjusted using a key to turn a screw thread with backlash
eliminator. Remote operation was not required for the volute investigation, since the rig
129
had to be run down each time a new hole was traversed to allow the sealing plugs to be
swapped over.
pper Motor
POrti(
Prc
Pointer
Locking Pin
Angle
Index Translation Stepper
(Course) , Motor Inside
Angle
li
(Fine)
Figure 3.2.14 The Traversing Mechanism
130
It was necessary to use a non axisymmetric exhaust for the volute tests, to allow the
traversing mechanism to get to a low enough radius for access to some of the volute
access holes.
Position Adjustment Key

Gantry Roller
Ball Bearing
'1T' TraveTser Mechanism
Probe
Access Hole
Ground Shders
Curved Plastic Exhaust Pipe

Height Adjustment Bolts
RIG BENCH
Chain and Sprockets

S%
/ , Curved Plastic Exhaust Pipe
Electric Motor Driver
cx
Figure 3.2.15 The Gantry in use for the Volute Traverse

The application of the gantry for the exhaust traverse is illustrated in Fig. 3.2.16. The
probe had only to traverse down one hole, and so only rotary motion was required.
When the gantry rotated, the whole exhaust pipe also rotated about a plain greased
bearing, which was able to seal against the very low pressure differential between
atmosphere and the exhaust. Rotation of the exhaust would not affect the turbine
131
condition, since it was a precision machined component which was aligned accurately
with the turbine casing. The rotation had only to be done between two positions, at 90°to
each other. For this reason, it was possible to simply place a micro-switch at each of the
two required positions, which would cut the motor when it reached position. The
positions were checked using a pointer against angle reference markings on the large
gantry bearing.
Vertical Position
Micro-
Switch
Horizontal Position
Horizontal Arm
with Slide Adjustment
Aluminium
Beam Ann
Gantiy Roller
Ball Bearing
Support SPider%<
174mm 2 x Rotor Exit 0

Height and Angle
Adjustment Bolts
RIG BENCH
Figure 3.2.16 The Gantry in use for the Exhaust Traverse
132
3.3 Control and Instrumentation
3.3.1 BriefDescription of the Control Facilities
Operation of the rig is primarily controlled by the main control valve. There is no
pressure regulation device, and so the valve needs careful adjustment manually to obtain
the required pressure at the turbine rig. The valve is controlled by a Linak servo motor
whose position is determined by a rotary potentiometer knob. There was substantial
backlash and stiction in the servo motor, and so it was often necessary to juggle the valve
up and down to get the required pressure. Fortunately, the supply pressure of the
Howden compressors was steady, which prevented drift, once the operating condition
was reached.
The two other servo controlled valves could also be used and this was necessary to
prevent uneven mass flow rates in the two limbs. If this occurred, then the inlet air to the
turbine became non uniform due to differential cooling in the limb pipes.
Temperature control was carried out using an Ancomms controller, described earlier in
section 3.1.2.
If the rotor was fitted to the rig, then it was necessary to control the shaft speed for a
given turbine inlet condition. This was carried out manually, by adjusting the load of the
compressor ( see section 3.2.4), whilst observing the speed given in r.p.m. on a digital
meter. Speed control could be carried out precisely, within a tolerance of± 100 r.p.m./ at
a speed of 50 000 r.p.m. subject to the accuracy of the measurement. The speed
measurement device is described in section 3.3.4.
The oil flow rate and oil inlet temperature were not controlled apart from the use of a
pressure regulator, set at 75 p.s.i. (5.1 Bar g) and manual adjustment of the cooling water
supply, if necessary.
3.3.2 Pressure Measurement and Calibration
A) The Measurement System The system used for pressure measurement is

illustrated on Fig. 3.3.1. Pressures can be measured as the differential between two
sources, the latter source being atmosphere, if gauge pressure is required. To obtain a
differential pressure, the connector hoses must be placed with one in each side of a
channel in the 24 channel Scanivalve DSS 24C Mk 3 unit. The 64 channel switcher unit
was designed at Imperial College and used Norgren Redex pneumatic valves. It could
only be used for measurement of a pressures relative to one particular chosen pressure.
This was advantageous in many cases, such as when it was required to measure a large
number of static pressures relative to the turbine inlet pressure. To use channels in this
way on the Scanivalve required feeding the turbine inlet pressure individually to the other
side of each channel via a multiport manifold.
133

Tmmduce
58b
Pneumatic
MeL[ H.P Switches
Selector
+12 Switch
Low I High
SCAN1VALVE
0 0000 00000
01 02 03 04 05 01 02 03 04 05
0 0000 00000
06 07 08 09 10 06 07 08 09 10
0 0000 00000
11 12 13 14 15 11 12 13 14 15
0 000020

17
0000020
16 17 18 19
16 18 19
0 0000 00000
21 22 23 24AIJX
21 22 23 24 AUX
64 CHANNEL SWiTCHER UNIT

Channels 0 to 63
Figure 3.3.1 The Pressure Measurement System
Channels on the Scanivalve and 64 channel switcher were selected using incrementing
and reset buttons remotely on the control panel.
There was a choice of two ranges of transducer which could be selected to measure the
pressure differential of the chosen channel, these were :-
High Pressure : Druck PDCR 23D 12 Volts±35OkPa

Low Pressure : Druck PDCR 22 12 Volts ±35 kPa
The default setting was to make measurements using the high pressure transducer. If the
pressure was below 35 kPa, a manual, non latching, selector switch on the panel could
be used to select the low pressure transducer. Care had to be taken not to over pressurise
the low pressure transducer by selecting it by mistake during high pressure measurement
as this could damage the transducer. The output of the transducers were fed through
134
Fylde 492 BBS Mini Balance bridge conditioners and Fylde 351 UA Uni Amp
amplifiers to finally give a display in volts on a -10 to +10,4 1 12 digit Digital Voltmeter.
B) Calibration : Calibration of the transducers was carried out using water and
mercury manometers and was found to be linear in the required pressure ranges. This
allowed the voltage readings to be converted easily with a simple linear equation.
Attempts to use a dead weight tester for calibration proved unsuccessful since
inconsistent results were obtained. Two 3.5 m manometers had to be constructed
specially for the calibration and these incorporated a perpendicular straight edge, mounted
on linear ball bearing slider mechanism which would allow accurate measurement of the
manometer heights against a metal scale. The slider was extremely useful, given the
height of the manometers which could have made measurements difficult.
Compressed air from a cylinder was used to provide pressures up to 5 Bar and isolated
during each reading. Any fall in the manometer heights exposed any leakages in the
system immediately. The calibration was carried out with both increasing and decreasing
pressurisation which gave the same results apart from a very small offset. The calibration
was linear in both cases within the small error expected from the reading of the
manometer. These results increased confidence in accuracy and consistancy of the
pressure measurement system.
C) Manufacture and Connection of Pressure Tappings : All pressure tappings

were connected using 3mm OD flexible hose. All the fittings on the Scanivalve were
standardised to accommodate this size. Numerous types of hose were tried, and PTFE
being found to be the best material in terms of ease of use and sealing ability. However,
this was expensive to use given the large numbers of pressure tappings and so a nylon
Portex type 8001200/325/100 was used instead.
The fixed total pressure tapping at the turbine inlet consisted of small diameter
hypodermic tube, bent at 90° to face the flow direction. All static pressure tappings were
made by drilling small holes perpendicular the duct surfaces. For the volute, this was
done by holding the casing in a universal vice, and allowing a ball bearing to roll inside
the volute half section. The coordinate position of the hole was previously located using a
CNC milling machine with a sharp pointer to indent the surface lightly. When the ball
bearing rested over the hole, then the local surface would be horizontal and the drill
would go through perpendicular to the surface. For the volute, the drill diameter used
was only 0.5 mm. Larger diameter holes were then drilled from the other side of each
epoxy half casing to connect up to the small holes. The larger holes were then connected
to tubes using tubular fittings for each tapping and then onto a bank of connectors fitted
into each of the aluminium volute pressure casings.
D) Position of Pressure Tappings : All the pressure tapping locations of

measurement are shown in Figs. 3.3.2, 3.3.3 and 3.3.4. Coordinate positions for the
135
tappings shown in Fig. 3.3.4 are given in Appendix VI.
D1 Static
Df2
Tapps 4 Static Averaged 4 Static Averaged
Orifice 4 Static Averaged 4 Static Averaged

Plate
Statics Statics _____

1 Total
Valve
Averaged Averaged
it Orifice
Plate
Dand
D12 Tapps
----

4 Statics 4 Statics
Averaged Averaged
16 Nozzle Taps
115 Static Taps
Figure 3.3.2 Pressure Tapping Locations for the Turbine Rig
Where four tappings were made in a pipe, these were spaced at 900 intervals to give a
mean pressure, should there be any circumferential pressure distribution. The positions
of the nozzle tappings were indexed relative to the nozzle vanes so as to give good
coverage of the gap occupied by one nozzle circumferentially. The tappings were also
spaced around the volute in four circumferential positions at about 90° intervals.
For the volute, the pressure tappings were arranged to give extensive coverage of the
surface. Where possible, five tappings were used for each measurement station, which in
turn were spread evenly around the diameter of the volute section. The position of the
probe access holes often dictated the place of some of the tappings which had to be placed
midway between the holes. For the volute sections of small diameter, fewer tappings had
to be used due to the physical size restraints.
136
13.01450 33 NozzleTapping _________________
Planes Relative Plane Inst. Location
toNozzleinlet 1 01 &05
2 02&06
3 (13&U7
4 04&08
450
U •
N
N
I TAPPING PLANES RELATIVE

I TO THE VOLUTE START
O302°
Volute
Start
150
A)
207.5°
1A0 ()
Figure 3.3.3 Nozzle Static Pressure Tapping Locations
137
KEY
0 Traversing probe hole
(> Static pressure lapping
0-23 Station Numbers
20 19 18
17
2 85
1 244 243 242 207 19181 87
201 6
163
23L 2 2 2 I
7162
I 234W / 6
2\
I
.-.L1
07 08
2i
232,
23
\
\ \ I/ / / 6568
69
5
157
Ok / 15 14 14
O3 14: 142
146
flI 310 JI 148
3
137
138
1:
122
&fl 2
/1
/ /
I\\ [ 9J 128
12
I \ ioiaijI 6
4 4'. / / i \ IiZJ02I
11'7
U.)
/ Sij\ -
j63
67
;-
fl 8
'p 7
Figure 3.3.4 Volute Static Pressure Tappings and Traversing Probe Hole Locations
138
3.3.3 Temperature Measurement and Calibration
A) The Temperature Measurement System : Temperature measurements were

carried out using E-Type thermocouples which were read using an Inlab interface unit
connected to a BBC microcomputer. The signal was registered at the computer as a
number of bits with a range of 0 to 4095. The signal was configured to give a
temperature range of 0 to 190 CC which gave a resolution of 0.05CC.
Thermocouples were placed at the positions shown in Fig. 3.3.5 with more
thermocouples used where there was a likelihood of a non uniform temperature in the gas
flow. For example, the inlet to the compressor should be uniform in temperature,
measured using two thermocouples, whereas this may not be the case for the compressor
exit, for which four thermocouples are used.
Turbine Orifice x 1
Turbine Inlet x 2
---
Turbine Exit x 2
Figure 3.3.5 Locations and Numbers of Fixed Thermocouples
For gas temperature measurement, it was necessary to use the exposed tip type
thermocouples to minimise conduction errors. Thermocouples placed in the turbine
exhaust were there to assist in running the rig rather than for performance measurement
apart from their use as a reference temperature for use in the probe traversing - see
Chapter 5, section 5.3.
The thermocouples used for the oil temperature measurement were of the shielded type
139
and were placed in the oil pipes as shown in Fig. 3.3.6.
Oil From Bearing Housing
Oil
Inlet
Thermocouple Drain
Tank
Figure 3.3.6 Thermocouple Positioning for Oil Temperature Measurement
Oil inlet temperature measurement was straight forward, since the oil pipe was full of oil.
The tip of the thermocouple was not placed too close to the bearing housing to avoid
picking up conduction heating of the oil from the bearing housing.
At the exit, the pipe contains a mixture of oil and air, since it is vented to atmosphere. For
this reason, an insulated collector bath had to be used so that the thermocouple would be
fully immersed.
B) Static Thermocouple Calibration Calibration was initially carried out using

the two temperature reference points of freezing and boiling water. The freezing point
was obtained by using a distilled water/ice bath contained in a vacuum flask. The boiling
point was achieved by continuously boiling distilled water in a conical flask using a gas
flame and placing the tips of the thermocouples just above the surface of the liquid.
Moving the height of the thermocouple tips up or down by 2 or 3 mm did not affect the
readings indicating that the temperature was uniform around the place of measurement in
the flask. The thermocouples were calibrated individually, all with the same extension
leads to be used in the actual experiments. Plots of thermocouple reading in bits were
plotted against temperature and linear conversion equations were derived. This allowed
the temperature to be displayed directly on the BBC computer by modifying the display
software.
Later on, a disparity of 1CC, at room temperature,was noticed between the readings
shown on the computer, and those shown on a Comark digital meter before any testing as
done. At first, it was thought that the meter was inaccurate but a check using an accurate
thermometer, of resolution 0.01°, revealed that the temperature measurement displayed by
the computer was incorrect. For this reason, the calibration was carried out again, but this
time a thermometer and thermocouples connected to the meter were also placed into the
140
freezing and boiling water references. The thermometer and meter read the correct
temperatures and so it was assumed that these would be accurate to use to calibrate the
computer measurements. This was done by placing the thermocouples and thermometer
into an insulated water bath at temperatures between 00 C and 1000 C. Quadratic
correction factors were required to correct the computer measurements.
For temperatures in the range 100 - 190°C, those therrnoc4ouples expected to encounter
these temperatures were calibrated relative to both an E and a K type thermocouple
connected to the Comark meter. The accuracy of the meter was claimed to be ±0.10 C,
which appeared to be valid given the calibration checks done in freezing and boiling
water.
The maximum error in temperature measurement was estimated to be 0.20 C based on the
worst case of meter error plus the resolution of the reading on the computer readout to
one decimal place.
D) Determination of the Thermocouple Recovery Factor : The thermocouples

placed in the air streams would not measure total temperature, but something in between
total and static. It is important to determine the actual total temperatures from the
measured temperatures, and this can be done, if the recovery factor r is known, along
with the gas Mach number. The recovery factor as defined in ODoebelin (1975) : -
r = Tmeasured - Tstatic Eq 3.3.1

Ttotal - Tstatic
The recovery factor was not known and so had to be determined in a controlled
experiment. A calibration wind tunnel was used in which air, at a measured total
temperature, was accelerated isothermally to a known Mach number. A thermocouple
placed in the flow gave a temperature reading which was used to evaluate r. More details
of the wind tunnel are given in section 3.3.4, concerning probe calibration. The results of
the calibration are shown in Fig. 3.3.7.
It can be seen that there is appreciable scatter at low Mach numbers which may be
attributed to errors in measurement, since the difference between the measured and total
temperatures is small relative to the sensitivity of the thermocouples. However, in this
range, the correction due to velocity effects is very small and so this is not significant.
For the higher Mach numbers, a value for r equal to 0.84 appeared to be the best fit to the
data and this was used for the performance calculation. It was necessary to evaluate the
Mach number in the ducts so that the measured temperatures could be compensated for
the velocity affects. This was done by evaluating the velocities based on the mass flow
rate, gas density based on the measured static temperature and the duct areas given in
Fig. 3.3.8.
141
1.0
0.9
U
0.7
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Gas Macb Number
Figure 3.3.7 Recovery Factor Calibration for the Thermocouples
12mm 12mm
1200
Compressor Exit
E
E
Turbine Inlet
Figure 3.3.8 Duct Areas and Thermocouple Positions
142
The equation used for the calculation is the mass continuity equation:

th = puA Eq 3.3.2
The positions of the tips of the thermocouples are shown in Fig. 3.3.8, for completeness.
The turbine inlet and compressor inlet flows were assumed to be aligned with the ducts
but for the compressor exit, this was not valid. A substantial swirl velocity component
was imparted into the flow due to the geometry of the volute as shown in Fig. 3.3.9.
Eir slot
Figure 3.3.9 The Compressor Collector Volute Geometry
The ratio of swirl to axial velocity, near the volute wall, can be approximately calculated
at the exit of the volute since it is simply the ratio of the entry slot area to the volute exit
cross sectional area. Fortunately, it is independent of mass flow being a function of
geometry only. The flow angle is then the arctan of the ratio of these areas and was found
to be 43.4°. After completing the turbine testing, the compressor exit pipe was examined.
Slight abrasion and dirt marks could be seen inside the pipe at a particular angle, with no
sign of fanning of the lines. This gave further indication that the swirl angle was
constant It was possible to measure the swirl angle by placing celluloid in to the pipe,
and tracing an abrasion line. When the celluloid was unfolded, the angle could be
measured, and was found to be 42°. However, the thermocouples were placed a distance
into the duct as given in Fig. 3.3.8, and it was not clear how the swirl angle would vary
within the duct To establish this, a device was made, which consisted of a 0 1mm
stainless steel tube onto which paper pointers were attached as shown in Fig. 3.3.10.
Rapid curing epoxy was placed between the outer stainless steel tube and the paper
pointers such that the pointers would stay in position once the epoxy cured due to the heat
from the compressor air. The inner stainless steel tube was fixed from rotating and
slightly bent to prevent the outer tube from rotating relative to it..
The result of the test indicated that the swirl angle varied linearly across the duct and so a
linear variation was used to determine the local swirl angle at each thermocouple.
143
Inner Stainless
Steel Tube
Outer Stainless
Steel Tube Coated
in Rapid Cure Epoxy
Figure 3.3.10 Determination of the Compressor Exit Swirl Angle Distribution
3.3.4 The Wedge ProbeDescription, Calibration andAccess Holes
A) Probe Description : For the flow survey of the volute and the turbine exhaust, it
was necessary to use a probe which would enable gas velocity and temperature to be
determined. An existing wedge probe was available, designed and built at Imperial
College, which would measure gas velocity but not temperature. For this reason, a
thermocouple had to be added by carefully slotting the probe down its length, and feeding
the lead wires in. The thermocouple was secured using epoxy at the tip, being placed
below the plane of velocity measurement by necessity. A diagram of the probe is given as
Fig. 3 3.11. Measurement of the pressure differentials between thetappings was sufficient
to determine the velocity magnitude and direction, since the probe calibration was known.
Other features on the probe included a reference pointer to determine the setting angle of
the probe, and an adjustable stop to prevent damage, should the probe be accidentally
traversed too far into the duct.
B) Probe Calibration : The probe was calibrated in a high speed wind tunnel,
available for that purpose. An illustration of the wind tunnel anangement is given as
Fig. 3.3.12, and comprised of a plenum chamber which fed a 050 mm test section via a
smooth contraction.
144
Reference
Pointer
Adjustable
Stop
Thermocouple
Junction
Side Tapping (Right)

Pitot Tapping
Side Tapping (L
i A-A
All Dimensions in mm
Figure 3.3.11 Details of the Wedge Probe
The probe can be fixed to a rotary mechanism for changing the yaw angle of the probe.
Further details concerning the wind tunnel may be found in Baines and Lavy (1988).
For the volute investigation, it was possible to rotate the probe manually since the test
was carried out without the rotor. Therefore, to null the probe was quick and easy. The
null point is a unique angle achieved when the side tapping pressures are equal and the
pitot tapping points into the flow. For this reason, the probe was only calibrated for the
nulled position, for which it was necessary to find the difference between the probe pitot
pressure and the plenum total pressure as a function of Mach number. The nulled position
was defined in this case as when the two side tappings are at equal pressure. The
reference pointer was set to zero in the wind tunnel, when this condition was reached.
Due to slight differences in the geometry of the two side tappings, inevitable with the
145
manufacturing difficulties, the nulled position would not necessarily mean that the pitot
tapping would point exactly forwards.
(JillI_ . Ref Mark
Protractor
Reference Pointer
Figure 3.3.12 The Probe Calibration Wind Tunnel
In the case of the exhaust traverse, it was not safe to enter the test cell and so the probe
angle had to be adjusted remotely. To do this, the controlling BBC computer was given a
particular angle to move, and then it sent instructions to the stepper motor drive as a batch
command. To null the probe to within a fraction of a degree would have taken
considerable time, and so it was decided to use a 'near-nulled' approach where the probe
would be adjusted in steps of 100 to get the side tapping pressure difference as low as
possible. Calibration was hence carried out for a range of angles, with the range extended
beyond ±10 ° for completeness. The reference pointer position was fairly arbitrary, as
long as it did not move between the calibration and the testing. Epoxy was added to the
joint to make sure this would not happen due to an accidental knock.
The calibration was carried out in terms of various non-dimensionalised parameters
which were functions of flow angle, as defined in Fig. 3.3.13 including the Mach
number. A description of these parameters is given in following subsections, along with
some additional nomenclature. The variation of these non-dimensional parameters were
fitted to polynomial equations using "Cricketgraph II" graph plotting software by Apple
Computers Inc.. The use of polynomial equations to describe the attributes of the probe
146
was considered more economical for data processing than using tabular data and double
variable spline interpolation. Graphs showing the curves fitted to the data are shown to
enable the accuracy of the method to be judged and to indictate the scatter of the data.
Additional Nomenclature
P1 - Probe Pitot Pressure
TP - Probe Measured Temperature
PL - Probe Left HandTapping Pressure
PR - Probe Right Hand Tapping Pressure
0 - Angle of Flow to the probe head For direction definition - see Fig. 3.3.13
0
Anticlockwise Clockwise
- A...
I'
I View Looking Down
Ho
N I From Reference Pointer
to probe Head
Figure 3.3.13 Defmition of the Flow Angle 0 to the Probe
Thermocouple recovery factor r - As defined in section 3.3.3 D, but found to be a

function of 0. The calibration is given below in graphical form: -
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60 I I I I I I I I
-25 -15 -5 5 15 25
How Angle 0 / 0
Figure 3.3.14 Thermocouple Recovery Factor for the Wedge Probe
147
The curve fit shown in Fig. 3.3.14 gave the polynomial equation :-
Recovery Factor = 0.73 + 5.74e-4 0 - 7.34e-5 02 Eq 3.3.3
Total Pressure Recovery Factor p - If the angle of gas flow points directly into the front
of the probe, then the 'pilot' tapping on the probe will almost measure the total pressure
given that some small loss will occur. When the gas flow angle is not in line with the
probe, there will be a further loss since the probe will only experience a component of the
dynamic pressure.
The true total pressure can be established using the pitot pressure denoted Pi and the
recovery factor p. if the gas flow angle relative to the probe is known since
p = Ei-P wherep=f(0) Eq. 3.3.4

P0- PS
The Mach number dependence of p was found to be negligible. A graph showing the
dependence of p onO is given in Fig. 3.3.15.
1.0
. 0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Flow Angle 0
Figure 3.3.15 Total Pressure Recovery Factor for the Wedge Probe
The equation for the curve fit shown is
p = 0.95 84 - 4.038e-3.0 - 8.469e-4.02 - 2.866e-5.03

- 1.23 le-7.04 + 5.13 le-8.05 Eq 3.3.5
Flow Angle Factor q - Since the probe is not to be nulled, it is necessary to determine
the flow angle of the gas using the pressure differential, PL - PR, measured between the
two side pressure taps on the probe head. Since this pressure differential depends on the
dynamic pressure as well as the angle, it is necessary to use a non dimensional factor q.
Knowing the dynamic pressure and the pressure differential across the side taps, the flow
148

angle can be calculated since
q = PL-PR Eq. 3.3.6

P0- Ps
Again, the Mach number dependence of q was found to be negligible. A graph showing
9 as a function of q is given in Fig. 3.3.16.
15
10
o -5
-10
-15
-20
-0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Angle Factor q
Figure 3.3.16 Calibration of Angle Factor with Flow Angle
The reason for plotting 9 as a function of q will be apparent later in the next sub-section.
The equation generated to fit the data is
9 = -3.543 - 29.71q - 6.027q2 - 19.44q3 + 21.48q4 + 63.3q5 Eq. 3.3.7
Left and Right Static Pressure Factors x and y - Two further quantities are needed to
obtain the static pressure at the probe based on the side taps. These are non
dimensionalised and defined as
x = Eq.3.3.8
P0- Ps
P1-PR Eq. 3.3.9

P0- Ps
Although, in theory, only one of these factors is needed, in practice, good quadratic curve
fits were only obtained for x and y as functions of 9 when the gas flow is more toward
one particular side tapping. For example, factor x is used when the flow angle relative to
the probe is anticlockwise relative to the nulled position as shown in Fig. 3.3.13.
Graphs showing x and y as functions of 0 are given as Figs. 3.3.17 and 3.3.18
respectively.
149
1.2
• Ma=0.05
x = 1.050 + l.072e-2Th - 8.372e4ThA2
• Ma=0.10
x= 1.061+ 1.112e2Th7.72Oe..4ThA2
1.0
• Ma=0.15
x 1.070 + 9.408e-3Th - 8.955e4ThA2
• Ma=0.20
x = 1.069 + 9.144e-3Th - 9.316e4ThA2
0.8
• Ma=0.25
x 1.064 + 9.160e-3Th - 9.680e4ThA2
£ Ma=0.35
= 1.051 + 9.798e-3Th - 9.348e4ThA2
0.6
a Ma=0.30
= 1.038 + 1.008e-2Th - 9.078e-4Th2
0.4
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
0
Flow Angle 0 /
Figure 3.3.17 Factor x as a Function of e for Different Mach Numbers
1.2
• Ma=0.05
y = 0.900 - 2.500e-2Th - 8.O60e-4Th'2
1.0
• Ma=0.10
y = 0.931 - 2.440e-2Th - 8.652e4ThA2
• Ma=0.15
0.8
y = 0.937 - 2.474e-2Th - 9.163e4ThA2
• Ma=0.20
y = 0.945 - 2.4 15e-2Th -9. 165e4ThA2
0.6
• Ma=0.25
y = 0.940 - 2.400e-2Th - 9.076e4ThA2
Ma=0.30
0.4
y = 0.927 - 2349e-2Th - 8.576e4ThA2
a Ma=0.35
y = 0.916 - 237 le-2Th - 8.533e4ThA2
0.2
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Flow Angle 61°
Figure 3.3.18 Factor y as a Function of 0 for Different Mach Numbers
150
Unfortunately, x and y were found to be slightly but significantly dependent upon Mach
number. For this reason, quadratic curve fit equations were found for each Mach number
as shown on Figs. 3.3.17 and 3.3.18. To obtain the general equation for any Mach
number, it was necessary to plot the coefficients A, B and C of the quadratic equations
and generate curve fitted equations for the coefficients themselves. Hence : -

x = Ax + Bx.Ma + Cx.Ma2 Eq 3.3.10

y = Ay + By.Ma + Cy.Ma2 Eq 3.3.11
Ax, Bx, Cx, Ay, By and Cy were found to vary fairly smoothly indicating the different
equations for x and y were not due to random errors. The equations for the curve fits
given below, and graphs for Ax, Bx, Cx, Ay, By and Cy are given in Appendix V. The
scatter of the data from the curve fits was not considered a difficulty, given that the
correction for Mach number was a second order effect.
Ax = -7.207 x 10 - 1.563 x 10 2Ma + 2.8186Ma2 Eq 3.3.12

Bx = 1.228 x 102 + 2.576 x 10.2 Ma + 5.58 lMa2 Eq 3.3.13
Cx = 1.0324 + 0.4091Ma - 1.133Ma2 Eq 3.3.14
Ay = -7.376 x iO -1.687 x iO Ma + 4.006 x 103Ma2 Eq 3.3.15
By = -2.254 x 10-2 + 5.9834 x 10 3Ma - 3.4762 x 103Ma2 Eq 3.3.16
Cy = 0.8746 + 0.66 l2Ma - 1.576Ma2 Eq 3.3.17
C) Obtaining the Flow Conditions from the Probe Measurements : To fmd

the total and static pressure, velocity and flow angle at the measurement point, the
following measurements were required: (Pi-Pref), (Pi-PL), (P1-PR), Pref and T p, where
Pref is a reference pressure. The calculation algorithm is as follows : -
i) Determine whether a) (Pi-PL) > (P1-PR), in which case 0 > 0°or

b) (P1-PR) > (Pi-PL) in which case 8 <0°
For case a)
ii) Assume x=1 (see Fig. 3.3.17) and obtain first guess (Po-Ps) 1 from equation
3.3.8.
iii) Obtain first guess e 1 from calculation of q 1 based on (Po-Ps) 1 and equation
3.3.7.
iv) With 81 obtain second guess (P0-Ps) 2 based on value of y found from Fig.
3 .3.18.
Initially, the correction for Mach number is neglected and so the equation based on a
Mach number of 0.2 is temporarily used.
v) Iterate steps iii) and iv) until converged values are obtained for P0-Ps and 9.
151
For case b)
This is the same as for case a) except y is assumed = 1 for the first guess
(Po-Ps)1 and Fig. 3.3.17 is used for later iterations based on x.
vi) Obtain P1-Ps from value of p from equation 3.3.5 and then obtain Ps since
P1 is known. Obtain Po from knowledge of Po-Ps.
vi) Obtain the local Mach number using the values of Po, Ps and equation
3.3.18:-
M= _21 ({P/ i 3.3.18
vii) Go back to stage iv) and use the correct Mach number for Figure
3.3.18 / 3.3.17 depending on case a) or b).
viii) Determine the thermocouple recover factor r based on equation 3.3.3 with
the value of 0 and obtain To and Ts at the probe position.
From these steps, the flow velocity and direction and the total and static gas properties are
now known.
One point worth mentioning concerns the problem of the thermocouple bead not being at
the same position as the plane of pressure measurements - see Fig. 3.3.11. This difficulty
was overcome by using curve fits to the temperature measured at the actual probe
positions and interpolating to find the temperature at the plane of pressure measurement.
D) Access Holes : Only one access hole was required for the exhaust traverse as
shown in Fig. 3.2.16, and the probe remained in this hole, thus sealing the passage. This
was not the case for the volute in which 46 access holes were to be placed as shown in
Fig. 3.3.4. When the probe was not inserted into a hole, it had to be blocked in such a
way as not to retain the correct duct geometry and prevent air leakage - see Fig. 3.3.19.
The holes for the probe were located using a CNC milling machine to drill through one of
the aluminium casings. Lengths of stainless steel tubing were inserted into the holes to act
as guides for the probe and to reduce leakage through the particular hole into which the
probe was inserted. The holes were then continued into the epoxy after the passage had
been machined. Plugs were made using 4 mm stainless steel rods, tipped with epoxy,
which were smoothed down in position to give the appropriate form of the passage. The
plugs were secured in position with fittings which screwed over each hole and located
both axially and in angular position by a vee, filed from a small addition of weld metal.
152
Adjustet scitw
Aluminium
Epoxy
permanant
seal
Main epoxy
volute case
0' ring seal

Stainless steel tube Location'Vee'
Steel rod
Epoxy tip
Volute surface
Figure 3.3.19 Details of the Blanking Plugs for the Access Holes
3.3.5 Other Measurements and Calibrations
It was necessary to measure two air mass flows, an oil mass flow, shaft speed and the
cell absolute pressure.
A) Air Mass Flow : The air mass flow was measured for the turbine and compressor
using orifice meters with D and D12 taps - see Fig. 3.3.2. The orifice meters were made
to British Standard (1984) and the mass flows were calculated with the aid of a computer
program by Pond (1990). The geometry of the orifice plates are given below : -

Outer diameter - mm Inner diameter -mm

Turbine Orifice 104.44 59.84

Compressor Orifice (1) 96.19 59.84

Compressor Orifice (2) 96.19 72.00
Two sizes of orifice plate were used for the compressor, so that the pressure drop into the
compressor intake could be reduced at the higher compressor mass flow rates. This
extended the compressor maximum power absorption by about 20%. Since there were
two other orifice meters in the air line to the turbine, as shown in Fig. 3.1.2, the air mass
flow was also measured at these meters for a few tests. The sum of the flows through
these meters did not differ by more than 0.5% from the flow measured at the other meter.
153
B) Oil Mass Flow : The oil mass flow meter used was a rotary vane type 304-431,
supplied by RS Components whose specification is given in R.S.Components Data Book
(1988). The meter gave out a number of pulses, the frequency of which was supposed to
be linear with fluid mass flow, a calibration factor being given by the manufacturer. The
frequency counter was configured to have a gate time of 10 seconds to improve the
resolution of the reading. It was decided to calibrate the meter in situ to ensure the best
accuracy. This was carried out by filling a suitably sized vessel with oil from the drain
pipe of the bearing housing and noting the meter reading in a given time. It was
discovered that, contrary to the meter specification, the reading was a function of oil
temperature, most probably due to the effects of temperature. A calibration was hence
carried out for varying meter readings at a constant temperature by altering the inlet
pressure and also for constant meter reading for a range of temperatures. It was attempted
to combine the effects of temperature and meter frequency reading into a general equation
by using an equation of the form given below : -
ii j = kfx.TY + k2 Eq 3.3.19
where th01 is the oil mass flow rate, f is the meter reading, T is the meter oil temperature
and k1 and k2 are constants. If the log of both sides is taken, then the exponents x and y
can be found since: -
log h011 = log k1 + xlog f + ylog T + log k2 Eq 3.3.20
and the gradient of line will equal x or y, if either constant f or T is constant. The
exponents were determined to be 1.021 and -0.6088 for x and y respectively and these
were used to collapse all the data onto one line to obtain the two constants k 1 and k2 This
graph of this line is given as Fig. 3.3.20.
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0.00
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
f 101 T8
Figure 3.3.20 Calibration for the Oil Flow Meter
154
From the plot, it was considered that the initial equation chosen for combining the effects
of temperature with meter reading was appropriate. The equation for the oil flow from
this graph is :-
m011 = - 8.4533 x + 1.7029 x 1O 2 ( f 1.021 .T-06088 ) Eq 3.3.21
C) Shaft Speed : Shaft speed measurement was carried out using an inductive sensor
of type 304-166 supplied by R.S. Components and specified in the R.S.Components
Data Book (1988). The device emits a signal pulse every time the magnetic reluctance
near the vicinity of the probe head changes. Fig. 3.3.2 1 shows how the probe was
positioned relative to the shaft: -
Shaft Inductive Pickut,
*1
Figure 3.3.21 The Shaft Speed Pickup Arrangement
Two, flat bottomed, holes were drilled opposite each other to prevent causing an out of
balance. The action of the holes passing the probe head changes the local magnetic
reluctance and gives a signal. To obtain the correct shaft speed, the frequency of the
emitted pulses was electronically divided by two and converted to r.p.m. to be displayed
on a meter on the control panel.
Two difficulties were encountered in obtaining the correct reading. The first was due to
the inductive pickup being at an incorrect distance from the shaft. if it was too far away,
then the hole movement was not detected. If it was too near, then two signals were
registered for each hole due to pickup of both the start and end of the hole. Unfortunately,
the correct distance varied according to the speed to be measured and so adjustment was
required throughout the testing. This particular problem could be detected fairly easily,
since either there would be no speed indicted or twice the speed indicted.
The other problem was due to heat from the compressor overheating the electronics
situated within the pickup. This caused the pickup to emit random pulses at an
undetennined frequency. This was more difficult to detect since it gave the appearance of
155
a genuine reading. To prevent this, the pickup tail end was enclosed in a plastic tube into
which cool air was passed. As a fmal check, an oscilloscope was connected in parallel to
the meter to ensure that a good signal reached the meter. In one experiment, when the
cooling air was accidentally not switched on, the pickup malfunctioned by giving random
pulses but was restored once cooled, confirming the cause of the problem.
D) Cell Absolute Pressure : This was simply measured using a vernier scale
barometer situated inside the test cell. However, it could be viewed through a window to
ensure that the flows of air in and out of the cell were not affecting the cell pressure.
3.3.5 Data Acquisition
For the early tests, all measurements were written down on log sheets but this was
improved in two stages. The first of these was to send all the temperature measurements
from the BBC computer to a printer to save writing them down. Later, all of this was
superseded by a program on the BBC computer which would send the temperatures to a
file as well as printing them out. All other readings were then typed into the computer and
were also sent to a file as well as being printed. This method of data acquisition made
processing of the data a much easier task. Further details of the data acquisition system
are given in Pond (1990).
3.4 Recommendations for the Improvement of the Turbine Rig
3.4.1 InletAir Flow

As stated in section 3.3.1, it was difficult to obtain fme adjustment with the inlet valve.
Fine adjustment would be extremely useful for obtaining the same flow conditions for
comparative tests. If a bleed flow was taken past the main valve, and fed back in shortly
after, then this could be used as a fine control, if a small valve was placed in this system.
Part of this system exists already and so this should not be too difficult to implement.
Also in section 3.3.1, the problem of uneven temperatures into the turbine was
highlighted. To remove this, some sort of flow mixer would have to be placed after the
two limb flows join together - see Fig. 1.3.1. This could consist of a plenum chamber
with gauze or swirlers. The alternative is to use more thermocouples at the turbine inlet,
or place them before the flows mix. In the second case, the mass flows of both limbs
would have to be measured separately. These measures would ensure greater accuracy of
the energy flow into the turbine.
3.4.2 Oil Inlet Temperature Control

A method was found to compensate for variable oil inlet temperature and its effect on the
flow meter. However, it would be more satisfactory to keep the oil temperature constant,
156
and hence remove one of the variables in the calibration. A controller is available for this
purpose but the system needs repairing.
3.4.3 Compressor Exit Arrangement

There was uncertainty in how accurately the compressor exit flow temperature had been
established. Due to the high velocities in the compressor exit, the effects of miscalculating
the velocities could be high. For this reason, it is recommended that the flow is
decelerated, either by a dump to a plenum, or by a diffuser. The thermocouples could also
have backing cups behind them to increase the recovery factor close to unity and hence
the total temperature could be measured directly. Only a calibration in the wind tunnel
would validate whether recovery factor of one was in fact achieved, however.
To allow acceptable extraction of oil mist fumes from the compressor exit, a sealed duct
must be installed to pipe the gases into the laboratory extractor system. Metal piping is
essential for this, given the high temperatures which are sometimes achieved.
Alternatively, a scavenge pump could be placed in the oil system to ensure that no oil
escaped into the compressor.
3.4.4 Compressor Overheating

The problem of the heat transfer to the compressor inlet air from the compressor casing
was mentioned in section 3.2.4. This could be reduced, if a thermal bather was placed in
the inlet pipe such as a material of low conductivity or simply a very thin metal section.
The pressure differential is low but compressive and so care must be taken to ensure that
such a tube would not collapse. If it did, the rig would overspeed rapidly due to the off
loading of the compressor.
3.4.5 Pressure Measurement and Data Acquisition Improvements

The transducer outputs are currently read using a high resolution meter, chosen to have a
resolution about twice that of the accuracy of the calibrating manometers. For the most
important pressures, such as at the orifice meters, this system works well ensuring a
good accuracy. However, for internal flow measurements such as the nozzle static
pressures, the reading, sampled at a frequency of about a third of a second, oscillates due
to turbulence. If some means of integrating the transducer output was available, then it
would be much easier to read the meter and know when the reading had converged.
Ideally, the integration time constant could be selected by the rig user. Currently, some of
the readings have to be averaged by judgment, usually by averaging the highest and
lowest values seen.
Another improvement would be to read the pressures in automatically to the BBC
computer. In this case, the integration could be done in software if the sampling
frequency was sufficiently high.
157
4 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN AND INVESTIGATION OF THE
TURBINE VOLUTE
4.1 The Engine Volute Design
4.1.1 Description of the Engine Volute
The function of the volute, shown in 3D in Fig. 1.1.2, is to transfer gas from the pipe
outlet of the engine combustion chamber to a circumferential duct in which the nozzles are
situated. A cross sectional view is also shown in Fig. 3.1.1, in which the passage is seen
to reduce in section around the circumference of the turbine.
The desired flow into the nozzles is one in which the gas velocity will be constant around
the circumference in magnitude and direction. The passage shape adopted for the volute is
important if this is to be achieved.
4.1.2 Basic Methodfor the Design of the Volute Passage Shape
The cross sectional area of the volute duct must decrease such that the mass flow through
any radial section is proportional to the azimuth angle i, hence
Eq 4.1.1
, PACevm(1 - 27t)
where p is the gas density, A the duct area and C9, the tangential velocity.
Experimental evidence in a variety of tests, as described in a survey of papers by Baines
(1987), has shown that the tangential velocity in volute approximates to a free vortex
flow. This assumption was used for the design. A recent thesis by Noor (1990) does give
a more involved design method but this was not available at the time of the volute design.
If the flow is free vortex then this implies that angular momentum will be conserved and
so the product of gas tangential velocity and radius from the turbine rotational axis, or
volute axis, will be a constant, denoted k. As an equation;

Cer = k Eq 4.1.2
Superimposed onto the free vortex flow is a sink, since flow is taken through the plane of
the nozzle inlet. From the free vortex assumption and equation 4.1.1, it can be shown
that lithe density is constant then :-
A iii,
Eq 4.1.3
rv 2irkp
So if m, is a linear function ofi, then A/ny is also a linear function ofi.
158
This equation has implications for the choice of duct area around the volute which will
have to be chosen to take into account any change in mean radius of the duct. Since the
volute exit plane is at constant radius, and the passage area decreases, the mean radius of
the duct will also decrease, causing the the mean tangential velocity to increase. If the
duct area was only decreased at a linear rate with azimuth angle, the duct area would not
be matched to give a linear decrease in mass flow. The duct area must therefore be
decreased at a faster rate than linearly with azimuth angle.
4.1.3 Choice of the InletArea andRadius
The choice of inlet area and radius is governed by a number of factors, being:
a) The required of tangential velocity at the volute exit.

b) The maximum geometric size of the of the volute.
c) The allowable total pressure loss in the volute.
The link between the volute inlet dimensions and factor a) is found by consideration of
equation 4.1.2, in which the inlet velocity and radius will give the value for k. The
tangential velocity at the volute exit can determined by equation 4.1.2 again, but using the
volute exit radius for r. For a nozzleless design the tangential velocity at volute exit
would need to be the value required by the rotor. If nozzles were to be used, then there
would not be any restrictions on the volute exit tangential velocity, since the flow could
be accelerated in the nozzles. However, a higher volute exit tangential velocity would be
beneficial in reducing the acceleration required in the nozzles and hence the nozzle loss.
Whether or not nozzles were to be used depended on consideration of factors b) and c).
Due to the geometry of the engine, the maximum diameter of the engine was likely to
occur at the volute, and so it was important to keep this duct small to keep down the size
of the engine - see Fig. 1.1.1. Anything over a radius of about 150 mm would not be
acceptable unless there were important gains to be made.
To allow the volute total pressure loss to be estimated for various designs, it was
necessary to establish the likely dynamic pressure loss coefficient Y, associated with the
volute geometry. Published experimental data for volute losses was sparse, and so a
number of approximate methods were used to generate values. The pressure loss in the
volute would affect the efficiency of the engine and needed to be as small as possible. A
1% total pressure loss in the volute was found to be equivalent to a 0.55% decrease in
turbine isentropic efficiency. This was determined by consideration of the decrease in
turbine power caused by such a pressure loss. The total pressure loss could be decreased
for a given dynamic pressure loss coefficient by increasing the inlet area and hence
decreasing the inlet velocity, with the disadvantage of increased volute size. The estimated
total pressure loss coefficients are summarised in Table 4.1.1, and corresponding values
159
for the total pressure loss have been given for a range of inlet Mach numbers likely to be
acceptable.

Approximation Y %LossofPo
M=0.10 M=0.25 M=0.40
i) Straight pipe of mean diameter

and full length - Massey (1985) 0.23 0.16 1.00 2.56
ii) Typical turbocharger pressure
loss - Baines (1987) 0.1 - 0.3 0.07 - 0.21 0.44 - 1.31 1.12 - 3.36
iii)360°bend of mean diameter
andfulllength-ESDU 0.32 0.22 1.38 3.52
ffi)360°bend of mean diameter
and full length - Ito (1959) 0.32 - 0.48 0.22 - 0.34 1.38 - 2.13 3.52 - 5.44
Table 4.1.1 Estimation of Volute Dynamic Pressure Loss Coefficient and

Total Pressure Loss
The rotor was designed to accept a tangential Mach number of around 0.9, and so to
achieve this without nozzles would mean having a volute inlet Mach number of at least
0.4, if the 150 mm overall volute radius was not to be exceeded. The pressure loss for
this Mach number was considered to be outside the acceptable range, and so it was
necessary to use nozzles. For this design, the inlet area was chosen on the basis of a
compromise of acceptable loss for the smallest geometric size. The size eventually chosen
was a circle of 50 mm diameter at a mean radius of 103 mm to give an inlet Mach number
of 0.229 and an overall volute maximum radius of 128 mm. The estimated total pressure
loss of about 1% was considered acceptable.
4.1.4 Choice oftheDuct Shape and Generation of the Complete Geometry
It was decided to make the shape of all the volute cross sections circular for simplicity
and to avoid bending stresses in the section. This would enable a much thinner wall
thickness to be used and hence facilitate a pressed sheet construction method of
manufacture. Typical passage shapes are illustrated in Fig. 4.1.1. With this assumed, r1,
could be specified in terms of A.,1,. The resulting equation for was a quadratic given
below :-
2 -(8.2607x 106 1it+8.9255x

10Ov2)A
+ (1.7060 x l0") 2 = 0 Eq 4.1.4
The geometry of the volute was constrained by a further requirement, this being the space
restraint imposed by having the turbine and compressor close together - see Fig. 1.2.10.
160
I AreaA,1
I IAiaAqi2
ri
R R1
LJ - I'P2 Tnie
'volutc
start
X1 -
Volute Axis
Figure 4.1.1 The Volute Definition Parameters and Two Typical Cross Sectional Shapes
This made it necessary to offset the volute in the axial sense. The effect of having an
offset volute design was not considered detrimental to the performance, and was similar
to one experimentally tested by Tabakoff et a!. (1984), in which it was found that the
tangential velocity was essentially uniform at a given radius.
4.1.5 Methodfor Predicting the Velocities in the Volute
It was desirable to be able to predict the velocities in the volute at any section and for any
radius so that these could be compared to those measured in the experiment. The
tangential velocities could easily be evaluated since they would always be equal to the
constant k divided by the radius from the volute axis. The radial velocities were more
difficult to predict since they depended on the way in which the volute passage axial
thickness changed. Although the passage thickness could be defined in terms of the
radius TV and the angle around the section of the passage, attempts to relate this to the
radius R were not successful and hence the radial velocity could not be found using an
analytical solution. However, a method was developed in which sections of the volute
were divided up into elements by planes of constant radius and planes of constant
azimuth angle. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.1.2.
Since the tangential velocity was known, and the areas of each face could be calculated, a
mass flow balance would give the difference between the radial mass flow into and out of
the element. For the outer radius element, the top surface is a boundary with no flow
through it and so the flow from the bottom surface can be found.
161
9
$m4
ATYPICAL
2 ELEMENT
+5°
3
Figure 4.1.2 Method for Calculating the Volute Radial Velocities
The calculation could then proceed to the next element below and so on until the nozzle
entry plane is reached. The process was done by hand for the azimuth angles of 0°, 90°,
180 0 and 270° and interpolation was done for angles in between. This was a good
approximation since the radial velocity profiles did not alter significantly around the
volute and the actual velocities were small in comparison to the tangential velocities. The
calculated profiles are shown in Fig. 4.1.3.
100
90
80
70
60
40
30
20
10
0 .
/8 83 88 93 98 103 108 113 118 123 128
Radius from Volute Axis R - mm
Figure 4.1.3 Calculated Radial Velocities for the Volute at Engine Design Point
An attempt was also made to model the flow using an existing computational fluid
dynamics code by Lavy and Baines (1988). Much of the work was carried out by an
162
undergraduate student as reported in Pask (1989). Unfortunately, the code could not be
made to work, mainly due to lack of comprehensive documentation. The program had
been used successfully for turbocharger volutes but the geometry used for the gas turbine
volute differed in many ways from these geometries. Particular differences included the
inlet duct bend which had the opposite curvature to a turbocharger volute and the circular
duct type as opposed to a more triangular shaped section.
4.1.6 The Needfor Experimental Testing of the Volute

Confidence in the design was not sufficiently high enough for the volute to be put straight
in the engine. Changes at that stage would be much more difficult. It was therefore
considered a necessary part of the design of the engine to carry out an experimental
investigation to verify the proposed turbine volute design.
4.2 Experimental Investigations of the Volute Aerodynamic Flow
4.2.1 Details of the Tests Carried Out

Volute testing was carried out in two stages. The first involved a detailed survey of the
volute flowfield for one flow condition. The conditions used for this test were an inlet
Mach number of 0.185 and temperature of 298K at the plane of the true volute start - see
Fig. 4.1.1. This Mach number was lower than the design point value due to some initial
problems of achieving sufficient mass flow rate. The rotor was replaced with a bladeless
hub for this testing. The measurements taken included static pressures at all the positions
given in Appendix VI, and total pressure and flow angle measurements with the probe as
described in Chapter 3. Probe measurements were taken at a total of 134 positions spread
evenly within the volute passage. These positions were determined by the access hole
positions given in Appendix VI and by the axial divisions illustrated in Fig. 4.2.1.
z
0 Measurement positions I
2 - . .2
z z
z I Z I Z
ftI
14- HOLE STATIONS I 13-HOLE STATIONSI 12- HOLE STATIONSI
Figure 4.2.1 Measurement Positions for the Internal Flow Survey
163
For some of the stations, there was some deviation to the positions shown in Fig. 4.2.1,
but the actual depths are given with the measurements in the results section. Due to the
nature of the probe, it was only possible to obtain the flow properties in planes
perpendicular to the volute axis, hence the axial velocity component could not be
determined. This, however was expected to be negligible relative to the tangential
velocities and radial velocities with the possible exception of the region right at the bottom
of each volute section. The value of z is calculated as a quarter of the width of the volute
at a hole position of maximum width for each section - see Fig. 4.2.1.
In a later set of tests, the static pressures were measured with the rotor in place for
various rotor speeds and pressure ratios. The bladeless hub was then refitted, and the
volute static pressures measured again for conditions corresponding to the same inlet
Mach number as the tests involving the rotor. A summary table of the test conditions used
is given as Table 4.2.1.
Test No Inlet Mach No Pressure Ratio Mass Flow Rate(kg/s Rotor Speed % Design
PV7OD 0.1907 1.937 0.2807 70
PV8OD 0.2013 2.3 19 0.3538 80
PV9OC 0.2146 2.942 0.4641 90
PV100C 0.2094 2.940 0.4516 100
WOD 0.1908 1.587 0.2305 No Blades
V8OD 0.2011 1.779 0.2727 No Blades
V9OC 0.2163 2.357 0.3772 No Blades
V100C 0.2088 2.0 11 0.3701 No Blades
Table 4.2.1 Summary of the Conditions for the Additional Volute Testing
4.2.2 Results of the Detailed Flow Survey
A table of values for the pressure loss coefficient Y, and the flow angle relative to the
tangential direction for the 24 stations is given in Appendix VI. Fig. 3.3.4 should be
referred to for the positions of the measurement stations. In addition, the angles for
station 24 have been presented relative to a vertical line, since this station is not within the
feed duct to the volute. From this data, a selection of plots are presented here to highlight
phenomena of interest.
A) Loss Factor and Flow Angle Plotted against Depth into the Volute
For each station, the total pressure loss factors, Y, were plotted against a non-dimensional
depth into the volute, with a selection of the plots presented here.
A plot of Y for the inlet duct at station 24 is shown in Fig. 4.2.2. The vertical lines
represent the volute surfaces for the particular radii of the traverses. There are only two
164
sets of these lines due to the symmetry of the chosen traverse lines - see Fig. 4.2.1.
0.2
Hole number
0.1
—ofl-- 241
Y 242
—s--- 243
1' 244
0.0
-0.1
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Depth I Local 0D
Figure 4.2.2 The Variation of Loss FactorY within the Volute for Station 24
The loss factor at the centre of the duct was about zero, just downstream of the inlet total
pressure measurement This gave confidence in the measurements, confirming that the
probe had been calibrated correctly. The total pressure at the inlet appears to be uniform in
the axial direction but not in the direction across the duct. This may be due to the shape of
the passage upstream of station 24, in which there is substantial contraction in the axial
direction, but little across the duct However, the total pressure loss is markedly higher
for position 241. It is suggested that the re-entrant region from the tail of the volute, after
station 22, is interacting with the main feed flow, causing a blockage and hence reducing
the velocity of the flow in this region. Further evidence of this effect is evident by
viewing the flow angles, shown in Fig. 4.2.3. These angles are relative to the vertical
direction with positive angles being away from the volute axis.
20
Hole number
10 —0--- 241
Flow 242
Angle —U--- 243
• 244
0
-10
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Depth / Local ØD
Figure 4.2.3 Flow Angle Measurements at Station 24
165
The reentrant region is downstream of the deepest measurement at position 241. The flow
appears to have been deflected at this point away from the direction of the volute axis and
has induced a swirl component, as suggested by the negative angle at the other
measurement point in position 241.
Further around the volute at station 4, the total pressure loss coefficient and angle are
plotted as Figs. 4.2.4 and 4.2.5 respectively.
0.12
0.10 Hole number

0.08 -C--- 41
C 42
0.06 £ 43
0.04 -0- 44
0.02
0.00
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Depth/Local 0D
Figure 4.2.4 The Variation of Loss Factor Y within the Volute for Station 4
12
10
Hole number
8 41
Flow • 42
Angle° 6 -U--- 43
4 • 44
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Depth/Local 0D
These plots are typical of the flow in the first 1800 of azimuth, in which two features are
evident. The first concerns the profile of total pressure loss coefficent. It can be seen that
the loss is fairly uniform in the axial direction but has a profile in the direction of a radial
line from the volute axis. The profile from station 24 has not been broken down but
follows through the volute. The flow angles are also fairly uniform in the axial sense,
with the exception of the measurement location holes Ni, where N is the station number.
The flow angle at hole 41 in Fig. 4.2.5 is an example of this. The flow angle is small at
the first measurement depth, but increases at the deeper measurement. This is easily
explained by the geometry of the off-set volute, in which the bottom surface of the
sections form a cylinder. The flow angle at the first measurement point, in position hole
166
1, should therefore measure a near zero angle to the tangential direction. At higher
azimuth angles, this effect gradually reduced, as the feed channel for the nozzles advances
toward the bottom of each section, and becomes larger, relative to the local diameter of
each section. This effect and others can be seen by viewing the total pressure loss
coefficient and flow angle of station 14 shown in Figs. 4.2.6 and 4.2.7 respectively.
0.10
0.08
Holenumber
0.06 141
Y £ 142
0.04 -0- 143
0.02
0.00
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Depth I Local 0D
Figure 4.2.6 The Variation of Loss Factor Y within the Volute for Station 14
7 Hole number
Flow
Angle° 6 -0--- 141
—•o--- 142
5 143
4
3
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Depth / Local 0D
The total pressure in the section is reasonably uniform with the profile encountered at
lower azimuth angles no longer present. It is not understood why the flow angle at the
first measurement point in hole number 142 is so high, although it may be a consequence
of secondary flows as described in the paper by Tabakoff et a!. (1984). l'his effect was
evident in stations 10 and 12, and so it is unlikely to be experimental error.
B) Axially Averaged Pressure Loss Factors : The pressure loss data has been
plotted as axially averaged values for the whole volute in Fig. 4.2.8. Obviously, some of
the 3D flow features are masked by this representation, but the diagram does show some
interesting effects. In Fig. 4.2.8, it can be seen that the pressure loss profile found at
station 24 carries through the volute for about 180°.
167
I I
I
•
I S
S J
• I
S a
•
a
'I S
•
I
I
a
- _
I
I
I
I -
--1W
R 1: ,-
I
I
- Li
/
S
\
- - - - - -
Figure 4.2.8 Dynamic Pressure Loss Coefficient Y as Averaged in the Axial Direction
168
This indicates that the wake from the tongue is not causing any major disturbance. The
total pressure presented to the nozzles appears to be fairly uniform around the volute with
the exception of position just after the tongue. This could be explained by the net affect of
a gradually increasing frictional average pressure loss being offset by the diminishing
profile which first entered the volute.
The value of the dynamic pressure loss coefficient is estimated to be in the region of 0.1
to 0.14 at the nozzle entry plane, which is on the lower side of the predictions by the
methods given in Table 4.1.1. The estimates made using pipe and bend flow loss
correlations were three to four times the measured value, which indictes that these
methods for loss prediction are inappropriate.
Clearly the total pressure loss around the volute could not be predicted by a model based
just on losses in pipes or bends which would predict a gradually increasing loss. These
methods may have some value for the overall loss prediction, as used in Kastner and
Bhinder (1975), but could not be used to predict variations around the volute. In Noor
(1990), an attempt was made to include the total pressure loss in the equations used to
design the geometry of the volute as a function of azimuth angle, but this would not be of
benefit in the modelling of the present type of flow.
C) Axially Averaged Velocity Vectors: In Fig. 4.2.9, the axially averaged flow
vectors have been plotted and were found to be uniform. This is in contrast to the velocity
vectors shown in Baines and Lavy (1988), for a turbocharger volute,which show
substantial deviations of the flow from what might be expected based on free vortex
theory.
The velocity magnitudes in the volute were calculated using the measured total pressure
Po and the sidewall static pressures Ps by means of equations 4.2.1 and 4.2.2.
Po( ___ (1-I)M2} y-1

—=:: 1+ Eq 4.2.1
Ps

C= M VyRTs Eq 4.2.2
where M is the Mach number, C is velocity, y the ratio of specific heats and Ts the local
static temperature.
Since the static pressure measurement points did not coincide in radial dimension with the
points of total pressure measurement, it was necessary to interpolate one or other of these
parameters. The measured total pressure loss coefficients were interpolated to allow the
total pressures to be determined at the same radial and angular positions as the static
pressure measurements.
169
10 mIs
: I.-
'LL
ti 11
:T
-'I - __ __-____ _____

Jj
1
1
9
I
"S
•IIS 4P
•__. I ••
-
.1
• I
Figure 4.2.9 Expeiimental Velocity
Flow Vectors as Averaged
• I in the Axial Direction
I I
I S
T TI •1 1/ S
--
I'
I %
S S
S
S.
"S
• :I
I
' .I S
•
- S
I - r' I -
____
I.
• I • S
I
S
S
I iii
ii
\'\\\\" I
II S
'S
S.
I
I
'S I
- -
S
S
S
.. -
50 n's/s
-
Figure 4.2.10 Theosetical Velocity

Flow Vectors based
on Free Vortex Theoiy
170
This was prefered to interpolating the measured static pressures, because the total
pressure loss was generally lower than 10% of the inlet dynamic head, and so
interpolation errors would be smaller.
The velocity vectors can be compared to those produced by the theoretical prediction
method given in section 4.1.2, shown in Fig. 4.2.10 on the previous page.
The averaged angles in Fig. 4.2.9, give a good impression of the flow, as measured in
position holes 2, 3 and 4 of each station, (if existing), since it can be seen from the data
in Appendix VI that the flow angles do not vary by more than 2 or 3 degrees from the
average in the axial direction. The exception to this occurs at stations 0 and 1. At station 0
there is the effect of both the tongue and the transition from pipe flow to free vortex. The
two angles as measured at position 1 differed by 8° for the reasons described earlier.
There was some concern about the blockage effect of the probe in the duct, especially at
the smaller diameter sections. The effect of the probe on the flow was assessed to a
certain extent by measuring the static pressures at the three stations before, at and after the
stations in which the probe was inserted. The pressures were affected substantially after
and at the probe measurement station but only by a maximum of 7% of total inlet to local
static pressure at the station before. This value was for the smallest section and the effect
was usually much lower or zero for the larger sections. It was considered that the
measurements of total pressure and angle should be valid if the effect on the flow upsteam
of the probe was small. Velocity calculations were always carried out using static
pressures measured without any probe in place.
4.2.3 Results of the Additional Volute Testing
A) Tangential Mach Number Distribution around the Volute : For the

operating condition denoted V7OD, see Table 4.2.1, the velocities were calculated based
on the dynamic pressure loss factors determined previously and the measurements of
static pressure. The velocities thus calculated were absolute, and had to be resolved into
the tangential direction so that they could be compared to the free vortex theoretical
prediction. These are presented for all the stations in Figs. 4.2.11 A to 0.
171
0.24
0.22
1
0.20 6 Station 0
o Station 1
• 018
• Station 2
X Theoretical
0.16
0.141.
78 82 86 90 94 98 102 106 110 114 118 122 126 130
Radius from Volute Axis - mm
0.24
1 0.22
0.20 A Station 3
o Station 4
0.18 • Station 5
x Theoretical
0.16
0.141 . •.i.i.i.u-u.i.u.i.ii.
78 82 86 90 94 98 102 106 110 114 118 122 126
0.24
0.22
1 A Station 6
0.20
o Station 7
0.18 • Station 8
X Theoretical
0.16
J
0.141
78 82 86 90 94 98 102 106 110 114 118 122
0.24
0.22
0.20 A Station 9
o Station 10
0.18 • Station 11
X Theoretical
0.16
0.141
78 82 86 90 94 98 102 106 110 114 118
Figure 2.4.11 (A, B,C and D) Comparison of Theory and Experimental Velocity Vectors
172

0.24
E) Stations 12- 14
10.22
A Station 12
0.20 o Station 13
• Station 14
X Theoretical
} 0.18
0.161 ,......,.,.
78 82 86 90 94 98 102 106 110 114
0.24
F Stations 15- 17
j0.22
A Station 15
0.20 o Station 16
• Station 17
X Theoretical
0.18
£
0.16 1-
78 82 86 90 94 98 102 106
0.26
G Stations 18 -22
A Station 18
0.24 o StatIon 19
0.22 • Station 20
£ Station 21
0.20
Station 22
0.18 X Theoretical
0.161.
78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102
Figure 4.2.11 (E, F and 0) Comparison of Theory and Experimental Velocity Vectors
In Fig. 4.2.11(A), the flow at the station 0 is fairly uniform. This means that the
tangential velocity at the nozzle entry plane is much lower than the velocity predicted by
the free vortex solution. At station 1, 15° further around, the flow has clearly changed to
a free vortex flow. l'his supports the observations in Hussian et al. (1982) that the free
vortex flow is set up in about the fIrst 200 of turning but it is still surprising given that the
entry duct has a curvature in the opposite direction to the curvature of the volute.
After station 1, the experimental points agree well with the theoretical free vortex model,
with the exception of a slight reduction in Mach number at the lower radius.
173
Superimposed on this is a gradual decrease in Mach number as the flow proceeds around
the volute. The rate of decrease of Mach number itself increases as the region of the
tongue is approached. The fall in tangential Mach number is more clearly shown in Fig.
4.2.12, in which the Mach numbers at a radius of 86 mm have been estimated from the
experimental data and compared to the free vortex solution value. This radius was
convenient since it was approximately the average radius of the volute static pressure
tappings nearest to the nozzle inlet plane.
0.23
0.22
0.21
0.20
0.19
0.18
0.17
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Angle°
Figure 4.2.12 Theoretical and Experimental Mach Number-Azimuth Angle

Plot at a Radius of 86mm
At first, it was thought that the tangential Mach numbers were falling merely as a result of
friction. The effect of friction may well be responsible for the small drop in velocity up to
the first 27O but after that, the fact that the static pressure is rising in this region of the
duct indicates that the flow is diffusing. The areas of the sections decrease at a greater rate
than a linear scaling with azimuth angle, and so it is not thought that the area change rate
is responsible for this. One explanation is that the re-entrant region at the tongue is
causing a blockage to the flow. At the inlet, the flow was thought to flow around the
blockage indicated by the flow angles and fall in total pressure. However, in the case of
the flow from the tail of the volute, it cannot deflect away from the blockage due to the
small passage size. The reduction in velocity of the flow in the tail of the volute could
also be due to the match-up in static pressure at the tongue between the entry flow and
the flow from the tail. Since the entry flow is essentially linear, the tangential velocity at
the lower radius from the volute axis is much lower than the free vortex velocity and
hence the static pressure is higher. The only way to avoid this problem would be to set up
the free vortex flow in the duct at the entry to the volute.
B) Calculation of Nozzle Inlet Incidence Angle : An important parameter to
174
establish was the incidence angle onto the nozzles around the azimuth. To obtain this, the
tangential velocity had to be derived from the curve fits of the velocity measurements
taken at all the stations. Since the nozzle inlet radius was actually 75.4 mm, the tangential
velocity had to be exirapolated using the free vortex assumption for the remaining 2.6
mm. This was considered valid given the conelation of the velocity profiles to the free
vortex predictions already found within the volute.
The radial velocity depended upon how the mass flow was induced into the nozzles. It
was thought that the radial velocity could be calculated by computing the tangential mass
flow at all the sections followed by a mass flow balance in a similar way to the theoretical
model. However, to do this, the section mass flow would have to be evaluated to an
accuracy of± 0.21% to give the radial mass flow within ±5%. This was due to the radial
mass flow being the difference between larger mass flows through two adjacent sections.
It was therefore necessary to assume that the mass flow through all the nozzles passages
were the same. This was a reasonable assumption since the variation in static pressure
with azimuth angle was minimal and it was this pressure which would determine the
radial flow through the nozzles. Effectively, the argument is that the dynamic pressure
head is small relative to the inlet total pressure, which was found to be almost constant.
The radial velocity could now be calculated based on the radial nozzle inlet area, the total
mass flow and the static density. The static density was calculated iteratively based on the
resultant velocity at the nozzle inlet. The tangential velocity variation and the assumed
radial velocity are given in Fig. 4.2.13.
100
90
E 80
70
60
50
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Azimuth Angle°
Figure 4.2.13 Tangential and Radial Velocity Distributions at the Nozzles
From this, the flow angle could also be evaluated around the volute and this allowed the
inlet incidence to be found. This is shown graphically on Fig. 4.2.14, in which it can be
seen that the incidence only varies between -5° and +2.5°.
175
3
2
1
0
I
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Azimuth Angle°
Figure 4.2.14 Nozzle Inlet Incidence Angle Around the Volute
This variation is small and should be well within the incidence range acceptable to the
nozzle guide vane, which has a rounded leading edge.
C) Comparisons between the Flows at Different Operating Conditions,

with and without the Rotor : From the range of tests conducted at the conditions
given in Table 4.2.1, the tangential velocities were calculated using the static pressure
measurements and the dynamic pressure loss coefficients determined in the earlier
experiments. The tests with and without the rotor were run at the same inlet Mach
numbers. Two of the tests with the rotor were also chosen to have the same pressure ratio
but different rotor speeds. To allow a simple comparison to be made between all the tests,
the experimental tangential Mach numbers were detdrmined at all the stations for one
particular radius, being 86 mm for reasons described previously. The velocity values
determined at these static pressure tappings radii were corrected to a value for 86 mm by
assuming free vortex flow across what was a small distance - see Appendix IV. The data
for all eight tests to be plotted together, as shown in Fig. 4.2.15.
It is immediately apparent from the plots that the effect of different conditions on the
pattern of the flow is minimal. Many of the small fluctuations from the general curve
were replicated for all conditions although there were some exceptions. Here, it is
noteworthy that the small differences between the plots do show a grouping in terms of
whether the rotor was present or not. For example, at an azimuth angle of 105 °, the
plots with and without the rotor diverge in the same way for the three highest Mach
numbers. The effect of having the rotor or not is, nevertheless, negligible in terms of the
overall variation around the volute.
176
0.25 DU
• a D D U
8!. $ : 8 8!
E 0.24 • s::.. •.: 8!!
E
8$ ..•. 8
•e 88:8:8888 a :.•.
0.23 a.
elSa..
0.22 a S.
aaaa U
0.21 IS
0.20
5 a

0.19 a PV7OD £ V7OD I.
o PV8OC . V8OC
I
0.18 D PV9OC • V9OC
• Pviooc • vnxx
a
0.171

0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 ;ieu
Azimuth Angle°
Figure 4.2.15 Comparison of the Flow in the Volute for Different Conditions
In Tindal et a!. (1987), the results of a traverse across the volute exit section at one
particular azimuth angle were given showing the velocity distribution. It was found that
the effect of having a rotor running or not was minimal. In a more recent paper
Winterbone et a!. (1990), the static pressure distribution, as determined experimentally,
was given all around a volute for a number of conditions. These conditions covered a
range of pressure ratios and the cases of having a rotor running or not. The results again
showed that the general flow pattern was unaffected by the operating conditions or
presence of the rotor but was only determined by the volute geometry.
The implications of the fmdings are important for the development of the volute both
theoretically and experimentally. In terms of modelling the volute with 1 D equations or
numerically, it appears that the rotor does not need to be considered. The non-
uniformities of the flow result from discontinuities inherent in the volute duct geometry.
However, if these can be reduced, then the rotor is unlikely to alter the flow. In terms of
experimental work, the benefits of testing the volute on its own are numerous. Access to
the volute during testing is possible since there is no safety hazard, and the cost and
difficulty of running the turbine is avoided.
177
4.3 Summary of the Volute Investigation
As a result of the volute testing the following was concluded:
(i) The flow in the volute appears to closely follow the free vortex theoretical
predictions apart from the region from the tongue to about 30°preceeding the
tongue, where the tangential velocity experiences an overall decrease.
(ii) The free vortex flow appears to be established within 15°of the ue start of
the volute.
(iii) The total pressure loss was found to be much lower than that predicted by a
selection of methods and did not increase gradually with azimuth angle but
was reasonably uniform at the radii of probe measurements closest to the
nozzle inlet plane.
(iv) The presence of the rotor does not appear to affect the flow in the volute
significantly.
(v) The general pattern of the flow is not significantly affected by changes in
pressure ratio and inlet Mach number, although the range of inlet Mach
numbers covered in the tests was small.
178

5 EXPERIMENTAL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF THE

RADIAL INFLOW TURBINE
5.1 The Range of Test Conditions Achieved
5.1.1 The Envelope ofRig Operating Conditions
It was the intention to test the turbine for the broadest range of operating conditions
possible above 50% non dimensional design speed, within the limits of the rig. These
limits were the maximum and minimum power absorption possible with the compressor,
the maximum speed of the rotor, and the limit of the supply pressure to the turbine. The
range of power absorption of the compressor depended upon rotor speed for the reasons
given in Chapter 3. For the particular compressor rotor used, a diagram of the the power
range is presented in Fig. 5.1.1, also showing the operational limits imposed by the
maximum turbine supply pressure and the maximum shaft speed. The reason for keeping
above 50% non-dimensional design speed related to the duty of the turbine in the single
shaft engine. Here, the turbine would not be required to run below 50% design speed
apart from startup. This is a transient case and hence outside the realm of steady state
testing.
I I
80 I I
I I
Limit of Available
70

I Turbine Inlet Pressure
60 A Test points - Highest
Pressure Ratio
50
• Test points - Lowest
0 40 Pressure Ratio
.0
30
0 20
Limit of
10 Rotor Speed
0
20 30 40 50 60 70
Rotor Speed - k.r.p.m
Figure 5.1.1 Range of Power Absorption Available from the Compressor
It is likely that the shaft speed could be increased but the risk was not considered
worthwhile given the resulting small increase in operating envelope obtainable. The
bearing heat to oil slightly increased the total power absorption available by about 5% of
maximum compressor power for a particular speed. This, however, was detrimental to
the range of power absorption available because the heat to oil was more or less constant
for a particular shaft speed, and so the lower limit on power was increased by a larger
percentage.
179
5.1.2 Types of Test Carried Out
The experimental work on the turbine can be categorised into three areas of investigation
as given below :-
(i) Overall performance testing to establish the operating map of the turbine,
based on the compressor work and heat to oil power absorption.
(ii) Investigation of the flow upstream of the nozzle and between the nozzle and
rotor by means of static pressure tappings.
(iii) Investigation of the flow at rotor exit by means of a traversing probe in the
exhaust duct and direct performance measurement based on the turbine inlet
and exit temperatures.
The measurements needed for investigations (i) and (ii) only required about ten minutes
to gather, once a particular condition was reached, with about five minutes required to
attain a new operating condition. For this reason, it was possible to take measurements
for investigations (i) and (ii) together and for over fifty different conditions. The test
conditions were evenly spread with about seven points at each of seven speeds from 50%
to 110% of the non-dimensional design speed. However, for investigation (iii), it was
necessary to remain at each condition for around 90 minutes. The number of conditions
tested for this investigation was therefore limited due to time restrictions concerning the
use of the test cell and the cost of testing.
5.1.3 Presentation of Each Area of Investigation
Each of the areas of investigation listed in section 5.1.2 are reported in the sections of this
Chapter which follow. The measurements taken are listed along with the corrections
which had to be applied to the raw data. The calculations used to obtain the results are
given along with any assumptions made. Due to the large amount of data to be processed,
a number of computer programs were written incorporating the calculation methods as
described in Pond (1990). Since the data was collected directly by a computer or typed in
during the test, this task was made easier. Much time, however, was spent to ensure that
the computer programs were correct. Initially, errors were made apparent by
inconsistencies in the results, although it was often difficult to distinguish these from
experimental errors in the raw data. Many of the conditions were tested a number of
times, and performance results obtained by the two different methods (i) and (iii). Some
other errors arose from incorrect data being recorded during the experiment.
The results are presented in graphical form, this being the most appropriate way to
highlight trends in the various parameters which characterise the turbine.
180
5.2 Performance Testing based on the Energy Balance Method
52.1 Aim of the Energy Balance Method Testing
A brief description the energy balance method is given in Chapter 3, in which it can be
seen from equation 3.2.1 that the power generated by the turbine can be computed from a
knowledge of the heat inputs to the oil and to the compressor air. By knowing the total
temperature and pressure of the air going into the turbine and the pressure of the turbine
exhaust, the theoretical maximum power of the turbine, i.e. the isentropic power, can also
be calculated. Turbine efficiency is specified as the ratio of the actual power to the
isentropic power. Other parameters which are also derived from the test are the mass flow
parameter, the blade speed ratio and the pressure ratio of the turbine. These parameters
are defined and described in subsection 5.2.4.
5.2.2 Measurements Taken and Processing to Obtain the Quantities Required in the
Energy Balance Equation
The basic measurements which were made at each condition are listed in Table 5.2.1: -

Position Measurement Correction To Obtain
Compressor Orifice T omp Or Offsets Comp. mass flow mc

Compressor Orifice Or & Offsets Comp. mass flow m,
Comp Or
Compressor Inlet Tcomp In Recovery factor Comp. inlet temperature T1
Compressor Inlet "Comp In Offsets Comp. inlet Mach No Maci
Compressor Exit Tcomp In Recovery factor Comp. exit temperature Tc2
Compressor Exit PComp In Offsets Comp. exit Mach No Mac2
Oil Inlet T None Oil inlet temperature T1
Oil Inlet Meter frequency Includes T 1 Oil mass flow mOil

Oil Exit T011 Exit None Oil exit temperature Toil2

Turbine Orifice TTOr None Turbine mass flow m
Trubine Orifice r'TurOI TurOr Offsets
Turbine mass flow mr
Turbine Inlet TT In Recovery factor Turbine inlet temperature To11
Turbine Inlet TwIn Offsets Turbine inlet total pressure POT1
Turbine Exit 'Tur Exit Offsets Turbine pressure ratio PRT
Shaft Frequency None Shaftspeedw
Test Cell Barometer None Atmospheric pressure P
Table 5.2.1 Measurements for the Energy Balance Method
181
The following notes clarify these measurements : -
A) Air mass flow rates : As explained in Chapter 3, orifice plate meters were used
for the determination of air mass flow rates for the turbine and compressor. Recovery
factors were not used for the thermocouples since the gas velocities upstream of the
meters were small enough to make the difference between measured and static
temperature negligible.
B) Oil mass flow rate : This was calculated in accordance with equation 3.3.21, in
which the inlet temperature measurement was taken immediately after noting the oil flow
meter frequency reading.
C) Temperature measurement and recovery factor correction : The

temperature readings could all be taken rapidly in a scan by computer. For this reason, the
temperatures were measured before and after the. pressure readings were logged
manually, in case there was any drift in the ten minute measurement time. The averaged
temperatures were used for the analysis with the exception of the oil temperatures, since
the second scan was carried directly after the noting oil flow meter frequency reading.
To obtain the recovery factor correction, the Mach number had to be determined as
detailed in section 3.3.3.
D) Pressure measurement and corrections : The pressure measurement meter

had a zero drift due to the electronics being affected by the test cell temperature. This zero
drift had to be recorded for both transducers in each test and used to correct the pressure
readings. Atmospheric pressure was measured within the cell before the rig was run
using a vernier mercury barometer. This was carried out about every hour or two. The
readings were converted to pressures based on a mercury temperature of 20CC, since the
effect of deviation of cell temperature from this figure was found to be negligible.
E) Determination of inlet turbine total pressure : Although the turbine inlet

total pressure was measured using a pitot probe at the centre of the inlet duct, this was not
used since the testing carried out on the volute indictated that the flow into the turbine rig
had fully developed pipe flow. Instead, a mean total pressure was calculated, based on
the static pressure plus the dynamic head used in the Mach number determination for the
thermocouple recovery correction. This value was lower than the measured pitot
pressure, and confirmed the presence of a non uniform velocity proffle at the turbine
inlet
F) Values for the Specific Heat Capacities, Cp of Air and Oil and ratio of
specific heats, 'yfor air : Values for Cp andç as functions of temperature, were
taken from tables by Fielding and Topps (1959). The values for Cp and y were given in
steps of 100 and linear interpolation was used to find the values of these quantities for all
182
temperatures. For the oil, a Shell Tellus oil 37, the value for Cp was obtained from the
manufacturers as a function of temperature. Cp for the oil was found to vary as a linear
function of temperature, and a least squares fit gave equation 5.2.1.

CP Oil = 1.8003 + 3.5397 x 10-3 x T C = 0.999 Eq 5.2.1
with C being the correlation coefficient, with C =1 being a perfect fit.
52.3 Error Analysis
An approximate error analysis was carried out for the calculation of compressor power,
heat to oil, and isentropic power based on the following maximum errors expected in the
terms given in Table 5.2.1. This was carried out for three cases, of minimum, an
intermediate and maximum compressor power, denoted cases (a), (b) and (c)
respectively. The magnitude of likely errors were either fixed, or a fraction of the
measured value. Since the method employed, Lonsdale (1985), required the use of
fractional errors to quantify the errors in derived results, the fixed error values were
converted to fractional errors for each of the three cases. The fractional errors were added
for quantities derived from multiplying or dividing other values. If the values were raised
to a particular power, then the error was multiplied by the exponent. This was beneficial
in the case of the mass flow, since the square root of the static pressure and differential
pressure are used for the mass flow calculation, hence the errors in these quantities are
halved. The assumptions for the basic reading errors are given in Table 5.2.2 and the
computed errors for derived quanties are presented in Table 5.2.3.
Ouantitv Fixed Error ± Fractional Error ± Means of Estimation

Pressure - LPT 2.0 mm H20 f (Reading Magnitude) Calibration error 1.0 mm
+ LVF* error
Pressure - HVF 2.0 mm Hg f ( Reading Magnitude) Calibration error 1.0 Hg
+ HPTt error
Pressure - Bart 0.3 mm Hg Constant 0.04% Barometer reading error
Temperature 0.2CC f ( Reading Magnitude) Estimate from calibration
experience
Air mass flow - 0.5% Additional error for Orifice
plate geometry accuracy
andBS 1042 accuracy.
Oil mass flow - 5% Estimate from Fig. 3.3.20
- 0.02% ± Two least significant bits
C-
of data
- 1% Given error
Cp oil
* Low pressure transducer High pressure transducer
Table 5.2.2 Basic Reading Error Estimation
183
Condition and compressor power (a) 2.04 - kW (b36.58-kW (c 69.70 - kW
Compressor mass flow 0.0 15 0.0 12 0.010
Compressor temperature rise 0.012 0.003 0.004
Turbine mass flow 0.016 0.010 0.010
Exponent (y —1/ y) 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004
Turbine isentropic temperature rise 0 .00 68 0.0063 0.0063
Oil mass flow 0.05 0.05 0.05
Oil temperature rise 0.045 0.028 0.016
Turbine isentropic power 0.0228 0.0163 0.0163
Compressor power 0.027 0.0147 0.0137
Heat to oil 0.105 0.088 0.076
Total to static efficiency 0.069 0.035 0.032
Table 5.2.3 Fractional Error Estimation Analysis for Conditions (a) to (c)
It can be seen from the error analysis that the errors in the experimental data could be
quite large, especially for the measurement of low powers. This analysis gives the
maximum errors, with the probable errors being lower than this. The error analysis was
considered useful in helping develop the rig to achieve more accurate results for later
tests. The importance of having accurate temperature measurement has been highlighted
by this work.
5.2.4 Presentation of Results
A) Turbine Efficiency verses Pressure Ratio : The turbine efficiency was based
upon the total pressure at the turbine inlet and static pressure, hence producing total to
static efficiency as defmed by equation 5.2.2.
- tual Power mc(Cpc i Toc i - Qc2T0c2) + th€ (cP OIlTOill - Cp0To0

1ts IsentropE Power
4TITOfl CPnTo{42] ,
Eq 5.2.2
The static pressure used for the calculation was the static pressure measured at the wall of
the exhaust duct and would usually be higher than the estimated mean static pressure in
the duct - see section 5.4.2 later.
A plot of the turbine efficiency is given in Fig. 5.2.1 for the full range of test conditions.
Each curve represents a constant speed line', with the speed given as a percentage of the
design non dimensional speed parameter NP/Tori, where N is the shaft speed and Tori
the turbine entry temperature. It is more helpful to plot the data in this way rather than
184
true speed, since the results can immediately be applied to other temperatures and speeds,
with the proviso that there may be some small conections for efficiency to be made for
differing Reynolds number - see section 3.1, Chapter 3.
The total to static efficiency of the turbine in the engine was estimated to be about 84% at
design point speed by Hill (1988), with the conditions of a turbine entry temperature of
1200 K and a pressure ratio of 4.7: 1. With the Reynolds number corrections given in
Chapter 3 for the test turbine entry temperature, the expected efficiency should be 3%
higher, bringing the figure to 87%. However, the rotor to casing tip clearances of the rig
at 0.43 mm were almost twice the value of 0.25 mm which it is hoped to aclueve in an
engine. An empirical correlation by Futral and Holeski (1970), giving the effect of tip
clearance on efficiency, was used to estimate this effect on efficiency. From this, the rig
turbine should have an efficiency of 1.5% lower than the engine case. The net effect of
Reynolds number and clearance meant that an efficiency of around 85% - 86% was
expected at the design point.
86
84
82 A
80
78
76 S N/IT=50%
C
0 N/ = 60%
74 . NPIT = 70%
D NNT=80%
72
A N/tF = 90%
N/IT= 100%
70
N/IT= 110%
68
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Turbme Total to Static Pressure Ratio
Figure 5.2.1 Total to Static Efficiency verses Pressure Ratio for the Turbine
Although the 4.7:1 pressure ratio was not reached, it is clear from Fig. 5.2.1 that the
efficiency peak for N1T = 100% is only 82%, and occurred at a pressure ratio of 3.2:1.
The efficiency maximums for the lower speeds reached around 83%, which appeared
good. The high value of efficiency at the 50% speed was not expected and was
considered high due to experimental errors. This explanation was confirmed by the
exhaust traverses, as given later on in this Chapter. Judging from the predictions and
experimental data given for a lower pressure ratio machine in Rodgers (1987), the design
185
point efficiency was expected to be around 2% better than the best 60% speed efficiency.
If the efficiency had increased by this amount, then the 85% efficiency would have been
reached. The shape of the curves, starting with a sharp incline and shallower decent,
followed the curves given in Rodgers (1987).
The design point efficiency should be higher than the best efficiency ax lower speed, since
the optimum velocity triangles should be achieved at both rotor inlet and exit for the
design point - see Fig. 5.2.2.
Incidence Angle 02
(+ve)
Absolute Gas
Velocity C2
Absolute Relative I I
flow Angle Velocity Radial Gas
W2 rVelocity C i2
a2
Gas Velocity C 82
Rotor Inlet Blade Speed U 2 Blade

Blat
Absolute Exit W3
Angle (+ve) Relative Flow
Angle 3
Absolute Exit
Axial \ Velocity3
Component
Cax3
Swirl Component C a3 Rotor Exit Blade Speed U3 - f(Radius)
Figure 5.2.2 Velocity Triangles for the Rotor
The gas flow angle relative to the blade at inlet is denoted the incidence angle and should
be zero to achieve the optimum velocity triangle. Strictly speaking, this is not exactly
true, since experimental evidence presented by Yeo and Baines (1990) and Woolley and
Hatton (1973) suggests that some negative incidence reduces the rotor inlet loss.
However, the optimum incidence will occur at a unique speed for a given pressure ratio.
At lower or higher pressure ratios, the incidence will change due to the nozzle exit
velocity changing. This has a strong effect on efficiency, since the rotor flow pattern is
disturbed which can cause separations and recirculations in the rotor passage. At the rotor
exit, any residual tangential or swirl component left in the exhaust gas means that kinetic
186
energy is wasted, in excess of the minimum possible amount incurred with having a
purely axial flow. The efficiency loss due to swirl gradually increases with swirl angle,
but is not nearly as bad a problem as rotor incidence, which is responsible for upsetting
the flow in the rotor, hence the dominance of the incidence loss on the efficiency.
An approximate method can be used to derive the pressure ratio for any rotor speed to
give the best efficiency as given by Whitfield and Baines (1990). If it is assumed that the
optimum efficiency occurs at zero incidence and the exit angle a 3 is zero, then it can be
shown that the best efficiency will occur when : -
I
1
-= '/=aoi whereCo=[2CP1T01{1- 2ic}] 53
The ratio of U2/C0 is usually termed the blade speed ratio, with C0 being the velocity
which would be obtained if the turbine inlet gas was expanded isentropically down to the
turbine exit static pressure. Experimental measurements of efficiency piotted against
U21C0 ratio for other radial turbines are given in a number of references, Futral and
Wasserbauer (1965), Kastner and Bhinder (1975), Rodgers (1987) and Nikpour (1990)
in which the efficiency peak occurs for U 2/C0 in the range 0.68 to 0.73.
B) Turbine Efficiency verses : The efficiencies given in Fig. 5.2.1 have
been replotted in the form of a plot of efficiency verses U21C0 ratio as given in
Fig. 5.2.3.
86
84
82
p.80
78
.
76
74
72
70
68
06 07 08 09
Blade Speed Ratio T.
Figure 5.2.3 Total to Static Efficiency as a Function of U 2/C0 Ratio
187
It can be seen that the maximum efficiency peaks at a 1J2/C0 ratio of about 0.7 for the first
three speeds, but moves to a value of 0.8 at the higher speeds. This result gave a clue as
to why the turbine may have suffered from low efficiency at the higher speeds, although
it was difficult to deduce exactly what was wrong. It was thought likely that the correct
velocity triangles were not being achieved at the desired speed, either by the geometry of
the turbine not being correct, or more likely due to the flow not following the desired
direction, either within the nozzle or blade passages, or by deviation at the nozzle exit or
rotor exit. Deviation is the terms used to describe the difference between the blade exit
setting angle and the actual flow angle of the gas relative to the blade. It was hoped that
the investigations of the nozzle static pressures, and exhaust shed more light as to why
the turbine was not performing as expected.
C) Turbine Capacity verses Pressure Ratio The capacity of the turbine was
another important characteristic to be determined, since this is essential for the modelling
of the engine and matching the capacity and pressure ratio to the compressor. In Fig.
5.2.4, plots of the mass flow parameter verses pressure ratio have been given. The mass
flow parameter is used in preference to the mass flow for the same reasoning as the non-
dimensional speed. It is not truly non dimensional, as with non-dimensional speed, but
allows the results to be used for different operating conditions, such as would be found in
the actual engine.
4.0
C
3.O
2.0
1.0
2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2
Mass Flow Parameter - mfJ T1 / Po1
Figure 5.2.4 Mass Flow Parameter Variation with Pressure Ratio
188
It was considered useful to check these results with those from the published data that
was available. The results of Kastner and Binder (1975) were as extensive as the results
given here but were for a vaneless design with a maximum pressure ratio of 2.0:1.
However, the curve shapes were similar, in that the mass flow parameter increased with
pressure ratio, with increasing slope. The rotor speed had the effect of lowering the
general level of the mass flow parameter which can be explained by the pressure drop
across the turbine being increased by the rotor speed. The gas travelling radially towards
the shaft axis experiences a centrifugal force which resists the flow, and can only be
compensated by an increase in pressure ratio. However, this will only be the case if the
nozzles are not choked, since the mass flow parameter will not be affected by a change in
nozzle exit back pressure, if the nozzle remain choked. The results given in Rodgers
(1987) show that for the design tested there, the mass flow parameter remained constant
after a pressure ratio of 3:1 was attained regardless of speed. However, there are only
two speed lines plotted which reach this pressure ratio and so it is difficult to make too
many conclusions from this.
5.3 Investigation of the Nozzle Inlet and Exit Flow
5.3.1 Derivation of Nozzle Flow Conditions from the Static Pressure Measurements
Sixteen wall static pressure measurements were made for each turbine test condition, at
the positions shown in Fig. 3.3.3, Chapter 3. Eight of these measurement positions were
upstream of the nozzle inlet and were used to determine the inlet flow velocity magnitudes
and angles at four different azimuth angles. From the volute testing, the inlet velocity had
already been established, as given in Chapter 4, and so the static pressure measurements
gave a partially independent means of establishing this for comparison. The one quantity
which could not be estimated from the volute measurements only was the total pressure at
the nozzles, hence the method is only partially independent. However, the total pressure
loss between volute inlet and nozzle inlet was small relative to the dynamic pressure at
nozzle inlet, hence the connection between the two methods is small. With an assumed
total pressure and measured static pressure, the local Mach number and density were
determined at the measurement points, which enabled the flow angles to be computed.
To obtain the total pressure at nozzle exit, it was necessary to use a published correlation
for total pressure loss in the nozzles as given by Rodgers (1987). The pressure loss in the
nozzles was found to be small using this correlation. The correlation is given later in the
next subsection. With the measured static pressure, the local Mach number and static
density were then calculated, to give the flow angle.
The static pressure tappings were not at the same radius as the inlet and exit of the nozzle,
189
and so it was necessary to extrapolate the flow conditions to obtain those actually at the
nozzle inlet and exit planes, using free vortex theory. However, the distance over which
the extrapolation was carried out was small, and so any en ors involved in this process
were small.
Since the nozzle exit conditions could be determined, it was possible to calculate the rotor
inlet incidence by extrapolating the results obtained at the static pressure tappings down in
radius. The incidence was determined by a consideration of the velocity triangles shown
in Fig. 5.2.2.
The nozzle calculations were coded into a Basic computer program, reading the data
directly from files created during testing as reported in Pond (1990).
53.2 Nozzle Inlet
A) Calculation Details : The total pressure loss within the volute was defined by a
dynamic pressure loss coefficient Y relative to the total pressure measured by the inlet
pitot tube, and based on the total to static pressure difference at the true start of the volute,
i.e station 0 as defined in Chapter 3. The total to static pressure difference at station 0
was found by using the measured mass flow, the area of the section at station 0 and the
static density to find the mean velocity using equation 5.3.1.
m
C t a tion = Eq 5.3.1
P so A0
The Mach number could be found by dividing the velocity C5 t a t jon0 by the the local sonic
velocity Cs, where:

Cs = '/'yRTs Eq 5.3.2
It was necessary to reach the solution for the Mach number at station 0 iteratively since
the static conditions were not known, using for the first guess, the total conditions,
assumed equal to those at the volute inlet duct entry. The total pressure at the nozzles was
then taken as the inlet total pressure minus Y times the dynamic pressure, where the value
of Y was taken as 0.12.
From each of the eight measured static pressures, it was possible to calculate the absolute
local Mach number M, using equation 5.3.2.
= 2 lcPo1
M Eq 5.3.3
- 1k PstiJ
where Po1 denotes the nozzle inlet total pressure and Ps 1 the measured static pressure.
The flow velocity C , as shown in Fig. 5.3.1, was then evaluated from the local sonic
velocity. The flow angle could be determined by first evaluating an effective flow area
190
A*ti based on each nozzle pressure reading. This area was calculated using the
relationship given as Eq 5.3.1, rearranged to give the area and based on the nozzle inlet
static density. The flow angle was then computed using equation 5.3.4.
..1 A*ti
a1=cos - Eq53.4
ti
where A i is the radial flow area at the radius of the static pressure tappings r This is
given by:
A i =2 , r 1 bi Eq 5.3.5
where b 11 is the axial passage width at the position of static pressure tappings.
To determine the flow velocity at the nozzle enny, it was first necessary to resolve the
velocity found at the pressure tapping position into tangential and radial components, CO
and Cri, as illustrated in Fig. 5.3.1.

Nozzle Geometry Angles Incidence 01 (+vc)
an
Cu crti
STATIC TAPPINGS con Ci

UPSTREAM OF N0771 E cr
rti Cei
I NOZZLE ENTRY I
ri
a2
C2
CO2
STATIC TAPPINGS
I NOZZLE EXITI
n62+ve\ r DOWNSTREAM
OF NOZZLES
Figure 5.3.1 Velocity Triangles for the Nozzle Inlet and Exit
191
Using free vortex theory, the tangential velocity at the nozzle entry C was calculated by
multiplying CO1 by the the ratio r 1 Ir . The radial velocity Cr 1 calculated on the basis
of the reduction of radial flow area due to the reduction in radius and the narrowing of the
axial passage width. Cr1 was hence found by multiplying Cru by the ratio of A i / ,
whereA 1 was theradial areaat the nozzle inlet. The flow anglea 1 could becalculated as
the inverse tangent of the ratio of CO1 to Cr1.
The incidence angle 01 could then be found by subtracting the nozzle setting angle from
the flow angle.
B) Results : The nozzle incidence angle is plotted in Fig. 5.3.2 as a function of

azimuth angle for a selection of operating conditions. It is apparent from the graph that
the incidence angle did not change significantly for different conditions, with the highest
variation being less than 3°. Variations were expected due to the phasing of the tappings
relative to the nozzles as well as the overall spacing of the tappings around the azimuth -
see Fig. 3.3.3. The data denoted A, tappings 0201 to 0204, refers to the nozzle tappings
on the shroud side and B refers to the other wall pressure taps 0205 to 0208.
11
10
A: N'IT=50%, P.R.= 1.43
9
•--.-a---- B: NIT=50%, P.R.=1.43
8 -0--- A: NIT=70%, P.R.=2.05
------• B: N/T=70%, P.R.=2.05
1 j. A: NIT=9O%, P.R.=3.59
&-- B: N1T=9O%, P.R.=3.59
A: NJT=100%, P.R.=354
-----•.--. B: NIT=100%, P.R.=334
N A: NIT=1 10%, P.R..=4.12
-- - . 4- ... B:N'IT=1I0%,P.R=4.12
2
•...u-... From Volute
I
0'
0 90 180 270 360
Azimuth Angle-•
Figure 5.3.2 Nozzle Inlet Incidence Angles
The data from wall B gave results not to dissimilar to those obtained from the volute
investigation. It is interesting to note that the incidence angle at the 35° azimuth angle,
from the volute analysis is about the average of that calculated from the nozzle static
pressure tappings. The incidence at this point may not be uniform across the nozzle
width. One place of major discrepancy between the results from wall A and B, occurs at
192
the 207° azimuth angle. It is possible that the high incidence at wall A is due to a
consistantly erroneous static pressure measurement A leak in the pressure tapping tubing
or elsewhere could be responsible, although all the tappings were tested carefully. The
finish of the pressure tapping was also checked for burrs, but appeared to be satisfactory.
It was possible that a leak may possibly have occurred when the rig was heated up by the
inlet air, and resealed as it cooled.
Since the incidence was positive on the nozzles it is likely to reduce the likelihood of flow
separation from the nozzle vane suction surface. This was better than having negative
incidence which might induce separation on this surface.
The absolute inlet Mach numbers were also plotted for the same points in Fig. 5.3.3. The
variation was similar to the variation of incidence which follows from the method of
calculation. It will be noted that the lines begin to converge with increasing pressure ratio
as the nozzle approaches the point of choking.
0.40
0.38
A NIT=5O%, P.R.=1.43
0.36 B: N'T=5O%, P.R.=1.43
A: NIT=70%, P.R.=2.05
0.34
B:N'IT=70%, P.R.=2.05
• 0.32 .1. A:NdT=90%, P.R.=3.59
B:N'F=9O%, P.R.=3.59
0.30 A:NIT=100%, P..R.=3.54
B:NIT=100%, P.R.=3.54
• 0.28
A N'IT=llO%, P.R.=4.12
0.26 B: NIT=11O%, P.R.=4.12
0.24
0.22
0 90 180 270 360
Azimuth Angle -
Figure 5.3.3 Absolute Nozzle Inlet Mach number
5.3.3 Nozzle Exit andRotor Inlet
A) Calculation Details It was necessary to assume a value for the total pressure
Po2 at the nozzle exit to use with the measured static pressures to obtain the nozzle exit
velocity. This was carried out by using an enthalpy loss coefficient CN as shown in
193
equation 5.3.6, taken from Baines and Whitfield (1990)
(Yi) 2\ T-1
- M2) Eq 5.3.6
P02—po1(1 2
The value for CN was calculated from the equation from Rodgers (1987) : -
0.05 3tana 2 scosa2

Eq 5.3.7
1/ S/ + b
Re 5 /C
where s is the blade spacing at exit, c is the blade chord, b is the passage height, Reb is
the Reynolds number defined by : -
2
Reb= P Eq 5.3.8
J.L
and j.t is the gas dynamic viscosity.

Using equation 5.3.3, with the total and measured static pressures at the nozzle exit
tappings, the local Mach number was calculated. The flow angle a2 and the tangential
and radial velocity components C0t2 and Cr were then found using the same method as
used at the nozzle inlet. Since the passage axial width was constant, the flow angle
remained constant in the nozzle/rotor interspace, assuming free vortex flow and negligible
boundary layer growth. The nozzle exit angle and rotor inlet angle were hence the same
as that calculated at the static pressure tapping radius.
The method relies on the assumption of a fairly low loss in the nozzles, which would
only be the case if the nozzles operate correctly. It is shown later that, for the turbine
tested here, this may not be the case, and this will introduce some uncertainty in the
results shown here.
B) Results : The first result to be shown is the variation of the nozzle deviation angle
around the four azimuth angle positions and the two walls. It is not possible to present all
the data in this way, but a selection of results is given in Fig. 5.3.4.
The variation in angle was small, being at most, just over 2°, although exaggerated by the
graph. It was interesting to note that the shape of the plots is similar to those for the inlet
incidence. However, the descrepancy found for the inlet conditions at an azimuth angle
270° was not found here, supporting the hypothesis that one of the inlet static pressure
tappings was defective. The exit Mach number was also plotted in a similar way - see
Fig. 5.3.5.
194
4
A: NIT=50%, P.R.= 1.43

3 ----a---- B: NIT=50%, P.R.= 1.43
0 -0-- A: NIT=70%, P.R.=2.05
-------- B: NIT=70%, P.R.=2.05
A: Nft=90%, P.R.=3.59
. •------- B: NIT=90%, P.R.=3.59

.
A: NIT=100%,P.R.=334
•.m B: N'IT=l00%, P.R.=3.54
1 A: NT=110%,P.R.=4.12
......j-... B:N'IT=110%,P.R.=4.12
0'
0 90 180 270 360
Azimuth Angle -°
Figure 5.3.4 The Variation of Nozzle Exit Deviation with Azimuth Angle
0.9
.. L.
. . - -
A: NIT=50%, P.R.=1.43
I
, 0.8 -----a--- B: NIT=50%, P.R.=l.43
—o--- A: NIT=70%, P.R.=2.05
-------- B: NIT=70%, P.R.=2.05
A: NIT=90%, P.R =3 .59
0.7 a---- B: NIT=90%, P.R.=3.59

A: NIT=100%, P.R.=3.54
V
-----•--- B: NIT=100%, PR.=3.M
0
z A: NIT=1 10%, P.R.=4.12
0.6
-----I---- B: NIT=1l0%, Pit =4.12
. S ..
0.5'
0 90 180 270 360
Azimuth Angle -
Figure 5.3.5 The Variation of Nozzle Exit Mach Number with Azimuth Angle
195
The two azimuth angles at which the exit Mach number is greatest appear to correspond
with the places of lowest nozzle inlet incidence, and this may be due to variations in
nozzle total pressure loss being associated with nozzle incidence. This shows that non-
uniformity in the inlet flow is transmitted to the flow after the nozzles and hence to the
rotor.
To allow the whole data to be viewed, the results for the individual tappings were
averaged to give a mean deviation for each condition. This is shown in Fig. 5.3.6.
3
a N//T=50%
0
2
• Nf/T=60%
• N//T=70%
2
:11
-1
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Nozzle Exit Mach Number
Figure 5.3.6 Averaged Nozzle Deviation as a Function of Mach Number
The deviation angle appears to be a function of Mach Number only for low Mach
numbers, but is dependent on rotor speed above a Mach number of about 0.65. The
increase of deviation angle with Mach number agrees with the findings of Hiett and
Johnston (1963), who also show an increasing deviation angle with Mach number, but
they do not present the effects of different speeds. The effect of speed on deviation is
given in Benson (1965), but this is for a much lower exit Mach number of 0.2. Here, the
effect of speed on deviation depended on the design of the nozzles. The magnitudes of the
deviation angles measured here were generally lower than those given in the literature
mentioned.
The results of the rotor inlet calculation have again been presented to show the variations
of rotor incidence as experimentally determined at the eight exit pressure tapping
locations. These are shown in Fig. 5.3.7.
196
50
40
A: N/T=50%, P.R.= 1.43
30 ..o... B: NT=50%, P.R.1.43

0
-0-- A; N1T=70%, P.R.=2.05
•"-- B: NIT=70%, P.R.=2.05
120 A: N=9O%, P.R.=3.59
.10 -.--..--- B: N=9O%, P.R..z3.59
A: N1T=100%, P.R.=3.54
..-...-.-. B: N'I]=10O%, PJt=3.54
A: N'h=110%, P.R.=4.12
----I---- B: NiT=110%, P.R.4.12
-30 .
0 90 180 270 360
Azimuth Angle -
Figure 5.3.7 The Variation of Rotor Inlet Incidence with Azimuth Angle
The variations of calculated incidence appeared to be substantial, with over 5° fluctuation

from a mean value for some of the cases. This had to be held in mind whilst viewing the
averaged results for rotor inlet incidence. The circurnferentially averaged results are given
in Fig. 5.3.8, with rotor incidence being plotted against efficiency.
85
0
75
70
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Rotor Incidence-°
Figure 5.3.8 Total to Static Efficiency as a Function of Rotor Inlet Incidence
197
This graph was plotted to see if there was a link between the efficiency peaks and the
rotor incidence. At the lowest speed, NIT = 50%, the efficiency peak occurred at an
incidence angle of around -10° to -20°, which is what would be expected from results
given in the literature - Rodgers (1987), Yeo and Baines (1990). However, the efficiency
peak is shown to shift to positive incidence at higher speeds. l'his was not as expected
and gave further evidence that something was not right in the nozzle at the higher speeds
and pressure ratios. If the nozzle loss was higher than calculated, then the true deviation
at the nozzle exit would be higher, since the nozzle exit Mach number would be lower
from having a lower dynamic pressure. This was one of the limitations of just having
static pressure tappings which will only give the correct Mach numbers if the correct total
pressure is known. This is further discussed in section 5.5.
5.4 Investigation of the Rotor Exhaust Flow
5.4.1 The Aims of the Exhaust Traverse
The aims of the exhaust traverse were twofold: an independent means of turbine
efficiency determination, and the establishment of the flow conditions leaving the rotor.
For the former, the energy flow in the exhaust could be found by integration of the flow
properties, measured as a function of radius from the centre of the exhaust. This allowed
the power and efficiency of the turbine to be determined. Since a mean static and total
pressure were found in the exhaust, the isentropic power could be based on either of
these pressures to give the total to static and total to total efficiencies respectively.
The exit flow conditions of the rotor were determined from consideration of the velocity
triangles shown in Fig. 5.2.2. These results had to be used with caution, due to the
nature of the rotor exit, in which the hub line radius goes to zero abruptly. The exit air
must flow into this space, and hence the flow at the lower radii would be disrupted.
5.4.2 Temperatures, Pressures and Velocities in the Turbine Exhaust
A) Measurements : The conditions in the turbine exhaust were determined using the
traversing probe which is described in section 3.3.4. In this section, a description is also
given of the calculation method used for obtaining the flow conditions at each
measurement position and the raw data required.
Readings were taken at eleven positions across the exhaust duct to give the best tradeoff
between having sufficient spacial resolution and not too great an experimental time. Two
traverses were carried out for each turbine operating condition, with the line of traverse
mutually at 90° to each other - see Fig. 3.2.16. Each of the two traverses of the exhaust
took up to 45 minutes to complete, and the conditions in the rig changed slightly in this
198
period. The most critical of the measurements was that of temperature, and so, for each
measurement point, the temperature of a fixed thermocouple in the exhaust was recorded.
The temperature measurements made using the probe were then coffected to account for
any drift in mean exhaust temperature.
B) Results : The results at this stage required further processing to allow the turbine
efficiency to be established. However, the gas flow angles in the exhaust were of interest,
since swirl velocity in the exhaust represents one of the loss mechanisms in the turbine.
The swirl angle is the flow angle relative to the duct axis. At the design point, this should
coincide with having the best incidence at rotor inlet for lowest incidence loss. There is
some flexibility to this, since the energy loss due to exit swirl does not increase
significantly if the swirl angle is below about 30°. This can be shown by consideration of
the velocity triangle in Fig. 5.2.2. The absolute exit velocity is inversely proportional to
the cosine of the swirl angle and so the kinetic energy loss is proportional to the inverse
square of the swirl angle. A 30° swirl angle will hence give an extra loss of 1.33 times
the loss incurred in a purely axial flow. The measured gas flow angles have been
presented in Figs. 5.4.1 to 5.4.3 for three speeds with varying pressure ratio. The results
from the horizontal and vertical traverses have been shown to illustrate the variations of
measured angle in the two traverses. For each speed, the swirl angle is negative at low
pressure ratio. As the pressure ratio is increased, the mass flow rate increases, hence
increasing the rotor exit velocity.
20
—o— HT-NNT=50%P.R=1
10
0 -----I--- VT-N/tT=5O%,PJ(= 1.80

0
.L HT-Nf/T=5O%JR=l3 1
-20 e–• -N/T-5O%PR=l31
-30 —a--- HT-Nm=5O%PR= 137
-40 x-- VT-N//T-5O%.R=l37

-50
-60
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Radius-mm
Figure 5.4.1 Measured Gas Swirl Angles in the Turbine Exhaust - 50% Speed
199

40
-0--- HT-N/IT-70%P
20
0
.--..•-.- VT-N/*=7O%P
I)
00
-20
VT-N//T-7O%P
HT-N//T-70%P
••*-•• VT-NPIT=7O%P
-60
- I.U.IS
I •
-80
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Radius - mm
50

30 HT-NPT-9O%Y.R=3.58
VT-N/'/T=9O%;PR=338
10
HT-NfJT=90%;P.R=2.69
--.4
-10
---..-.- VT-N//T=9O%;PR=2.69

-30 }IT-N/IT=90%;P.R=2.1 1
z:: • •
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Radius - mm
For the 50% speed, shown in Fig. 5.4.1, it is interesting to note that the swirl angle
profile for the intermediate pressure ratio was very different from that of the lower and
higher pressure ratios. This was explained by further examination of the data, in which it
was found that the axial velocity was not constant across the duct, but had a different
profile for each of the three conditions. The axial velocity affects the flow angle as well as
the tangential velocity component as evident from viewing Fig. 5.22. The swirl at the
highest pressure ratio is fairly low, and would hence give a low loss. However, at this
speed, the highest efficiency occurs at a pressure ratio of about 1.3 - see Fig. 5.2.1. At
this condition, the rotor incidence was about optimum, see Fig. 5.3.8, but the exit angle
200
was between -40° and -60°. This illustrates that the rotor incidence loss is more significant
than the exit swirl loss as discussed earlier. The swirl angle profiles for the 70% speed
showed that the swirl at the highest efficiency was less than m the case of the 50% speed.
This should be expected, if a low swirl angle was to be achieved at the design point. At
the 90% speed, the swirl was found to be moderately positive at the highest pressure
ratio, which gave a blade speed ratio of about 0.7. The efficiency should have been
highest for this condition, for the reasons explained earlier, but the departure from this
cannot now be attributed to excess swirl in the exhaust.
The distributions of other flow properties, as a function of exhaust duct radius, are
shown in Figs. 5.4.4.and 5.4.5.
55
$
. U U
45 a HT-NO%PR=338
a VT-NItF=9O%,PR.=338
U
0 O%PR.=2.1 1
• HT-N/
a VT-N/iT=9O%;P.R.=2.1 1
E
U I'
o HT-NNT=70%P.R.=2.45
E 25
(2 a
4- VT-N/IT=70%,PJt.=2.45
I
0 I x HTN/sIT=50%;P.R.=137
15 +
• VT-N/IF=50%P.R.=1 .37
•.
I I
5 HT = HOriZOntal Traverse
•A
VT = Vertical Traverse
-5 .
-45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45
Radius - mm
Figure 5.4.4 The Variation of Total Temperature in the Exhaust Duct for Several
Conditions
In Fig. 5.4.4, the total temperature distribution has been plotted for four different
conditions, showing both horizontal and vertical traverses for each condition. It can be
seen that the results of the two traverses agree well and so give an indication that the
method is consistent. Secondly, the variation in total temperature is such that it would be
difficult to determine, with any accuracy, the total temperature using fixed thermocouples
unless a large number were used, perhaps as many as the number of measurement points
taken in the traverse. The temperature proffle shape varies from test to test, although the
lowest temperature was always found at the centre of the exhaust.
201
1.2
Ix Densityl
1.1
a Total Pressure
1.0
• Static pressure
0.9
-45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45
Radius - mm
Figure 5.4.5 The Variation of Pressures and Density in the Exhaust Duct for One
Condition
For one condition, the variation of static and total pressure and density have been plotted
in Fig. 5.4.5. This example is the condition of 90% speed and a pressure ratio of 2.11,
and represents a case with high swirl and hence the worst pressure gradients. This again
shows that there are large variations in the duct, which can only be established by a
number of measurements across the duct. The static pressure at the centre of the duct will
always be lower than the wall static pressure if the exhaust gas has a swirl velocity
component A radial pressure field is required to provide the centripetal force, to maintain
the rotary flow around the axis of the duct.
5.4.3 Evaluation of the Turbine Power and Efficiencies
A) Calculation Method : To obtain the output power of the turbine, it was necessary
to calculate the mean properties of the exhaust gas. The simplest way of doing this was to
average the total temperature distribution to give a mean value. The temperature was
measured at ten discrete points but, since they were smoothly distributed (see Fig.
5.4.4), the temperature profile could be accurately described as a continuous function by
fitting a polynomial curve to the data. In fact, a number of quadratic functions were fitted
piecewise to sets of three adjacent data points. The temperature was then integrated with
an area weighting. The mean temperature is hence given: -
(,rwu çO
2c 11 To3 (r).r.dr To3 (r).r.dr
-rg
To 3 = Eq 5.4. 1
2icr
202

where Twall is the radius of the exhaust duct and (r) denotes a funcfii of r. Since the
integration was done from positive to negative radius, the integration had to be done in
two parts to evaluate the absolute value of the integral. The output power of the turbine
can be found by evaluating the energy balance: -

= ri(Cp 1To 1 - Cp3To 3 ) Eq 5.4.2
A more accurate method to establish the power of the turbine is to calculate the energy in
the exhaust based on mass flow weighting. Here, the variations of mass flow and Cp3
with radius are accounted for, as well as the area effect. First, the products of axial
velocity C, density P3' Cp3 and total temperature have to be found for all the data
points to obtain a new profile as a function of r. This can be integrated as shown in
equation 5.4.3, to give exhaust energy.
(r1 fo
E3 = 2E
f PC3ax Cp 3 To3(r).r.dr
0 TwaIl
pC Q' 3 To 3 (r).r dr
)
Eq 5.4.3
To obtain the turbine power, the exhaust energy in equation 5.4.3 must first be divided by
the integrated mass flow rate as computed by the integration of the axial velocity, density
and radius. This gives the mean value of the product Cp3To3 , and compensates for
any error in the integrated mass flow. This can then be placed into equation 5.4.2 and the
turbine power calculated.
The integration of properties in the exhaust was also carried out to find the mean static
and total pressures. From these, the isentropic power was computed using the
denominator of equation 5.2.2, with the relevant pressure ratio. The total to static
efficiency was then found by dividing the actual power by the isentropic power based on
the total to total pressure ratio, and the total to static efficiency in a similar way but using
the total to static pressure ratio. For comparison, the efficiency was also calculated based
on the total to static pressure as measured by the exhaust wall static pressure tappings.
During the traversing tests, enough readings were taken to allow the actual turbine power
to be evaluated by finding the sum of the compressor power and heat to oil as explained
in section 5.2.2. In this way, a direct comparison could be made between the two
methods of obtaining the turbine actual power. The measurements for the energy balance
method were taken before and after each traverse, and the results averaged, to
compensate for any drift occurring during the traversing.
B) Error Analysis : The accuracy of the efficiency determination, based on the

exhaust traverse, could be determined using the results of the error analysis carried out in
section 5.2.3. Since the mass flow term cancelled out in the efficiency calculation, the
only errors which could occur were in the temperature and pressure readings. A table
203

similar to Table 5.2.3 was constructed, given as Table 5.4.1.
Turbine Power 4.05 - kW 29.39 - kW 71.68 - kW

Measured temperature difference 0.0 15 0.006 0.004
Iseniropic temperature difference 0.007 0.006 0.006
Efficiencies 0.022 0.012 0.010
Table 5.4.1 Fractional Error Estimation Analysis for the Exhaust Traverse
C) Results : The first result to be presented is the comparison between the energy
balance and exhaust traverse methods for efficiency determination. This is presented in
Fig. 5.4.6, in which the datum efficiency has been taken as the traverse value, considered
to be more accurate.
8 I
I
OCo. power + heat to
6
_
- - - -
0
U
-2
-6
I t F
Error bands based on Table 5.2.3
-
Baseline = Exhaust Traverse Results
-8 I I lilt
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Turbine Power - kW
Figure 5.4.6 Comparison between the Energy Balance and Exhaust Traverse
Efficiency Determination Methods
Also included on the graph are the error bands for the energy balance method, in which
the actual results lie well inside, with a scatter that would be expected given that the error
bands show the worst possible error.
The mass flow, as calculated from the traverse, was compared to the mass flow measured
at the orifice meter, to help indicate the accuracy of the velocity measurements. The
comparison was made in terms of the fractional difference between the two methods as
given in Fig. 5.4.7.
204
0.10
0.05
j0.00
-0.05
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Turbine Mass Flow Rate - Kg/s
Figure 5.4.7 Comparison of Mass Flow Determination by Orifice Meter

and Exhaust Traverse
The accuracy of the integrated mass flow result was considered to be good, with the
general trend of over estimation of mass flow likely to be due to the method of
calculation. In the calculation, the axial velocity profile was extrapolated to the exhaust
wall, without taldng into account the boundary layer. In Miller and Ecuyer (1985), similar
work was carried out to survey the exhaust of a radial turbine rotor. In this, the thickness
of the boundary layer was estimated and adjusted to give the same integrated mass flow
as was measured by an orifice flow meter into the turbine.
The comparison was made between the different ways for calculating the efficiency as
given in Fig. 5.4.8. The total to total and total to static efficiencies, denoted 'True total'
and 'True static', were those calculated from the mass flow averaged integration of
exhaust energy and averaged total and static pressures. These were considered to be the
most accurate results. The difference between the total to static and total to total efficiency
varied from 1.5 to 3.5 percentage points in efficiency, with this being due to the kinetic
energy left in the exhaust from the rotor. Also shown is the total to static efficiency as
calculated from the area weighted mean temperature, denoted 'MT static', and the total to
static efficiency based on the exhaust wall static pressure, denoted 'Wall static'. The
method based on mean temperature was found to differ by up to one percentage point
from the correct value, and fluctuated either side of the correct value. Given that the mass
flow weighted result only required a more complicated data processing algorithm but no
additional measurements, it was considered a worthwhile exercise to incorporate this into
the efficiency calculation. The total to static efficiency calculated from the wall statics was
205
found to be even further out from the correct value, with differences of up to 1.5
efficiency points. This shows that the total to static efficiency, as calculated from the
exhaust wall static pressure tappings gives an over estimate.
87
-0-- True Static-NIT=50%
True Total-NqT=50%
85 WaStauc?th=50%
MT S-N(I(Th
- - * a _ -a - _ - _ -
83 -----_-
-- -a- -
0•••
. -- - a a
,81
.
79 True Sta1ic-NT=7O%
••---x •-- True TotaI-NT=7O%
&--- Wall Static-NIT=70%
77 *-••• MTStatic-N'IT=70%
- - -0- -. True Static-N'/T=90%
75 - - -x- -. True TotaI-N1T=9O%
- - -a-- Wall Static-N'/T=9O%
- - -a— -. MT StaticNsIT=9O%
73
1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6
Turbine Total to Static Pressure Ratio
Figure 5.4.8 Comparison between the Different Measures of Efficiency
5.4.4 The Rotor Exit Flow Conditions
The deviation of the rotor exit flow from the blade setting angle was also evaluated.
Deviation mainly occurs due to the sudden increase in axial flow area experienced by the
gas when it leaves the rotor. The area increases because the rotor blades represented a
substantial blockage area. This reduces the axial velocity of the gas, and therefore the
relative flow angle turns away from the direction of the exhaust duct axis. The deviation
was found by calculating the relative velocity and angle of the exit gas from the velocity
triangle shown in Fig. 5.2.2, and then by subtracting the relative flow angle from the
blade exit angle. The deviation angles have been plotted in Fig. 5.4.9, for the 70% speed
which is typical of the other speeds. At the rotor tip, these angles was found to vaiy in
therange4°to amaximumof about 10°, and at the mean line radius, 2°to 14°. At the hub
radius, the deviation varied from -32°to 24°as might be expected due to the abrupt end of
therotordisc,whichleftacoreareaforthegastoflowinto.Thereappearstobeatrend
in the deviation angle going from low to high pressure ratio. At the high pressure ratio,
the deviation increases as the radius decreases. This follows from the geometry of the
206
rotor exit, in which there is an increasing amount of blade blockage near to the rotor hub.
25
-D-- HT-P.R-2.45
15
---s--- VT-P.Rz2.45
)
5
HT-P.R=2.05
-5
----a--- VT-P.R=2.05
S -15
I -0--- m-P.R-1.62
-25 "N" VT-P.R=1.62
I • I • I • I • I
35
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Radius - mm
Figure 5.4.9 Rotor Exit Deviation for 70% Non Dimensional Rotor Speed
Here, the absolute swirl is quite low. However, for the conditions of lower pressure
ratio, the deviation angle is increasingly negative towards the hub. The reasons for this
are not entirely clear, but may be connected with the abrupt end of the rotor hub reducing
the absolute swirl.
5.5 Rig Component Examination, Further Calculations and Summary
5J.1 Rig Component Era,nination
The results achieved for turbine efficiency by both the energy balance and exhaust
traverse methods appeared to be consistent. However, the velocity ratio at which the
efficiency peaked was higher than expected, particularly at the higher speeds. The
magnitude of the efficiency peak for the higher speeds was also lower than expected,
given that the conditions of peak efficiency at the lower speeds occurred when there was
substantial swirl in the exhaust After being convinced that the unexpected result was not
due to a mistake in the experiment, the rig was dismantled. The most likely cause of the
problem was revealed by the witness marks of particles on the nozzles. It appeared that
the flow in the nozzles had separated on the suction surface ax one of the nozzle walls. An
207
illustration of the witness marks is given in Fig. 5.5.1.
View of Nozzle Wall
Witness mark Light pitting crators
View of Nozzle Suction Surface
Figure 5.5.1 Examination of the Nozzle Passage after Rig Strip
Small crater marks were also visible on the suction surface, and these were believed to be
due to dirt particles being centrifuged onto the nozzle after hitting the rotor. The cause of
the separation was not altogether clear, although one possibility was that the radius of
curvature between the volute and nozzle entiy was too small - see volute section view in
Fig. 3.2.9. This radius only occurred on the side in which the separation had occurred.
Another possibility was that there had been leakage through the interface between the
nozzle end and the sealing plate - see Fig. 3.2.11. This was thought less likely due to the
dirt and imprint which had been found on the sealing plate. Whilst the rig was
dismantled, the nozzle was checked to see whether any gap had appeared, but this was
not the case.
5.5.1 Investigation of the Rotor using the Euler Turbomachinery Equation
The effect of a separation occurring in the nozzles would be to cause a substantial drop in
total pressure after the nozzles. This would result in the total to static pressure differential
208

being much lower than calculated previously and hence the rotor inlet Mach number
would also be much lower. It is possible to calculate the rotor inlet Mach number by
using the Euler turbomachinery equation 5.5.1. Fig. 5.2.2 may be referred to for some of
the notation.

% = (Ue2 - U3Ce3) Eq 5.5.1
The output power of the turbine, the mass flow rate, and the rotor tip speeds were all
known with a high degree of confidence due to the consistency of the results mentioned
earlier. One difficulty was determining the mean swirl velocity Ce3, accurately. From the
traverse results, a value for Ce3 can be estimated, based on the average of the four radial
traverses. Since U3 is smaller than U2, the error in Ce3 will not strongly affect the
calculation of Ce2. The calculation was carried out, and the results compared to the rotor
inlet velocities calculated on the basis of the nozzle static pressure readings and assumed
nozzle exit total pressure. Since the extent of the nozzle separation was probably related
to Reynolds number, the difference between the two calculations was plotted against the
Reynolds number at the nozzle exit, based on the nozzle throat characteristic dimension.
This is shown as Fig. 5.5.2.
40
30
2O
• I •

100000 200000 300000 400000
Nozzle Exit Reynolds No
Figure 5.5.2 A Comparison between the Two Methods of Calculating Rotor Inlet
Tangential Velocity
A discrepancy between the two methods was found which gave further indication that the
assumed nozzle loss was inaccurate, and gave more evidence that the unexpected
characteristics of the turbine were due to separation in the nozzles. The separation
appeared to become more serious at higher Reynolds numbers which is consistant with a
more marked departure from the expected turbine characteristic at the higher pressure
ratios. To prevent the separation problem, the geometry of the volute needs to be
209
modified. The most satisfactory way of doing this would be to increase the volute exit
plane diameter, thus allowing a larger radius to be used in the duct connecting the volute
to the nozzle inlet. This would mean a redesign and remachining of the volute. This could
be done in the rig by replacing the epoxy inside the aluminium casings. Alternatively, a
plate could be inserted into the current volute as shown in Fig. 5.5.3.
Vo1e
PWt Ukse
Nozz]
Figure 5.5.3 Volute Plate Insert
This solution would probably work but would not be suitable for use in the engine due to
its complexity. For this reason, it may be a good choice as a means of quickly allowing
the turbine to be retested, but would not be sufficient as a way of validating a suitable
final design for the engine.
5J.3 Swnmary
From the experimental testing of the radial turbine the following has been achieved: -
a) A rig for testing of a high pressure ratio radial turbine has been successfully
commissioned and run for a wide range of operating conditions.
b) A simple method of efficiency determination, based on the energy balance

method, has been demonstrated and shown to be consistent with the more
accurate exhaust traverse method, within the estimated experimental error.
c) A problem in the geometiy of the turbine has become apparent as a result of

the testing. This appears to be concerned with the section of duct linking the
volute to the nozzle entry and this would need to be modified.
d) The results obtained at the low speed conditions give every indication that the
expected design efficiency should be reached if the flow out of the nozzles is
correct for the higher pressure ratios.
210
6 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE HIGH SPEED
ALTERNATOR TEST FACILITIES
6.1 Initial Rig Requirements
At the start of the alternator project, only tentative designs were available for the geometry
of the alternators rotors and stators. Since rig testing was to play an important role in the
understanding of both the electrical and mechanical aspects of the design, it was decided
to build a test facility for this purpose. It was desirable to achieve the alternator design
speed of 100 k.r.p.m. for the rig but it was not deemed necessary to test a complete
multidisc alternator, due to the modular construction of the device. Preliminary design
at
studies had shown that, ieast three stages would be needed for the complete alternator,
Fenocchi (1987) and therefore, the maximum drive power requirement of the rig was to
be at least a third of the maximum power requirement of 50 kW. Later design
developments showed that, in fact more than three stages would be needed,reducing the
ng power requffements.
It was intended that the final design, with the full complement of discs, would be tested
using the demonstrator gas turbine as a drive as shown in Fig. 1.1.1.
For the alternator rig, the following facilities were required: -
i) A balanced shaft onto which would be mounted a minimum of two magnet

discs and two keeper discs. The shaft was to be driven up to 100 k.r.p.m. by
a controllable power source of up to 17 kW.
ii) A carrier to mount the stator coils with 3-phase connectors to a variable
electrical resistance with a phase current capability of up to 60 Amps.
iii) Instrumentation to allow stator phase output voltage and current, shaft speed
and stator temperatures to be measured.
6.2 Commissioning and Development of the Mk I Rig
6.2.1 Description of the Initial Setup of the Mk I Rig
A number of different ways were considered for driving the rig, such as a geared up
electric motor, but the simplest method was judged to be an air turbine. The basis of a rig
was designed and manufactured within Rolls-Royce for the purpose of driving the
alternator at high speed as described in Barwell er a! (1987). The rig was based on a
commercially available turbocharger, whose compressor was replaced by a coupling
which drove a shaft onto which the alternator rotors were mounted. The rig had not been
run to any appreciable speed before being delivered to the College, but was run with a
211
dummy disc up to 30 k.r.p.m., after installation, as described in Chapter 2. The shaft
arrangement is shown in Fig. 6.2.1, onto which the Mk I rotors are mounted.
COMPRESSED AIR -.'
Turbocharger Roller bearing

V
Figure 6.2.1 The Shaft Arrangement for the Mk I Rig
The speed measurement was carried out using a phonic wheel and a light sensor probe
and the stator carrier was mounted on three posts extending from the bearing housing and
the stator was bonded to the carrier with epoxy resin.
The overall rig installation is shown in Fig. 6.2.2, in which the air supply is shown
connected to the turbine. There are three valves in the air line, an isolator gate valve, a
control valve, and an emergency shutoff valve. The control valve consisted of a butterfly
valve driven by a stepper motor, through a gearbox. The emergency stop valve consisted
of another butterfly valve, sprung loaded in the closed position. The air turbine exhausted
into a large plenum box for the purposes of reducing noise. This was especially important
because vibration and bearing problems were initially detected by listening to the noise
produced by the shaft.
For protection, in the event of a disc burst, the alternator was surrounded in a thick
stainless steel drum. In addition, a sandbag shield mounted on a slider was used for
added safety. The turbocharger bearings were serviced with purpose built oil system, and
the rolling element bearings by a drip feed from a small tank. The oil flow to the roffing
element bearings was deliberately low, to prevent overheating due to churning losses.
212
Inlet airfrom
Sandbag shield
Howden canjxessor
Figure 6.2.2 The Alternator Rig Installation
For the electrical output, special purpose 3-phase, low inductance bus bars were designed
by Horton (1988) and manufactured from 2 mm thick copper sheet. Ordinary wires
would create a high impedance before the power reached the measuring instruments and
hence reduce the power factor.
The shaft onto which the alternator rotors were mounted, named the rigshaft, was itself
mounted in a cartridge type housing. This cartridge could be extracted from the main rig
housings so that this assembly could be built and balanced separately from the rig. The
extracted assembly is shown in more detail in Fig. 6.2.3. The bearings were mounted in
cups, held by two '0' rings. This gave some compliance and damping to the system, in
order to reduce vibration.
The shaft coupling was designed to transmit sufficient torque, but not bending forces
resulting from misalignment between the two shafts. The design was not previously
tested to any great speed and so its performance had to be monitored carefully. The
design comprised of a small disc which was driven by two dogs from the turbocharger
shaft, and this drove the rigshaft via a small tag. The disc was surrounded by a cylinder,
located in '0' rings.
The phonic wheel is also shown in Fig. 6.2.3, and consists of a disc with radial slots.
The light sensor gives out a frequency which is proportional to the speed multiplied by
the number of slots.
213
Phonic Keeper discs
Mounting
wheel
Angular contact rolling flange
element bearings
Damping rings
03 mm pins
Magnetic discs
Oil seal
BEARING DAMPER
0' rings
I PHONIC WHEELj
ISHAFT COUPLING I
Figure 6.2.3 Details of the Rigshaft Mounted in its Cartridge
6.2.2 Balancing of the Mk I shaft
After the alternator rotor had been placed on the rig shaft, it was necessaiy to balance the
assembly dynamically in two planes. It was hoped to balance the shaft whilst in the
cartridge, but this proved to be unsatisfactoiy due to the weight of the cartridge and the
'0' ring rubber bearing mounts, which reduced the accuracy of the signaL The angular
contact bearings gave off much noise, which obscured the signaL This prevented the net
out of balance being reduced below 1.2 gmm which gave a force of 11.8 N at 30
k.r.p.m.. For this speed, the force was well within the dynamic capacity of the bearings.
It was not expected to go beyond a speed of 30 k.r.p.m. to start with, and so this was
sufficient for tests to begin.
The method for balancing correction was to remove material from the keeper discs. This
214
was carried out after the whole rotor was assembled, and it was found that a substantial
amount of material had to be removed to obtain the necessary balance.
6.2.3 Improvements to the Mk I Rig
The rig was improved in the areas of safety and bearings as a result of test experience. A
major safety hazard had not been identified in the procedure for nrnning the rig, and this
resulted in a major accident and serious damage to the rig. This was essentially due to a
lack of experience in the area of high speed machinery, and the desire to obtain early
results. It was decided to completely overhaul the operating equipment. The safety
features which were introduced included -
i) A logic circuit to prevent the emergency stop valve being opened unless the
safety casing was on, the control valve was shut and the shaft was running.
The latter item could be manually overriden for startup by a non latching
switch.
ii) The control valve could be operated remotely rather than manually at the rig
and the isolator gate valve handle was extended using a long tube to allow it
to be operated remotely.
iii) A variable setting overspeed trip was included to close the emergency valve,
should overspeed occur.
An area for all the instrumentation and control was set up a good distance from the rig,
and access to the rig was not allowed during testing.
A difficulty in the bearings was encountered concerning the problem of achieving the
correct side load on the angular contact bearings. This type of bearing requires a small
axial preload of about 50 N to push the balls lightly to one side of the outer track so that
the slippage is minimised. Any movement the other way dismantles the bearing. The
50 N preload was supposed to be set by a very slight interference fit of the cartridge
casings. In practice, the bearings were found to seize when the cartridge locating bolts
were tightened. A calculation was carried out to fmd out what interference fit would give
the 50 N load and this was found to be less than a micron, based on the stiffnesses of the
shaft and cartridge housing. The stiff housing also did not catered for any misalignment
of the bearings. To solve this problem, it was decided to machine away a groove in the
end plate of the cartridge, to allow an '0' ring to be used as a way of spring loading the
bearings together. The correct interference fit of the '0' ring was found by simply placing
a 50 N weight upon it, and measuring the displacement obtained. This came out to be
approximately 0.25 mm.
The lubrication oil drip feed from a small tank was not adequate since it was not possible
to see whether the tank was empty, with no access allowed to the rig during running - see
Fig. 6.2.1. The small tank was therefore fed by a small pipe taken from the turbocharger
215
oil feed pipe. The oil flow rate had to be adjusted to prevent under or overfiuing the small
tank.
Another improvement to the bearings was vibration monitoring using a piezo electric
accelerometer pickup, mounted on the casing, near to the bearings. The signal was
monitored using an oscilloscope to observe the overall vibration amplitude.
It proved impossible to increase the speed of the shaft beyond 25 k.r.p.m. due to
excessive vibration and noise. At first, it was thought that the cause of the vibration was a
resonance, but the finite element model of the shaft did not show any resonances in this
region. It was therefore attributed to the large overhang which caused the small out of
balance force to be amplified as the shaft deflected. However, extensive testing was
possible at 20 k.r.p.m. and this allowed much useful electrical data to be gathered as
reported in Fenocchi and Knil-Jones (1988).
When the rig was destroyed by the accident mentioned earlier, it was rebuilt and the Mk I
rotors were replaced by the Mk II rotors. These rotors were each 10 mm thick as opposed
to 24 mm for the Mk I, but the diameter of the rotors was increased. The overhang was
reduced and this may have been one of the reasons why a higher speed of 30 k.r.p.m.
was attainable. The speed was again limited by vibration problems. In an attempt to
improve the design, a third bearing was added to remove the overhang at the alternator
end of the shaft. This did little to improve the situation, however and the vibration levels
were increased for much of the speed range. One difficulty was the balancing of the shaft,
since it was not perfectly aligned due to the stacking up of several manufacturing
tolerances. About which bearing pair the balancing should be done was debatable. Finite
element analysis of this arrangement also showed that there would now be two resonant
frequencies between 20-30 k.r.p.m.. It was difficult to find these particular resonances
but the general level of vibration was increased.
The maximum speed which was attainable was 35 k.r.p.m., although at this speed, the
third bearing overheated within a minute or so. The bearing temperatures were monitored
using a thermocouples as an added precaution. Electrical tests could only be carried out
safely at 30 k.r.p.m. and so it was decided to redesign the shaft arrangement to make a
Mk II version of the rig, so that higher speeds could be attained.
6.3 The Mk II Rig and Further Developments
6.3.1 The Initial Mothflcations

The main design improvement was to replace the overhung shaft with two stub shafts at
each end of the alternator. This formed a more rigid shaft system and ensured that the
rotor would not run into any shaft critical speeds. It was preferred to retrofit the Mk I rig,
rather than starting from scratch. The turbocharger and coupling were kept the same, and
so only the casings between the alternator and turbocharger had to be shortened. This
216
meant extracting a piece of casing and machining the other down slightly. The Mk II
design is shown in Fig. 6.3.1, omitting the turbocharger drive which is the same as the
Mklrig.
Improvements were made to the stator carrier which was now mounted on the pillars
which held the spider support for the right hand bearing. The axial position of the stator
carrier and right hand bearing could be adjusted easily by sliding the canier and spider on
the pillars and locking it with set screws.
TheshaftassemblywasbalancedinthesamewayastheMklshaftandrunontherig.
The maximum speed which could be attained was still only 35 k.r.p.m. due to excessive
vibration. However, this gave an indication that the problem was due not to resonance,
but to lack of balance. Since the rotor had to be split each time a new stator was added, it
was thought that this separation of the shaft meant that the balance of the rotor was
disturbed. The only way around this problem was to balance the rotor in situ.
3 pillars spaced at 120°
Figure 6.3.1 The Mk II Rig Design
217

6.3.2 The Development of an In-Situ Balancing System
A schematic of the in-situ balancing equipment is shown in Fig. 6.3.2.
ACCELER-
OMETERS

POSITION BALANCING & VIBRATION
MONITORING
ROTORS
f/Hz
301.234
f/Hz
FREQUENCY
I
COUNTER Al
OSCILLOSCOPE
LOW-PASS HIGH-PASS
FILTER FILTER
CHARGE
AMPLIFIER dBKdBLtdU
1:''I
SELECTOR f f f
SwrrCH INFEGRATOR
Figure 6.3.2 The In-situ Balancing Scheme
The raw signal from the accelerometers contained substantial noise levels which
overwhelmed the out of balance signaL However, the signals were easily filtered using a
band-pass filter, leaving two clear sine waves. It has been shown by Fenocchi (1990),
that there is no phase lag in the electronics between the accelerometer signal and the
oscilloscope, if both the high pass and low pass filters are tuned to the shaft running
frequency.
Correction masses could be added to the keeper discs by placing small screws in threaded
holes provided. This was preferable to removing metal from the discs since it was quick,
and could be undone, if the wrong weights were added. The angular positions for adding
the weights would not necessarily be opposite the angle of the signals measured at the
218
bearings. This was because the axial planes of the balancing positions were displaced
from the axial positions of the bearings. The out of balance measured at the bearings
could be linked to the correction required at the balancing planes, by assuming that the
shaft was a free body, subject to two out of balance forces, Fl and F2, measured at the
bearings as shown in Fig. 6.3.3. To counterbalance these forces, two correction forces
are needed at the balance planes, denoted Fa and Fb.
Speed Pickup datum
Figure 6.3.3 Force Diagram for the Balancing of the Alternator Rotor
By taking moments about the left hand bearing in the two planes which pass through the
axis of rotation and resolving forces in the same two directions yields four equations : -

HFax+ KFbx+LFicos9i=O Eq 6.3.1

HFay + KFb + LF 1 sinO 1 = 0 Eq 6.3.2

Fax + Fbx+FicosOi+F2cosO2=O Eq 6.3.3

Fay + Fb+F1sinO1+F2sinO2=0 Eq 6.3.4
These can be solved simultaneously to give the solution for Fax, Fay, Fbx and Fby: -

Fax = {-KFicosOi+(L- K )F2cosO2}/(H- K) Eq 6.3.5

Fay={-KF1 sinO 1 +(L-K)F2sinO2 }/(H- K) Eq 6.3.6

Fbx{(LH)F2 C0S0 2 +HF1 COSO 1 J/(H- K) Eq 6.3.7

Fby=(-(L-H)F2sinO2 +HF1 sinO 1 }/(H- K) Eq 6.3.8
219
The correction force required at the bearings in terms of Fa, Fb, Oa and b, can then be
found from : -
/ 2 2
Fa= VFax +Fay Eq 6.3.9
Fb= Fbx2 +Thy2 Eq 63.10

Oa=tan'(FaylFax) Eq 6.3.11
Ob=tan'(Fby/Fbx) Eq 6.3.12
The balancing method worked quite well at low speeds (up to 10 k.r.p.m.) with the out
of balance correction requirements being predicted fairly well by the equations 6.3.9 to
6.3.12. However, at these low speeds the sensitivity of the system was not sufficient to
achieve the accuracy of balance which was required to reach the higher speeds, even
though the synchronous signal at the bearings could be reduced to zero. The signal did
not increase as a square law of speed as should be expected, but by a much greater
power. Also, the ratio of the synchronous signals for each bearing changed with speed.
For higher speed balancing, a trial and error system had to be used, which was tedious,
but did allow an increase of speed up to 40 k.r.p.m.. Possible reasons for the system not
working well at high speed are given below : -
i) Noise, synchronous with the shaft running speed, was shrouding the out of
balance signal.
ii) The bearings went into or beyond resonance giving excessive displacements
or a phase shift.
iii) The shaft itself distorted under internal out of balances in the individual
discs, hence changing the out of balance with speed.
Much effort was put into reducing sources of synchronous noise, to help reduce problem
(i). This included the complete redesign of the coupling, axial cushioning of the bearings
to accommodate any misalignment, and reversing direction of the bearing preload. None
of these changes seemed to affect the difficulty of balancing for better of worse.
It is now suspected that the third problem is the cause of difficulty since a recent
dismantling of the shaft revealed some poor quality machining work. This, coupled with
the many flange faces in the rotor, allowed parts of the shaft to be up to 0.1 mm out of
true. One of the magnet rotors would generate 640 N from this eccentricity, and so it is
not surpnsing that the out of balance increased with speed, since the mean radius of the
out of balance would increase as the shaft deflected.
It would have been possible to remachine a number of the shaft components, and try
again, but the whole concept of the Mk II rig was abandoned in favour of a Mk 111
220
design. This rig was inspired by the immediate success of the turbine rig and mechanical
spin rig which suffered no bearing or vibration problems. These rigs are described in the
next two sections along with a brief description of the method for balancing the shafts.
6.4 The Mechanical Burst Rig
6.4.1 Description of the Rig
The mechanical burst rig is described at this point, since the design principle formed the
basis of the Mk ifi rig.
It was preferred to test the alternator magnet rotors for integrity against bursting before
putting them on the electrical test rigs, to minimise the possibility of damage. Since the
power required to spin a single rotor without power generation was small, a small air
turbine sufficed. This rig is shown in Fig. 6.4.1.
Steel containment casing
Supply
Comp
asai
Rotor on lest
Figure 6.4.1 The Mechanical Integrity Spin Rig
221
It was decided to mount the rotor directly onto a shaft, which would go directly into the
bearing housing of a turbocharger. This had the advantage of using tried and tested
bearings with plenty of damping and dispensing with any kind of coupling. The shaft is
driven by the compressor rotor used as a turbine. The advantage of doing this over using
the turbine of the turbocharger were : -
a) The geometry of the compressor rotor in reverse was better suited to a high
pressure, low mass flow rate source which allowed shop air to be used for
the rig rather than requiring the large Howden compressors to be used.
b) The alternator rotor was closer to the weight of the original nickel alloy
turbine than the aluminium compressor wheel and so the change in shaft
weight and distribution of weight was minimised.
6.4.2 Balancing of the Shaft
The shaft was balanced using a soft suspension machine as used for the Mk I alternator
rig shaft. The balancing of shafts mounted in roller element bearings was not very
successful due to noise from the bearings, but turbocharger bearings are plain and could
be mounted in Nylon vees in the balancing machine. A schematic of the important
attributes of the Giesler balancing machine are shown in Fig. 6.4.2.
The shaft is carried on two cradles supported by vertical springs. This constrains the
movement of the cradle to the horizontal direction, and two moving coil transducers
detect the displacement of the shaft at the planes of the bearings. The cradles are damped
with thick oil to cut out low frequency oscillations and the damping was increased, in the
case of balancing the small shafts, by wedging foam rubber between the spring and the
fixed casing.
The shaft is rotated in the region of 1500-2500 r.p.m., by means of a belt and pulley
wheel. The signal from the transducer is filtered, probably in a similar way to the in-situ
system, and a dial knolused for tuning the electronics to the shaft speed. It is
important to tune the system accurately to prevent phase lags in the electronics. This is
carried out by placing a large plasticene out of balance weight on the shaft, and tuning the
system until the strobe light illuminates the weight in the maximum height position. With
the weight removed, the actual out of balance position will be illuminated as the place at
maximum height when either balance plane is selected.
It is believed that the positions illuminated are only approximate since there is no
provision for the machine to take into account the dimensions between the bearings and
correction planes. These would be the angles as measured at the bearings rather than the
true angles for the correction planes. However, looking at equations 6.3.5 to 6.3.8, the
maximum positional error will not be large if the correction planes are near the bearings.
222
I ... I
I ELECTROMCS I
"Sj11.
c::::Ii I
Moving coil
adu
Thick
damping
oil
Figure 6.4.2 The Geisler Soft Suspension Balancing Machine
It was found, in practice, that the correction is done iteratively, by reducing the out of
balance on the worst side. Plasticene weights are added to counter the out of balance
forces, until the out of balance signals, as measured by the meters, are minimised. Since
the correction is quick, iteration does not cause a difficulty, and the best balance can be
achieved in 30-60 minutes, depending on experience. When a good balance is achieved, a
more permanent method of correction is used such as addition of mass using small
screws, or removal of metal on the opposite side to the position of the plasticene.
Since displacement is detected, the signal does depends on the ratio of the out of balance
to the shaft weight. This is due to the heavier shaft having more inertia. A lighter shaft
can hence be balanced to a higher accuracy. It was found that increasing the speed at
which balancing was done gave no benefit This is due to the inertia of the shaft which,
for a given displacement, requires a force increasing with the square of frequency. This is
not the case for the in-situ system, whose accuracy should improve with speed.
6.4.3 The Running of the Rig
A speed of 70 k.r.p.m. was achieved in the rig which gave an adequate confidence
margin for the Mk ifi rotors to be tested electrically to 60 k.r.p.m.. Retests could be
carried out using this rig, if it was desired to run the alternator rig to higher speeds.
223
6.5 The Mk III Alternator Rig
A diagram of the Mk ifi alternator rig is shown in Fig. 6.5.1, the basis of which is a
Holset H3 turbocharger.
Safety shield
I11 Ui dill
Figure 6.5.1 The Mk III Alternator Rig
It would have been preferable to replace the turbine with the alternator, as for the spinning
rig, and use the compressor as a turbine, but resource constraints favoured the easier
solution of replacing the compressor with the alternator. This meant that a new shaft did
not have to be made.
The bearing housing was very similar to the one used for the turbine rig and hence the
224
bearing attributes are as those discussed in Chapter 3.011 was fed from the Mk I/IT rig oil
system with the addition of a scavenge pump to reduce the pressure in the bearing
chamber. This prevented oil build up in the bearing chamber and reduced leakage past the
oil seals to the alternator rotors.
Rotor manufacture was canied out with more precision for this rig. It was found that the
workshop milling machine was too worn for drilling of the location pin holes to the
required 0.01 mm accuracy. A new CNC mill was used for this task, with the accuracy
being carefully checked. All the faces of the rotors were ground with the exception of the
concave section of the keeper discs. Each component of the rotor was dynamically
balanced relative to a central hole, also used as the reference for the pin hole drilling. This
was carried out using the Geisler machine as outlined earlier and mounting the
components on a ground shaft. The left hand keeper disc and first magnet rotor were light
interference spigot fits onto the shaft, with the other magnet rotor and right hand keeper
disc located only by the pins. When the whole assembly was balanced, the resultant out
of balance force was small, indicating that the balancing procedure used and
manufacturing precision were good.
The rig has so far been spun in excess of 60 k.r.p.m. and run for extended periods at 50
k.r.p.m.. The limit of the rig does not yet appear to have been reached, and so higher
speed runs are planned for the future.
225
7 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE DISC ALTERNATOR
7.1 The Magnet Disc and Stator Geometries
7.1.1 Design of the Mk I Rotor and Stator Geornet7y
In Chapter 1, the reasons for choosing the disc alternator concept with neodymium
magnet material contained within a carbon fibre strength shell have been detailed. The
main purpose of this section is to explain how the first prototype, the Mk 1 design
geometry was established.
A diagram of the Mk I rotor is given in Fig. 7.1.1 which also shows the stator conductor
coil path, superimposed onto the rotor geometry.
Ø81,
069,6
Ø65,
Neodyi
• LL)1 L1%.J.iVIL •
Magnets Steel Core
Figure 7.1.1 The Mk I Rotor Geometry and Stator Conductors
At first, it was thought that the voltage was generated by the magnet flux "cutting" the
radial conductors according to the fommia:

E=BLv Eq 7.1.1
where B is the flux density through the conductors, L the component of the conductor
length perpendicular to the flux velocity and v is the flux velocity. Since L is simply the
difference between the magnet inner and outer radii, it was thought that the voltage may
not be dependent on the conductor shape.
Each conductor had to follow a path going from a position at the stator outer periphery to
the inner periphery whilst moving round 45° circumferentially. This was so that the
226
conductors could be linked up such that the direction of induced e.m.f. would be the
same in all conductors of the same phase.
The optimum defmition of the path between these two points was not known, nor was it
known how important it was, apart from its effect on the conductor cross sectional area.
Refering to Fig. 7.1.2, it can be seen that the true conductor thickness depends on the
total number of conductors and the angle the conductor makes with a radial line.
Conducu
Figure 7.1.2 The Stator Conductor l'hickness.
The steeper this angle, the smaller is the thickness and the greater the electrical resistance.
However, the conductor must span 45°, going from the inner to the outer periphery, and
so the angle of the conductor to the radial must be distributed so as to give the 45° total
angle. The conductor path chosen for the first stators was similar to that shown in Fig.
7.1.2, so that the thickness of the conductor would remain approximately constant. If a
straight line was used to span the 45°, then the conductor thickness would be smallest at
the inner periphery, and so the worst heating would occur in the place most difficult to
cool.
For the rotor, it was considered that the best design would be one in which the most
magnetic matçrial could be placed at the lowest radius to give the lowest stresses. The
design of the Mk I rotor, shown in Fig. 7.1.1 was based on this approach, with only
small gaps between the magnets being there to reduce the magnetic leakage between
adjacent magnet pole pieces.
227
7.1.2 Stator Conductor Shape Design Based on Coil Shape and the MkllRotor
It was later realised that a mistake had been made in the design method for the Mk I rotor,
because the voltage output was lower than predicted in the rig tests up to 20 k.r.p.m.. It
was found that the stator conductor shape should be determined by the shape of the coil
formed by four conductors rather than being arbitrary. This effect is illustrated in Fig.
7.1.3.
Conductors
Effective magn
Figure 7.1.3 The Effective Magnet Area of the Mk I Rotor formed by Four Conductors
Equation 7.1.1 is actually a derived form of equation 1.3.1 and contains an assumption,
not valid in this application, that the conductor ends are connected together to form a coil
which encloses the magnetic flux which moves either into or out of this coil. The stator
must be designed so that the coils formed by the conductors completely surround the
magnets when the rotor is aligned in the appropriate angular position. The coils may be
larger but must not be smaller than this since this would reduce the effective area of the
coils and hence the output voltage. This had implications for the rotor which had
previously been designed to get the largest magnet area in as small a diameter as possible.
It was not possible to design a suitable stator for the Mk I on this principle since the
narrow spacing of the magnets would only allow radial conductors which could only
span the 45° angle if connected with circumferential wires. As a temporary solution,
while a completely new design was underway, the magnets were simply set to a larger
radius to allow sloping conductors to be used. The stator manufacturing method was also
revised at this time making it preferable to have a conductor shape consisting of straight
lines for reasons explained in section 7.2.4. This was the Mk 11 design, onto which the
conductor paths have been superimposed in Fig. 7.1.4. This design was spun to 40
k.r.p.m., and was useful for obtaining more information which could be fed into the new
Mk ifi design.
228
Conductor path shape
' '41 '

Figure 7.1.4 The Stator Conductor Path Shape for the Mk II Rotor
7.1.3 Combined Mechanical and Electrical Design Optimisation for the Mk III
Rotor and Stator
The design philosophy adopted was to try to design the rotor and stator together so that
their mechanical and electrical design parameters were simultaneously optimised. The
best design would have the highest electrical power output for the minimum diameter and
given thickness of carbon fibre strength shelL The analysis was simplified, but the range
of possible designs analysed was very wide ranging so that the envelope containing the
best design could be narrowed down. Since it was a comparison method, the
assumptions macic would affect all the performance results similarly and so the errors for
the comparison should not be very great. Following this phase, a more detailed analysis
could then be applied to refine the solution further.
The main limiting factor in the design of the rotor is the strength of the carbon fibre ring.
The stress on this ring is affected by both the size and shape of the magnets. The shape of
the magnets determines the location of their centre of gravity which, together with their
size, determines the centrifugal force that must be contained by the carbon fibre ring. The
shape of the magnets also affects the stress concentrations on the ring and for this reason,
the magnets should be designed such that the load is spread as evenly as possible over the
whole inner periphery of the ring.
Further complications arise from the fact that to make the most efficient use of the magnet
material, it is necessary to choose a shape that matches the pattern of the stator winding.
This pattern is determined by a careful balance between minimising the conductor angle to
the radial to increase the conductor thickness and maximising the area of the coils and
hence the magnet area. The type of stator construction used for the analysis was one with
bundled wire conductors which is to be described in section 7.2.4. Essentially this meant
that the stator conductor thickness was constant, but the angle of the conductor to the
radial at any point could be chosen as long as the conductor spanned 45° in total.
229
A) Design Procedure
i) The Stator : The stator conductor shape was prefered to consist of straight lines to
span the 450 angle. The best compromise between having a simple design with an
acceptable shape was considered to be obtained by having one bend in the conductor.
This design type was used for the analysis and is as shown in 7.1.5.
ors
SR A
CON
A]
S
CO
A]
Figure 7.1.5 The Stator Geometry forming the Coils and Magnet Shape
In this way, the stator wires could be stretched from one securing point to another. It was
not known how to lay a curved conductors easily to achieve the type of profiles used in
the etched type stators. This also facilitated the magnet manufacture, since the shape of
the magnets, following that of the stator coils, would be formed by straight lines apart
from the outer radius onto the aluminium ring. With this type of stator winding, the
restriction on conductor thickness occurs at the inner periphery. As the angle between the
conductor path and the radius, 0, increases, it is evident that the area of the resulting coil
also increases. However, the effective width of the conductors on the inside diameter also
decreases with cos 0. This means that as the coil area is increased there becomes less
room available for conductors and it is therefore necessary to optimise the stator with
respect to these two criteria.
230
With the aid of a specially written computer programme, Fenocchi (1990), it was possible
to calculate the effective coil area, A, for all different values of stator angle 0 and inner
and outer magnet radius ratio r: R, with this ratio being denoted q.
The coil area is proportional to the flux and hence the output e.m.f. Since the power
output is also proportional to the output current, the coil area is multiplied by a factor k1
to account for the conductor thickness at the inner periphery of the stator, hence:

k1 = r cos 0 Eq 7.1.2
where r is the radius of the stator inner periphery. The performance of a given design can
then be expressed by a stator factor :-

SF=k1 A=Arcos0 Eq 7.1.3
ii) The Rotor and Stress Equations : The rotor is based around the magnet shape
which is specified by the stator conductor pattern. A carbon fibre strength shell and
aluminium ring are added around the magnets. The core is not considered in the analysis,
since it is able to support itself, without loading the carbon fibre ring. The rotor is shown
in Fig. 7.1.6, for a steep stator angle with all the dimensions necessary for the stress
analysis.
Carbon fibre strength shell i

rim,
aA
Figure 7.1.6 The Rotor Geometry Variables for the Optimisation Analysis
For a given thickness and diameter of carbon fibre ring, it is possible to calculate the
maximum load this ring can withstand for a given maximum allowable design stress as
outhned in Chapter 1, section 1.3. The maximum load allowable on the carbon fibre ring
will restrict the size and mean radius of the magnet set. For the purpose of this analysis,
simple thin wall cylinder theory was used along with a force equation for rotating bodies.
The stress equations are similar to those used in section 1.3.4, Chapter 1, but they had to
231

be arranged differently since there were more variables. The methodology and equations
are given below :-
a) First, an equation must be derived relating the pressure m on the carbon fibre
shell to the magnet outer radius R for magnets of density Pm and area A, at mean
radius r

Magnet mass per unit length = M = Pm A Eq 7.1.4
Forceperunitlengthonring, Fm = 8Mr,o)2 = 8PmArzpjnO)2 Eq 7.1.5
Pressure per unit length, Prn = F/A = .&Pm.A-Emm Eq 7.1.6

2icR
But A = k1 R2 and r = k2R for geometry scaling where k1 and k2 are constants and
substituting these into equation 7.1.5 gives:

m kR2 Eq7.l.7
wherek=
2it
b) Now the pressures on the strength ring due to the aluminium ring of density Pa
and thickness t and the strength ring itself of density Pf and thickness tf must be
evaluated:
Fa = Ma (R+taI2) (2 = Pa ta 2lt(R +tJ2) (R+tJ2) (2

= Pa 2it(R+tJ2) 2 0)2 Eq 7.1.8

= Fa / 2tR Eq7.l.9
Ff = Mf (R^t1/2) (02= ) f tf2lt(R+ta+tf/2) (R+ ta+tjI2) (02

= )f If 2it(R +t+t1/2)2 0)2 Eq 7.1.10

Pf = Ff / 2ir R Eq 7.1.11
c) An equation can now be consmicted based on the maximum pressure load the
fibre can withstand in hoop stress a

Otf PTO X R Eq 7.1.12
= PmR + p R+tj2+tg )2 o)2 + Pa ta(R4t12)2 (02
But since m k R2( Eq 7.1.7)

7.1.13
0=kR3 +pftf(R+t112+t&+p1+t/2)2o)2 - atf Eq
k is a constant for a given magnet shape and geometry. It is now possible to scale the size
of the magnets linearly in order to fmd a maximum value of R for which satisfies
232
equation Eq 7.1.13. Using the new value of R, it is possible to obtain the maximum
magnet area, A and hence the stator factor from equation 7.1.3.
A maximum stress of 1500 MPa was used for the carbon fibre and thicknesses of 3 mm,
and 6 mm were taken for the aluminium and carbon fibre rings respectively.
iii) Assumptions in the Analysis : The above analysis is useful as a means of

comparing different designs on the same basis. There are, however, some limitations to
this which are listed below:
a) It is assumed that the spider will be self-supporting and does not produce any
stresses on the carbon fibre. This will not be the case with certain
geometries.
b) The thin-wall cylinder theory becomes less accurate as the carbon fibre ring
thickness increases.
c) The maximum stress on the carbon fibre ring will, in practice, be higher than
the 1500 MPa used due to uneven loading and stress concentrations. The
analysis is therefore is not accurate enough for detail design which requires
the use of finite element analysis validated by experiments.
B) Results of the Analysis

The results of the analysis have been displayed graphically in Fig. 7.1.7, in which the
stator factor SF has been plotted for different values of r : R, the ratio of the magnet inner
and outer radii and the angle 0. Since it is desired to have the maximum stator factor at
the minimum diameter, a design with a point on the curve towards the top left hand corner
of the diagram is preferred. The optimum design is between the ratios of 1: 2 and 1: 2.28
and 0 = 40-45 °. The analysis was repeated with the carbon fibre ring thickness increased
from 6 to 8 mm. This was so that the Mk II design could be compared to an optiniised
design of the same diameter. It was a slightly unfair comparison due to the use of thick
wall cylinder theory for the design of the Mk II but this would only have an effect of
about a 10% increase in the carbon fibre hoop stress. This comparison, and the data for
the chosen Mk ifi geometry are given in Table 7.1.1.
Design Fibre Thickness Stator Factor . r/mm R/mm

Mkffl 6.0 mm 3197 45 20.0 36.0 1.8

Mkll 8.0 mm 3021 50 26.0 38.5 1.5

Mk II Comparison 8.0 mm 4000 38 19.3 38.5 2.0
Table 7.1.1 Comparisons for Different Rotor Designs
233
0
In
I!,
0
c1
C
U,
o
V_
—
—
o 0
In ,-
JO38 JOS
234
It can be seen that the optimisation gives a 30 % predicted increase in output over the
Mk II, or that a slightly greater output can be achieved for a thinner strength shell. The
latter was chosen since there was concern about windage loses at the larger diameter and
it was decided to continue with an 8 mm strength shell to reduce the nominal 1500 MPa
stress to 1200 MPa. The shell thickness can probably be reduced when more confidence
is gained in the prediction of stresses and understanding of the failure modes in the the
carbon fibre shells.
A partial drawing of the Mk III rotor and stator is shown in Fig. 7.1.8.
Figure 7.1.8 The Mk III Rotor and Stator Geometiy
The corners of the magnets have been rounded to reduce stress concentrations and the
aluminium core and the magnets are much easier shapes to machine than the Mk II
components. The included angle of 90° for the core allows this to be machined easily with
a standard milling cutter.
Two Mk ifi rotors have been built and have been tested up to 60 k.r.p.m.. The voltage
output was slightly increased as compared to the Mk II, which confirmed the predictions
of the electrical analysis given by Fenocchi (1990).
Since the stator is more compact than on the Mk II, the total conductor length was
reduced which decreased the resistance of the windings, and reduced the inductance of
the coils. Both are beneficial for reducing copper losses and improving the regulation
respectively.
7.2 Materials Manufacture and Testing for the Alternator
7.2.1 Identification ofResearch Areas Concerning Materials and

Manufacturing Methods
The alternator rotor design was based on the use of two materials which had only become
available recently and which are not yet used in large quantities commercially. These are
235
the neodymium boron iron rare earth magnets and the high strength carbon fibre
composites based upon Toray T800 or T1000 fibres. It was essential to determine the
mechanical properties of these materials to use in the design of the rotors. Some data was
available on material properties but it was insufficient both in what data was available and
descriptions of how the data was obtained.
On the side of manufacture, it was necessary to establish manufacturing methods for both
the rotor and stator since the design was entirely new. The manufacturing process
development was carried out on demonstrator versions of the alternator and was an
integral part of the design methodology. A summary of the materials and manufacturing
related research is given below :-
i) Manufacture and mechanical testing of carbon fibre composite thick wall
cylindrical shell structures used for the alternator strength shells.
ii) Mechanical compressive strength and fatigue testing of rare earth magnets.
iii) Manufacture of the disc alternator stator coil assemblies.
7.2.2 Manufacture and Mechanical Testing of Carbon Fibre Composite

Thick Wall Shells
A) Background to the Carbon Fibre Material : The material which was selected
for the strength containment shell for the high speed alternator was a carbon fibre
composite for the reasons outlined in the Chapter 1. The highest strength material was
desired so that the maximum rotor diameter for the minimum shell wall thickness could
be used. The larger the rotor diameter, the fewer rotor stages would be needed, reducing
the alternator length. A thinner wall shell would mean that the overall rotor diameter
would be lower, reducing windage losses, which are very strong function of diameter as
shown in section 7.4. Also, a thin shell would reduce the likelihood of the shell failing in
instability due to the radial compressive stress. The latter problem is caused by the fact
that the load can only be transmitted to the fibres at the outer diameter via the inner fibres.
If the wall thickness is large, then the shell will have a tendency to bulge at its mean
diameter and could fail in compressive instability.
Carbon fibre composite materials are currently used in a number of industrial applications
and research into the behaviour of these materials has been extensive. However, there are
a whole range of fibre types which are available of different strengths and moduli. The
material used to bond the fibres into the matrix can vary in both the type and grade of
material used. The strength of the material will also vary according to the direction in
which the fibres are oriented, the matrix curing cycle and the compaction pressure applied
to the composite during curing. Only a small amount of test data was available for the
latest high strength fibre composites such as the Toray Tl000 which had only been
available recently and so some basic material characterisation had to be undertaken.
236
B) Manufacture of Carbon Fibre Shells at Imperial College : After
consultation with the Advanced Composite Section, A.C.S, based at Imperial College, it
was decided to attempt to manufacture the carbon composite shells within the College. In
A.C.S, there was experience in the manufacture of hoop wound tubes made from
"Prepreg" composite sheet. "Prepreg" is a term used to describe a sheet of unidirectional
fibres which is held together with a non cured epoxy matrix mixed with a cure retarding
agent. If the "Prepreg" material is kept at a low temperature, then the epoxy will have a
shelf life of several months. Tubes have been made at A.C.S by rolling the "Prepreg"
material around an aluminium drum and encasing the fibre with a steel shell. When the
structure was placed in an oven to cure, the aluminium drum expanded more than the
steel, hence pressurising the composite to compact it. Compaction of the matrix is
important so that the sheets of "Prepreg" bond together, and air is expelled. Voids in the
form of air pockets are a source of weakness in the structure and must be eliminated for
the highest strength. Unfortunately, the largest wall thickness tube made at A.C.S. was
only 1 mm, but the present requirement was for a wall thickness of up to 8 mm. Whether
the method would still work for the greater wall thicknesses had therefore to be tested.
Material of designation, Fibredux 913C-XAS specified in Ciba-Geigy (1983), was
donated by A.C.S. for the first experiment. Although this material was slightly out of
date, it was decided to use it in initial tests while new material was on order. There is a
limit to the time in which "Prepreg" can be stored due to the semi-cured epoxy hardening.
Keeping the material in a freezer inhibits the hardening and it to be stored by up to 3
months.
The nominal hoop strength required for the rotor design was 1500 MPa but it was
expected that the maximum actual stress would be greater than this due to the stress
concentration effects of the corners of the segment magnets. The magnitude of the stress
concentration was not known and would only be established to a certain degree in later
complex finite element analysis. The fibre was also loaded in compression at 250 MPa at
the radius of maximum hoop stress. These two factors meant that a composite with a
manufacturers claimed tensile strength of around 200() MPa to 2500 MPa strength would
be needed.
A rig was manufactured for the purpose of rolling thick wall tubes onto an aluminium
former drum as illustrated in Fig. 7.2.1. This figure shows the final version of the rig
after a number of modifications. The initial idea for the rig came from an adaption of a rig
for manufacturing glass fibre "Prepreg" tubes described by Fairfull (1986).
At first, the pinch roller was loaded onto the main drum using two springs on either
pinion. This caused a problem in that it was difficult to obtain equal load on each side
when the springs were adjusted to account for the thickness of the carbon tube. This was
solved by means of a single leaf spring arrangement as shown in Fig. 7.2.1.
237
Friction rubber Pinch ioller loading screw
and adjuster Main
_.:flg
Ic
Figure 7.2.1 The Carbon Fibre Composite Tube Manufacturing Rig
Another modification was the addition of a second drum, holding the "Prepreg" material,
so that the rolling could be carried out under tension. This reduced the number of voids in
the final structure.
The tube was formed as a 100 mm long section from which the required lengths for each
strength shell could be cut off using a diamond saw. Steel encasement half shells were
used to clamp the composite tube before curing in a temperature controlled oven as
The cure cycle was given in the data sheets for the material, Ciba-Geigy (1983), and
thermocouples, placed inside the aluminium and on the inside of the steel shells, were
used to monitor the temperature. This was necessaiy because of the thermal inertia of the
steel and aluminium. A number of grades of Prepreg" material, which differed in both
fibre and epoxy type, were manufactured using the technique outlined above.
The testing of these shells is detailed in the next section, in which a table of the different
types manufactured is given. There were sonic variations in the manufacturing method
which were tried as a way of improving the resulting structure of the materiaL When a
higher strength type of "Prepreg" was used, very poor structures with high voidage were
obtained. To overcome this problem, the "Prepreg" was warmed with hot air as it was
rolled onto the aluminium drum. This helped the epoxy to flow and appeared, from a
238
visual inspection, to have reduced the voidage volume.
Steel shell
halves
Clamping
,bolts
Release agent
inside shells
Resulting carbon fibr

composite shell
Figure 7.2.2 The Steel Encasement Shells and the Resulting Carbon Fibre Tube
Another defect in the structures occuned at the two joint lines of the steel encasement,
where the filaments of carbon fibre were seen to crinide. It was thought that the clamping
action of the steel encasement was responsible for this. An attempt was made to solve this
problem by replacing the steel encasement with wrappings of nylon, carbon fibre tow,
and cellophane, in turn. Tow is a term used to describe a siring like bundle of fibre
filaments. The crinkling was removed by using these wrap methods, but the strength
appeared to decrease according to the first strength test method. This could possibly be
explained by the reduction in compaction pressure obtained using the wrap methods
which offset the gains from elimination of the crinkling.
C) The First Method of Strength Test - The Hydrostatic Rubber Test : It

was necessary to establish a test method in which the structural strength of the shells
could be determined. It was required that the shell be loaded in such a way to simulate the
239
centrifugal forces of the magnets and the self weight of the fibre itself. These forces had
been computed from the stress analysis of the rotor. The forces of the magnets act as an
internal pressure force and so it was considered that static internal pressure loading would
give a good representation of the loading. This was thought much easier and safer to
implement than a spin test and should allow some strain measurement to be done.
The first suggestion was to use high pressure oil to pressurise the shell internally.
Pressures up to 300 MPa would be needed to burst a shell of desired strength. This
method would require a large pressure vessel, high pressure seals and a veiy high
pressure oil supply and this was initially abandoned in favour of using an axially loaded
rubber disc. The arrangement for this rig is shown in Fig. 7.2.3, being named the
hydrostatic rubber test.
Thiii Wire
Figure 7.2.3 The Hydrostatic Rubber Test
Loading was applied using a 250 ton capacity Aveiy Machine. This test relied on the
attributes of rubber which were its virtually zero compressibility and negligible stiffness
in comparison with the stiffness of the carbon fibre. On the first tests, problems were
encountered with extrusion of the rubber between the shell and the loading piston. This
240
was solved with the use of aluminium sealing rings as shown in Fig. 7.2.3.
The hoop stress was calculated using thick wall cylinder theory described in Benham and
Warnock (1984). Attempts to measure the hoop strain using a circumferential wire
connected to a dial gauge, as shown in Fig. 7.2.3, were unsuccessful due to friction and
an inability to gain access to the shell during the test for safety reasons. Attempts to
measure the radial displacement with a linearly variable differential transducer (LVDT)
were also unsuccessful due to the instrument being damaged when the shell burst thus
preventing repeat tests.
The first results were veiy encouraging, given it was Out of data material, with an average
calculated hoop stress of 926 MPa being achieved. The manufacturers published a
strength of 1990 MPa in Ciba-Geigy (1983).
The first type of new of material readily available was a low strength type Fibredux 920
used for many industrial applications based on Toray T-300 fibre - Ciba-Geigy (1984).
Experience gained with shell manufacture and testing of this material proved useful
although high strengths were not achieved.
After further consultation with Ciba-Geigy, a more suitable "Prepreg" material was
selected for the application, this being Fibredux 924 with T800 fibre - Ciba-Geigy
(1986). Unfortunately, the material was at the time so new that it had not been
characterised by the manufacturer and the only data available was for the strength of a
composite material made by the fibre manufacturer, Torayca of Japan. The maximum
strength given for this composite was 2950 MPa and this was considered more than
adequate.
All the test data for the hydrostatic rubber test on shells manufactured at Imperial College
is summarised in Tables 7.2.1 a and b. As a comparison, the manufacturers material data
is also given in Table 7.2.2.
Grade No of Hoop stress Hoop Stress Notes

Fibredux Tests Average MPa Range. MPa
913 5 926 715-1136 A
914 9 1030 890-1346
920 2 790 790 B
924 14 1110 500-1620 C
A lower results from an outdated batch of material

B from the same shell
C seeTablel.2.lb
Table 7.2.la: Experimental Results from the Hydrostatic Rubber Tests
241

Tube Production No of Hoop Stress Hoop Stress

Method Tests Average. MPa Range. MPa
No tension, steel encasement 3 670 630-710
Low tension, steel encasement, preheat 2 1238 1130-1346
High tension, steel encasement, preheat 6 1438 1307-1620
High tension, Nylon wrap, preheat 1 500 500
High tension, T300 Wrap, preheat 1 930 930
High tension, Cellophane wrap#1, preheat 1 990 990
Table 7.2. lb : Test Details For Fibredux 924
Matrix Fibre Fibre 0° Tensile 0° Safe Design

Type Type Strength Composite Composite Temperature
Fibredux MPa Strength MPa Modulus GPa
913 XAS 4500 1990 150 130
914 T300 3500 1650 135 180
920 T300 3500 1450 125 80
924 T800H 5600 not given 168 not given
bray
#3620 T800H 5600 2950 160 not given
00 signifies unidirectional fibres loaded along the fibres.
Table 7.2.2 Manufacturers Data for "PrePreg" Carbon Fibre Composites Used
There was appreciable scatter in the results and this reflected the inconsistency with
which the shells could be manufactured. The adhesion of the layers of material during
rolling varied from one batch of material to the next and also with the ambient
temperature. Also, the strength of the sliced shells varied according to the position from
which it was cut from the long section tube.
The last three tubes to be manufactured used cellophane encapsulation for curing.
Although one of the shells from the first of these tubes, designated #1, only gave a 990
MPa strength, it was noticed that the composite had split along an axial plane as well as in
the hoop direction. Since this split occurred in the middle of the shell, there was a
concern that the action of the aluminium anti-extrusion seals may have caused an axial
stress which would not be present in the real centrifugal loading case. If the seals caused
the rubber to expand in the form of a barrel, then this would load the shell unevenly.
Unfortunately it was not possible to ascertain whether the axial split occurred before or
after the shell failed in the hoop direction.
242
D) Tests Using the Mk I Hydraulic Test Rig : Due to the doubts over the
accuracy of the rubber hydrostatic test, it was decided to attempt to implement the earlier
suggestion of a hydraulic oil pressurisation rig. Two more tubes using cellophane
encapsulation, #2 and #3, had already been made in the same way as #1 to use up the
material before it went out of date. Although the steel encasement shells had shown better
results than the cellophane wrap, these tubes were considered adequate for
commissioning the new rig.
The task of designing and commissioning a hydraulic test rig is described by Butler
(1989) and the rig is illustrated in Fig. 7.2.4. This report also describes the results of an
investigatioz?ut sections of the composite structure under a microscope. This showed
that the voidage in the shells to be more extensive than what was noticed from an
inspection with the naked eye and that the crinkling was not just a surface effect but
carried on deep into the shells.
Securing
Upper Rig Ph
Bolt Collar
P.T.F.E. Ring
Carbon Fibre R
Lower Rig Plai
Silver Steel Rod
Figure 7.2.4 The Hydraulic Loading Test Rig
243
Some experiments were carried out on shell from tube #2, Butler (1989), and two further
tests were carried out on the shells cut from tube #3, Etemad (1989). Three strain gauges,
denoted A, B and C, were placed on the outer surface of the shells.
Difficulties were encountered with leaks on the rig, and this caused problems in achieving
stable readings of oil pressure and strain gauge output voltage. Also, the wires to the
gauges were very fine and for three of the gauges they broke off. The results of work
from Butler (1989), tests 1 to 5, and Etemad (1989) are summarised in Figs. 7.2.5 and
7.2.6. Due to leaks, shell No 6 could not be pressured to burst and had to be retested
when this problem had been resolved, hence tests (i) and (ii).
3000 i 0
10 CD
Ir- Oil Pressure - Bar
Ic', cJ C\1
cJ-
('1
-(1 fl Innez Ho Stress - MPa
n
2000 Shells 1-5 : Tube #2
1000
IM
LtI!11I! Shells 6&7 : Tube #3
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Shell No
Figure 7.2.5 Results for the Bursting of 924 - T800 "Prepreg" Carbon Fibre Shells
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Oil Pressure - Bar
Figure 7.2.6 Strain Gauge Readings for Shell Number 6{Test (i) & (ii))
andl (Test (iii))
244
From the burst test results, it is apparent that the strengths achieved for the cellophane
wrap material are significantly higher than the strength of a similar shell as tested by the
hydrostatic rubber test. This gave greater weight to the doubts over the validity of the
hydrostatic rubber test. It is apparent from Fig. 7.2.6 that gauge A for tests (i) and (ii)
gave inconsistent results and so these results were not used for the modulus computation.
The stress calculated at the shell surface depends on the stress assumptions used. Results
using thin and thick wall cylinder theory, with the assumption that the material is
isotropic, are given in Table 7.2.3. The latter results should be the most accurate although
the method neglects the orthotropic nature of the composite. The worst of the thick wall
results is only 13% different from the figures given for the Torayca T800 composite and
this could be because the epoxy of the "Prepreg" material was a different grade.
Test No Modulus - Thin wall Modulus - Thick Wall

(i) and (ii) 198 GPa 180 GPa
(iii) 185 GPa 169 GPa
Value for Torayca Composite - 160 GPa
Table 7.2.3 Composite Modulus Values Calculated for the Carbon Fibre based
on Strain Gauge results
E) The Interference Fit Test : A third type of test of the carbon fibre ring was also
developed, which was based on the method in which the rotor is manufactured. The
carbon fibre ring is prestressed to prevent the magnets separating from the carrier hub at
high speed by using a tapered drift to expand the hub as shown in Fig. 7.2.7. The taper
of the drift was chosen to be 10 microns per mm but, for clarity, this is grossly
exaggerated in the diagram.
Under normal assembly conditions, the drift is only driven in to presiress the carbon fibre
to some fraction of the maximum stress it can carry. As the rotor is spun, the magnets
push outwards, relieving the prestress but loading the carbon fibre to a higher degree. In
addition, there is a stress due to the centrifugal weight of the carbon fibre itself. The drift
can be driven further than normally required to simulate the effect of the increase in load
to determine when it will fail. Unfortunately, using this method, the actual load on the
ring cannot be calculated directly. It cannot be based on the force required to drive the
drift because friction forces actually dominate, and friction coefficient estimations can
h
easily be out by a factor of two or more. The diametrical growtcould however be
measured as the drift was forced in. l'his was achieved with a micrometer, measuring the
change in length between two sets of pins which were lightly sprung loaded onto the
surface of the shell. The bore expansion could also be evaluated, since the taper of the
drift was known and the insertion distance could be measured. lie load had to be
245
removed from the top of the plunger whilst each measurement was taken for safety and
for this reason it was not possible to obtain the fmal growth to burst.
Steel boss
Parallel plug LOAD FROM

- I_I
S I S HYDRAULIC PRESS
Taper drift
Carbon fibre I 4 Micrometer
measurement
I at two places
Dummy magnets
Figure 7.2.7 The Interference Fit Test and Manufacturing Method
The loading on the shell in the test is actually more severe than it would have under
conditions of lower interference fit and 100 k.r.p.m. spin, for a given carbon fibre strain
growth. This is because, in the latter case, some of the strain in the carbon fibre would be
due the self weight of the carbon fibre, which is an evenly distributed load within the
shell rather than another surface load on the inner diameter.
Two interference to burst tests were carried out on shells from tubes #2 and #3 giving a
maximum radial displacement to burst of 0.326 mm and 0.360 mm respectively. If the
composite modulus from the hydraulic test is used, then these displacements correspond
to hoop stresses at the shell inner radius of 1428 MPa and 1576 MPa. These values were
much higher than expected and agree more closely with the results from the hydraulic
test. This gave further evidence that the hydrostatic rubber test gave pessimistic results by
unfairly loading the shell in the axial direction.
F) Manufacture of Carbon Fibre Shells by the Filament Winding

Technique: It was known that all the carbon fibre shell structures made using the
"Prepreg" material suffered from defects with numerous voids and crinkled fibres. The
246
various modifications to the manufacturing process had improved the shells, but these
had only achieved a structure which would just meet the strength requirements for the
rotor, based on the interference fit test. It was therefore decided to investigate alternative
methods of manufacture.
If plain carbon fibre tow is passed through a bath of liquid epoxy and wound onto a
drum, then a tube can be built up, cured and sliced to form the shells. This was a quicker
method than to wind individual shells as explained previously. Although winding is
carried out using a tow of filaments, the technique is generally known as filament
winding and a diagram of the apparatus used to carry this out is illustrated in Fig. 7.2.8.
Epoxy I
ITRA
Rotation 30-60 r.p.m
Figure 7.2.8 The Filament Winding Technique
Special equipment was needed to control the tension in the tow which had to be varied as
the tube wall thickness increased to prevent a bandaging effect. This occurs when the
outer layers of fibres compress the inner layers in hoop compression causing fibre
buckling. The liquid epoxy was also a health hazard and special extraction equipment was
needed to carry out this type of manufacture. Because of these problems, it was decided
to employ Harwell Research Laboratories to carry out the manufacture.
247
Torayca T1000 fibre and Araldite MY 750 resin with HY 906 hardener was used and a
tube of 8 mm wall thickness of unidirectional winding was manufactured. To avoid
excessive residual stresses and fibre buckling, the tube was actually made in two
windings of 4 mm wall thickness, with the first winding being cured before adding
the second. The T1000 fibre is the latest type available and has a quoted strength of
7000 MPa. A Torayca composite with this fibre is claimed to have a tensile strength of
3490 MPa - Torayca (1988).
The new tube was of different dimensions to the "Prepreg" type and could not be tested
on the Mk I hydraulic rig. The new dimensions were a result of modifications to the
design of the rotor to give the Mk II design. However, two tests were done, a
hydrostatic rubber test and an interference fit test The hydrostatic rubber test only gave a
strength of 1407 MPa but again, it was noticed that the shell had split along an axial
plane, which may have invalidated the test For the interference fit te gt, the strength was
calculated to be 1570 MPa. This was an encouraging result since, as discussed before,
this method of loading would be more arduous than under spin. The Mk ifi rotor nominal
carbon fibre design value stress was 1200 MPa, as based on simple theory and so it was
considered likely that the shell should withstand the 100 k.r.p.m. speed. To allow this
speed to be achieved with greater confidence, improved analysis and testing of the carbon
fibre was prefered and was essential for the development of the demonstrator rotor design
into one for a commercial machine.
Work has already been carried out to determine the characteristics of the high strength
carbon fibre material by testing small flat specimens of the material. Since the material
properties vary in directions along and perpendicular to the fibres, the material is not
isotropic, but orthotropic. From this work, it has been possible to obtain material
properties for two directions such that the material can be described more accurately. It
was possible to use this data in Finite-Element computations for analysis of the thick
walled shells as a comparison to analysis based on the Lamé equations. It was found that
the effect of using orthoiropic properties was significant when applied to the stress
analysis of the carbon fibre shell. The stress distribution within the shell, from inner to
outer diameter is gives higher stresses at the inner diameter as compared to analysis based
on the Lamé equations. The increase in hoop stress at the inner surface of the shell was
found to be in the order of 20%. l'his is understandable since, if the structure has a lower
modulus across the fibre direction than along the fibres, then the internal pressure load
cannot be transmitted to the outer layers of carbon fibre so effectively. More details of this
work are reported by Pask (1990).
7.23 Mechanical Testing ofRare Earth Magnets

The alternator rotors each contain eight permanent magnets made of neodymium
boron iron (Crumax) material. Since the material is brittle, the rotor design is such that
248
the magnets will be under compressive loading. Finite element modelling predicted that
the only tensile stresses to arise would be in the axial direction with these being below 1
MPa. The compressive loading on the magnets in the radial direction is, however, up to
300 MPa and this would also be a cyclic load each time the rotor speed changed.
A data sheet provided by the material manufacturer, Crucible Magnetics of Elizabethtown,
Kentucky, U.S.A. gave some material characteristics, although it recommended that the
material not be used as a structural member. This clearly was not a possible option for the
high speed rotor. The material properties provided are given below :-
Compressive Strength - 760 MPa

Tensile Strength - 83 MPa
Flexural Strength - 240 MPa
Youngs Modulus - 160 GPa
The agents for the material, Roberts Magnetics of Sheffield, were unable to obtain any
details of how these properties were established nor any fatigue life data. Fatigue life was
a concern since the material was sintered and the compressive stress loading was near to
half the maximum. Fortunately, compression loading is much less likely to cause fatigue
failure than tensile loading.
It was decided to establish the compressive strength and compressive fatigue strength of
the material experimentally at Imperial College. For this purpose, test pieces were
designed and manufactured to dimensions specified in the British Standard (1963).
The test piece and the testing method are illustrated in Fig. 7.2.9.
Magnet
fayes
•tting
[ild steel
rining -
Test
Pce
Orientation A
Figure 7.2.9 Neodymium Test Pieces and Test Arrangement
249
The test pieces were ground to shape giving an even but slightly rough ground fmish.
The tests were conducted on a servo-hydraulic Mayes machine. Seven compression tests
to failure and nine fatigue tests were done. For the compression tests, load-displacement
measurements were recorded on an X-Y recorder. The load was measured using a 250
kN load cell in the crosshead and displacement was measured using an L.V.D.T. with a
10 mm stroke on the rant These measurements were used to evaluate the fracture stress
loads. Due to the waisted profile of the test pieces and the local flexibility of the fittings,
the strain to failure could not be calculated, but the displacement measurements did allow
comparisons to be made between tests. For the fatigue tests, the cyclic compressive load
was set with a maximum value at some fraction of the ultimate load and the minimum
value was set to ensure that the load would not come off. The load was cycled as a sine
wave between maximum and minimum and the number of cycles to failure was recorded
using a counter on the machine.
The results of the tests are given graphically in Figs. 7.2.10 and 7.2.11.
2500
2000 m Manufacturers Value

D Measured Values
1500
1000
500
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Test No
Figure 7.2.10 Results of Mechanical Tests on Neodymium Boron Iron Magnets
2000
1500
1000
.
500
0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000
Number of Cycles
Figure 7.2.11 Results of Compression Fatigue Tests on Neodymium Boron Iron Magnets
250
It can be seen from the results that the compressive strength of the material was at least
twice the value given in the data sheet. Low cycle fatigue was not a problem with a stress
of 1300 MPa giving a life of over 50000 cycles.
These results gave a greater confidence in the magnet strength and the high safety factors
meant that the magnet stress would not constrain the rotor design.
7.2 .4 Manufacture of the Disc Alternator Stator Coil Assemblies.

A) The Etched Copper Sheet Constructions : A diagram showing the path of the
conductors on an early stator is shown in Fig. 7.1.1. Initially it was intended to make the
stator from two copper sheets, by etching away slots in the copper to form conductors,
and then joining the copper sheets together with insulator in between them. This method
is illustrated in Fig. 7.2.12.
Etched Copper Sheet
.EN
23/11/87
Etched cper
0
Thin paxylene insulator
sheet coated in epoxy
Figure 7.2.12 The Formation of a Stator from Two Etched Copper Sheets
251
After the sheets had been bonded together, the excess copper and insulation was trimmed
off to form a round disc.
Connecting the discrete conductors was first solved using copper pins soldered in
position. These joints proved to be unreliable at the inner periphery and another method
was tried whereby these joints were replaced by a simple fold joint made with the use of a
specially designed press. The most successful solution was fmally found to be spot
welding using tungsten electrodes. After many attempts, the best welding machine
parameters were established and good reliable joints were made. It was important to
connect the conductors in the right sequence to give the three phase windings, with six
connector leads being taken from the stator.
The etching method was the same technique as that used to make printed circuit boards,
in which a screen is made up of the pattern required on clear acetate. The copper is
covered with a varnish which softens, when exposed to ultraviolet (u.v) light. Hence, if
the screen is placed over a varnished copper sheet and irradiated with u.v light, the
varnish is only soften along the lines as drawn on the screen. Placing the copper in
etching solution will eat away the areas under soft varnish leaving the slots as required.
At Imperial College, in the Electrical Engineering Department, a facility was available for
the purpose of producing printed circuit boards (P.C.B). The copper thickness normally
used for P.C.B.s is 0.1 to 0.2 mm and so it was necessary to determine whether 1-2 mm
thickness could be etched. A drawing of the stator pattern was produced and was used to
try to etch 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 mm thickness sheets. The technique was not successful for
the 2.0 mm sheet due to undercutting of the etching acid, as illustrated in Fig. 7.2.13.

Slots cut by etch solution
Varnish
Copper Sheet
Figure 7.2.13 Results of an attempt to Etch 2mm Thick Copper Sheet
However, the technique did work well for 0.5 mm and reasonably well for 1.0 mm
thicknesses. Since the thickness of copper required for each side was 2 mm, to give
sufficient conductor cross sectional area, it was decided to look at alternative methods for
forming the slots.
For commercially available disc motors, the type of device closest to the disc alternator,
the slots are formed solved using a complicated one pass stamping press. Since there was
252
some uncertainty in the conductor path design at this time, it was considered unwise to
invest in such a tool.
Four other methods for producing the slots in 1-2 mm thick copper were also investigated
as an alternative to the etch method as listed below : -
(i) Stamping using a single cutter to be incremented circumferentially.
(ii) NC or CNC controlled laser cutting.
(iii) NC or CNC controlled water jet cutting.
(iv) NC or CNC controlled wire spark erosion.
The last three suggestions were investigated by seeking quotations from outside
companies since this equipment was not available at Imperial College. The cost for such
work proved to be prohibitive and so these options were abandoned.
A stamping tool for method (i) was designed as a backup in case the etching method did
not work. It could have been employed when the conductor path had been defined more
closely.
B) The Wire Bundle Stator Constructions : Unfortunately, after high speeds
were attained on the alternator rig, it was realised that there was a major error in the
electrical design of the stator. Eddy current loses were found to be unacceptably high due
to the thickness of the conductors. The maximum individual conductor thickness had to
be greatly reduced to solve this problem and this meant a complete redesign of the stator,
since modifications to the existing construction would not suffice.
It was decided to use a form of construction in which the coils are made by winding a
continuous length of stranded copper wire. The strands were each insulated with a thin
coating of varnish and the bundle of wires was contained within fibreglass sleeving. This
is illustrated in Fig. 7.2.14.
Figure 7.2.14 The Construction of the Wire Bundles for the Stator Conductors
253
The coated wire was bought from a supplier, but the bundles had to be made by winding
up to 32 strands around a metal former. Bundles can be bought, but only in large
quantities. The sleeving was added to the outside of the bundles after a stator failed
rapidly undertest when a short circuit developed. Initially, the coils were wound onto a
thin fibreglass/epoxy former board and each one was glued in position using a
cyanoacrylate adhesive. A variation of this was to drill a thin epoxy fibreglass board
using two sets of holes on concentric pitch circles. The wire bundles were then "stitched"
into position. A partially wound stator is illustrated in Fig. 7.2.15.
I,'.
,1
_':
.- -..'--
- IL.
4.
Figure 7.2.15 Wire Wound Stator Constructed by using an Epoxy Fibreglass Board
254
The whole stator was then encapsulated in Araldite 2007 epoxy resin, specified in Ciba-
Geigy (1987), within a specially made casting jig consisting of two, flat, circular plates
and a central plug. This jig was developed to hold the stator accurately in position and
control its final axial thickness. Before encapsulating the stator windings the whole
assembly was compacted. Compaction was necessary to achieve a thin stator, so that
more stator discs could be placed within the airgap between the magnets. It was carried
out using an Avery 100 ton press with which average pressures of up to 1.5 MPa were
used, reducing the stator thickness by a factor of two. This was achieved by squashing
the circular shape of the conductors into any air gaps and making them rectangular
especially around the inner periphery. The fibreglass sleeving prevented short circuits
forming between different phase windings, and the varnish within the bundles prevented
most short circuits in this region which would only cause slightly more eddy currents if
the shorting was not widespread.
Another method of construction was tried which employed a nylon former board with
heated steel pins inserted into it This allod the coils to be wound around the pins and
the coils could then be lifted off, pressed to compact them, and then encapsulated in the
epoxy. The epoxy fibreglass disc was thus excluded, allowing a greater copper packing
factor to be achieved. The conductor path accuracy was not very good since the coil wires
tended to move under the compacting action. To overcome these difficulties, a jig was
designed and manufactured. This jig is illustrated in Fig. 7.2.16. In this design, the pins
were accurately located in holes drilled on a dividing head and the compaction was done
without taking the coils off the pins. The pins were removed before potting the stator in
epoxy, with plane discs replacing the discs with the holes in. The epoxy is a very viscous
liquid, and the excess has to be squeezed out of the mould by tightening the central bolt,
before it is cured in an oven. It was found that the flow of the epoxy, in some cases,
moved the conductor wires from their correct position. This problem was partially solved
by placing packing material around the outside of the windings in the mound. A more
satisfactory solution is still being sought, since any distortion in the winding pattern will
reduce the voltage output of the stator. The '0' ring seals were required on the inner
sleeve to prevent epoxy flowing onto the bolt and seizing up the threads. This was a
modification, carried out after the previously mentioned problem occurred, requiring the
bolt to be machined off to allow the stator to be released.
The pin jig method reduced the time required to manufacture each stator even though the
initial time required to make the jig was high. It was considered that this method would
also be more amenable to automated manufacture than the stitched method. It was
important to be aware of the need to produce the stator at low cost for a saleable
production version.
255

48 HOLES 24 HOLES
EQUI-SPACED EQUI-SPACED
01,0 'i_ 01,0
0110,0
750 j 068,0
3750
; &___1____
4 - -
.1.. -
— 040,0
,(f /
48 HOLES -
EQUI-SPACED
01,5
034,0
Central bolt '- 085,0
Re1e
Figure 7.2.16 The Pin Winding Jig for the Manufacture of Stators
256
7.3 Heating Losses and Stator Cooling
7.3.1 The Problem of Losses in a High SpeedAlternator
As with any real machine, the alternator efficiency is less than unity due to energy losses
which manifest themselves as heat. The main difficulty in the case of a high speed
alternator is preventing the machine from overheating, rather than achieving adequate
efficiency from a performance perspective. For example, at 90% efficiency, the heat to be
taken away is equal to 5 kW from a volume of only 1 x i0 m3 , the majority of which is
concentrated around the stator windings. The disc alternator geometry was chosen partly
because it was considered to have advantages over other designs in terms of cooling.
Particular advantages included having lower electrical losses and a high stator surface
area from which to extract heat.
The maximum temperature acceptable in stator and carbon fibre shell is about 150 CC due
to weakening of the epoxy in these structures. It was considered that a 125CC maximum
operating temperature would be advisable to give some reserve for some over temperature
margm.
The alternator losses can be divided into two groups, these being electrical and
mechanical. These losses are listed in Table 7.3.1 along with a brief notes giving the
causes of each loss.
i) Electrical losses
A) Copper loss (Coil resistance) - Resistance heating from the main current flow.
B) Stator eddy currents - Resistance heating due to induced eddy
currents.
II
C) Rotor eddy currents n
D) Iron loss (Hysteresis) - Magnetic hysteresis loss associated with

changing flux in ferromagnetic material.
ii) Mechanical losses

A) Windage - Frictional resistance of the air with the rotating
assembly.
B) Bearings - Friction in the bearings.
Table 7.3.1 Heating losses in the alternator
These losses are discussed in more detail in the next two subsections, for electrical and
mechanical losses. The section on electrical losses is much more brief than the subject
deserves, but is to be described in Fenocchi (1991).
257
73.2 Electrical Losses
A) Copper loss : The main electrical loss in the alternator is the copper loss, due to
the finite resistance of the copper against the primary current. Due to the nature of the
high speed alternator, the length of wire needed for the the stator coils is low, but space
restrictions mean that the cross sectional area of the conductors has also to be low. The
first beneficial effect is compensated by the small cross sectional area to give a significant
source of loss. Estimates of this loss for the Mk ifi design are in the region of 350 Wper
stator stage, which corresponds to a total loss of 2.8% at full power for a four stage
design.
The copper loss can be minimised by careful choice of the geometry of the rotor and
stator. If thicker wires are used to carry the stator current, then the resistance of the wires
is lower, but the lower voltage resulting from an increased air gap means that more
current needs must be drawn.
B) Stator eddy currents : These losses result from the changing field within
conductors generating recirculating currents within the width of the conductors. This loss
can be minimised by reducing the thickness of the conductors as discussed in section
7.2.4. The loss is difficult to compute accurately, but does not appear to be a problem up
to the 60 k.r.p.m speeds so far attained. It increases with the square of speed but can be
reduced as a square law on conductor thickness. The present strand thickness of 0.25
mm could be reduced by possibly a factor of five, and so it is believed that stator eddy
currents should not present a problem.
C) Rotor eddy currents : Eddy currents will be present in the rotor but are only
caused by non-synchronous currents in the stator. These currents are present as
components of the stator current, if this current is not perfectly sinusoidal, and hence the
magnitude of these variations in flux are much smaller than the primary flux changes.
However, the thickness of the components in the rotor is much greater than that in the
finely stranded stator, and so significant eddy currents may occur.
It is very difficult to predict whether these eddy currents will present a serious problem,
since the spectrum and magnitudes of the non-synchronous currents are not known. At
the speeds attained so far, there has not been evidence of rotor overheating and so it is
hoped that rotor eddy current are not a problem. The loss will only be properly assessed
by attaining higher speeds up to 100 k.r.p.m..
The aluminium ring on the outside of the magnets was placed there partly as a way of
reducing the problem, as well as giving benefits for the mechanical construction. Since a
circuit of low resistance aluminium is available, it is expected that the eddy currents will
flow in this aluminium, rather than within the high resistance magnets. The eddy currents
within the aluminium will oppose the non-synchronous components of the stator current
258
D) Iron loss : If any ferromagnetic material is cyclically magnetised, there will be
energy released due to the hysteresis loop. The flux path for the disc alternator dose not
include any ferromagnetic material which is subject to changing magnetic fields, and
hence this source of loss, present in many other designs, is eliminated. However, care
must be exercised to prevent ferromagnetic material being near the changing field.
7.3.3 Mechanical Losses
A) Windage Mechanical losses are present due to the frictional forces, generated by
the action of the rotor moving through the air, resisting the rotation of the rotor. This
causes heating of the air between the rotor and stator.
Initial estimates of the windage loss, based on published correlations, showed that it was
likely to be the most severe of the losses listed in Table 7.3.1. These published
correlations were limited in their application to the particular problem regarding the disc
alternator, and so it was necessary to investigate this subject area in greater depth. For
this reason, this investigation into windage losses is reported separately in detail in
section 7.4 of this Chapter.
B) Bearings : The bearing losses, as with the engine, depended greatly on which type
of bearing was adopted to support the alternator rotor. In terms of heating, the bearing
loss was not seen to represent a problem since the bearings are at the ends of the rotor,
and cooled by their own fluid lubricant.
7.3.4 Methods for Stator Cooling
As mentioned in the previous section, there are a number of sources of loss in the
alternator which cause heat to be given off. This heat must be removed, if the steady state
temperature is to remain at a level acceptable to the materials.
At the start of the alternator development programme, very little was known about either
the heating or cooling mechanisms. However, it was thought that the design would be
likely to be much easier to cool than a drum geometiy due to the large surface area of the
stators. This design lent itself to air cooling which was considered a much simpler
method to use than liquid cooling which would require a complete system with pump,
heat exchanger and pipes. This was particularly important, since the gas turbine engine
itself did not require any liquid cooling system.
In the first instance, there was more concern to establish the basic electrical characteristics
of the alternator than the details of the cooling method. For this reason, methods for
cooling were developed as and when they were needed on the test rigs.
After the Mk I rig was commissioned, it was necessary to have a method of stator cooling
in order to be able to draw the design current Although there was some passive cooling
259
by the churning of the air, this was supplemented by additional cooling air as illustrated in
Fig. 7.3.1.
'mpressed aE
iaux
I DETAIL OF ONE NOZZLE I
Figure 7.3.1 An Early Method of Forced Stator Cooling
This method of cooling used compressed air from the "shop air" supply passed down
two small nozzles into the statorfrotor air gap. This allowed more current to be drawn,
with the temperature limit being set at lOOC, measured using a thermocouple at the inner
periphery of the stator. There was concern that there would be non-axisymmetric
temperature gradients set up in the stator which could cause buckling and hence stator to
rotor touching. To avoid this problem, the cooling had to be done by passing the air from
the inner to outer periphery or visa versa. This could only be carried out by having either
a feed through the shaft, or by having a passage within the stator itself. Both these
methods are illustrated in Fig. 7.3.2.
- Air path
(may be
air
Stator
can
Rotor
Stator
I I
LJ I'
ISHAFT FEEDI IHOLLOW STATOR FEED I
Figure 7.3.2 Stator Cooling by Uniform Radial Flow with Shaft and Hollow Stator Feed
260
In either case, the flow direction may be reversed as shown in Fig. 7.3.2, and the flow
induced by either pressurising the entry, or subjecting the exit to sub-atmospheric
pressure. It was decided to use the hollow stator arrangement due to the advantages of
having less flow area restriction, having no need for rotating seals and the greater cooling
surface area created. Such a method was implemented on the Mk II and Mk ifi rigs as
shown in Figs. 6.2.1 and 6.5.1. This cooling method has allowed full current to be
drawn at 40 k.r.p.m, with the maximum stator temperature being 100CC at a position just
above the inner periphery diameter.
To date, no detailed experimental or theoretical analysis has been performed on the heat
transfer mechanisms of this type of cooling. It was not considered worthwhile to do this,
at this stage, since the method of cooling is likely to be modified in some way in
accordance with the fmdings of the investigation into windage. When a scheme to reduce
the windage loss has been designed, then it will be important to investigate the cooling
process, to allow this aspect to be optimised in terms of minimising amount of cooling air
required.
7.4 Investigation into High Speed Windage
7.4.1 Definition of the Windage and PowerLoss Predictions based on Available

Literature
Windage is the term used to describe the power los associated with the resistance to
motion of a disc rotating in a fluid. The fluid imparts a drag torque T on the rotor, where
the power loss, P10 , can be calculated from: -

P10= Tco Eq 7.4.1
where 0 is the rotor speed in radians per second.

A literature survey was undertaken which revealed only four papers, relevant to varying
degrees to the alternator. These are given below with a short outline of the areas treated.
i) Chew(1988) - Theory only and for free disks

ii) Daily and Nece - Low speed experimental validation using liquids - has effect

(1960) of differing rotor to stator gaps.
iii) Theodore and - Low speed, large diameter with experimental validation using
Regier (1944) air.
iv) Ketola (1968) - Mainly concerned partially wetted disks with some simple
analysis of mass flow through between rotor and stator.
All these papers contained an equation which described the magnitude of T in terms of
261
the the disc radius R, the fluid density p, rotational speed w and a torque coefficient Cm
as given below : -
T = '/2Cm PW2 R5 Eq 7.4.2
Cm was always given as some function of rotational Reynolds number, Re, with some of
the correlations including corrections for the ratio s I R, where s is the notation for the
axial distance between stator and rotor. The rotational Reynolds number is defmed by : -
2
Re= pcoR Eq 7.4.3
IL
where p is the fluid density and x is the fluid viscosity. Loss predictions using the above
reports for the Mk 3 disc alternator given in Table 7.4.1. The basic geometry and
conditions for the calculations were taken as R =46 mm, o = 10 472 rad/s, and air gap =
0.5 mm.

Paper Loss. Watts %Power Output

i) Chew (1988) 760 W 6.3%

ii) Daily and Nece (1960) 780W 6.5%
iii) Theodore and Regier (1944) 1200 W 10.0%

iv) Ketola(1968) 700 W 5.8% (No mass flow)
'I
1500W 12.6 % (0.007 kg/s mass flow)
Table 7.4.1 Windage Loss Predictions using Published Correlations
The results refer to one stator stage which has two faces for windage drag. These values
represented about a 6-13% loss which was likely to be unacceptable due to the amount of
heating produced.
A tentative estimation of how much windage loss is allowable, can be carried out by
considering the heat which can be carried away by the cooling air. From the rig testing of
the Mk Ill alternator, it was found that, at a speed of 40 ks.p.m., it was possible to cool
the stator to below 100 C whilst the full 40 Amps current was being drawn from each
phase. Under these conditions, the heating produced from resistance loss was
approximately 400W. The cooling mass flow which was passed through the stator during
testing on the Mk ifi rotors was found to be 0.007 kg/s for about a 0.1 bar feed pressure.
Although the mass flow could be increased by using a higher feed pressure, the increase
in cooling effect on the stator, as measured at the inner periphery, was found to be
marginal. If the air temperature is restricted to 125 CC, to keep well below the maximum
of 150CC for the rotor materials, then this gives an ar temperature rise of 100 CC. The
262
amount of heat which can be taken away is simply the product of temperature rise and
total specific heat for the air which comes to about 700 W. If the electrical losses are 400
W, then this leaves 300 W allowed for windage, about half the value estimated - see Table
l.4.l(Daily and Nece). This analysis is approximate since a different stator geometry, in
terms of the design of the internal cooling passages may allow more cooling mass flow.
There is also heat taken away by conduction through the stator. On the negative side, the
air heated up by windage would not be able to cool a stator which was at the same
temperature. However, most of the windage heating occurs at the outer diameter of the
rotor. To illustrate this, if a diameter is calculated to give half the power loss of a
particular disc, then this comes to 87% of the first size ; based on Daily and Nece (1960).
Therefore, half of the windage power loss occurs in the outer 13% of the disc radius.
To quantify the effect of all geometric and surrounding gas properties on windage losses,
equation 7.4.2 was re-expressed using the most appropriate correlation for Cm from
Daily and Nece (1960). The power loss is given in equation 7.4.4: -
0.0622 3 5
R =0.0311[5/RJ' p'L/4 R%
= [PR,/]'s4}1/4)
Pw 1/2(
B7.4.4
All the terms in equation 7.4.4 were examined, to see what could be done to reduce the
loss, as given under the following sub-headings : -
A) Air gap to Radius Ratio : From equation 7.4.4, it can be seen that the exponent
of this term is only a quarter (P a [51R]114) and so to halve the windage loss requires
increasing the air gap by a factor of sixteen. To increase the air gap, even by a small
amount is very detrimental to the alternator performance and so altering the air gap did not
appear to offer any hope ofa solution.
B) Fluid Viscosity : Again, the exponent of this term is only a quarter (P e a [l.t]"4).
The lowest gas viscosity is that of hydrogen, which isstill almost half that of air, and so
reducing the viscosity alone would have little affect on the windage loss.
C) Fluid Density : (Pe a [p]314) This option requires eitherthe replacement of the air
by another gas of lower density, or reduction of the air pressure within the air gap. The
latter solution may be an obvious choice, but causes two major difficulties. The first of
these is due to the reduction of mass flow which will be proportional to the reduction in
density. The amount of heat which can be carned away is proportional to the mass flow,
and so if the windage only decreases with the three quarter power of density, then the
actual temperature rise will increase. This phenomena could only be overcome by a very
263

high vacuum, in which the heat transfer from the air to the rotor and stator was small
relative to the stator and rotor cooling carried out by alternative means, say liquid cooling.
The second difficulty with the vacuum method is the bearings and shaft, since at some
point, a rotating seal or seals would be required to isolate the bearings and drive
coupling.
The most promising solution would be to replace the air with hydrogen. This gas is
particularly good, since the density is under 1/14th that of air, the viscosity is lower, and
its volumetric heat capacity is as good as air. This method has been used extensively for
large diameter low speed generators according to Bolton (1990). The windage loss per
stator stage would be reduced by a factor of nine, which would correspond to about
87 W for the Mk Ill rotor geometry based on the value in Table 7.2.1 (Daily and Nece).
The hydrogen gas would have to be in a closed system incorporating a heat exchanger
with a capacity of about 2 kW. This option still requires further investigation, to see
whether the complication of such a system and size of the heat exchanger makes the
system viable.
D) Rotor Diameter : (Pe a ER]9/2) Obviously, a reduction in the diameter would have
a drastic effect in reducing the loss, but would also reduce the electrical output as a cube
law - see Chapter 1. This can be analysed by considering a disc alternator design having
N1 stators with electrical power output of p 1 per disc and windage power loss of w 1 per
disc. The total electrical power required is P, which must be generated by a new design
with N2 stators and electrical power P2 and windage loss w2 per disc. Using the equation
1.3.6, from Chapter 1, the following expression can be formed: -
3
Pi(Di\ Plh
51 = D2=D1(_) Eq 7.4.5
P2 21
where D 1 and D2 are the disc diameters of designs with N 1 and N2 rotors respectively.
From equations 7.4.4 and 7.4.5 : -
9/ 3/
w 1 - D 1 /2 Pi "2
Eq 7.4.6
w 2 D2 - P2
P=N1 p 1 =p2 N2 = p2=N1/N2p1 Eq 7.4.7

hence : -
3/
w 2 JN 2 - '2
Eq 7.4.8
w1
The ratio of the total sum of the windage losses, W 1 /W is equal to the number of
stators times the individual windage values per stator, hence : -
3/
W 2 N212 2 - (N 2\ /2 1N2\
Eq7.4.9
WiN1 N1 - T) = N)
264
From this equation, it can be seen that the windage loss per stator can be reduced
markedly by increasing the number of stages, but the overall loss is not reduced greatly.
However, in reality, the effect of a reduction in the rotor diameter would improve the
situation a little more than as shown by equations 7.4.6 and 7.4.7, since the thickness of
the carbon fibre strength shell could be reduced with the square of the rotor magnet outer
diameter rather than just linear scaling. The diameter D, used in the analysis can be
replaced with a magflet diameter Dm plus twice the thickness of the carbon ring t: i.e.
DDm = 2. The thickness is given by : -
tv = kXDm2 Eq7.4.1O
where k is a constant, found by putting in values of t and Dm for a particular rotor

geometry. A modified version of equation 7.4.8 can be derived using the new formula for
D, to give : -
9/2

Dm i + 2t1
Eq7.4.1l
w 1
t 2/
11'J_\_ /3
(Dmi+2tci)
j
The ratio of the total windage loss can be found again by multiplying the individual stator
windage loss ratio by the ratio of the number of discs. Computed values of the equations
for the ratio of individual stator loss and total windage are plotted in Fig. 7.4.1 in which
the effect of compensating for the scaling of the carbon fibre shell thickness is shown to
be significant.
From the curves generated from the equation with carbon fibre shell scaling, it can be
seen that the loss per stator and the total windage will be reduced if the number of rotors
is increased. For instance, the windage loss per stator could be more than halved by
having six stator stages instead of four. However, the total windage loss would only
decrease by 28 %. This solution may be acceptable if alternator efficiency is not of
primary importance and the increased shaft length does not lead to rotor dynamics
instabilities.
265

2.0
1.5
w2/wl
and
Wt2/Wtl
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
N2/N1
Figure 7.4.1 The Effect of Number of Stator Stages on Stage and Total Windage Loss
E) Rotor Speed : To change the rotor speed would not be desirable if maximum
engine efficiency was to be achieved at the 50 kW size. However, it was worth
examining what the tradeoffs were. The speed in equation 7.4.4 cannot be altered alone,
since the power output of the discs is proportional to speed. Hence the rotor diameter
must be changed to compensate for the change in speed. Using the relationship of power
proportional to speed and result of equation 7.4.5 -
P2 - (D2 2 • -
Eq7.4.12
This equation can now be placed into a reduced form of equation 7.4.4 : -
11/
'4 9/
= (\'Y43/2 (a\
2 2 ' D212 5 Eq 7.4.13
wr 13
The windage loss reduces at a slightly greater rate than linearly with speed, although a
reduction in speed by about half is required to reduce the loss below the maximum value
allowed. This would be possible on a two shaft engine with a lower output shaft speed
but would not work for the single shaft engine direct drive concept for the 50 kW size.
F) The Effect of Net Mass Flow Between Rotor and Stator : The treatment
of this area in the papers has been minimal with the exception of Ketola (1968), in which
266
a very simple analysis has been done by considering the momentum of the fluid leaving
the rim of the disc after flowing in from the centre of the disc. The analysis uses the
torque-angular momentum equation, given in various texts such as Rodgers and Mayhew
(1980)as:-
T=rn(r2C 2 — r 1C 1 ) Eq7.4.14
where m is the fluid mass flow rate, r is disc radius, C is fluid tangential velocity and
subscripts 1 and 2 refer to flow entry and exit positions respectively. Since the inlet flow
tangential velocity and radius are small, the product r 1 C 1 can be neglected. The mean
fluid tangential velocity leaving the rim of the disc of radius can be expressed as a fraction
of therim speed velocity :-
C 1 = Koa Eq 7.4.15
where K0 is a constant. The torque TW(fl0W) resulting from net flow from the stator is thus
given by: -

T(fl0 ) = K 0tho)a2 Eq 7.4.16
In Ketola (1968) the theoretical and experimental analysis showed that K0 was
approximately equal to 0.5 for the flow regime of turbulent merged boundary layers as
appropriate to the problem of alternator windage. If the alternator geometry and a mass
flow of 0.007 kg/s of air is used, then the loss due to mass flow effects is calculated to be
812 W, hence explaining the figure of 1500 W given for Ketola (1968) in Table 7.4.1
with the momentum drag adding to the drag value with no net flow.
This analysis gave cause for concern, since the present method of cooling the alternator
was to feed the air from the inside of the stator to the outer rim of the rotor. However, at
the time this analysis was discovered, tests had already been carried out which showed
the increase in loss due to net mass flow to be much lower than this. This work is
described in the next section.
7.4.2 The Needfor Experimental Investigations
Despite having access to a number of papers written on the subject of windage, it was
decided to carry out experimental investigations for the following reasons : -
i) To establish whether the predictions are valid for high speed small diameter
disks, and which prediction is correct in the range 700-1200 W.
ii) To establish whether the functional relationships with diameter and air
gap were correct.
267
iii) To determine whether the feeding of cooling air, radially outwards or inwards
between the rotor and stator would affect the loss, and by how much. It was
also intended to investigate the effect of preswirling the cooling air in the
direction of the rotor.
Due to the very small torques expected and the high speed of the disc, it was not
considered possible to measure directly the torque acting on the rotor. Two means were
therefore devised for making measurements indirectly as described in the following
subsections. For both of these methods, it was necessary to have a device for measuring
low flow rates of air which would be fed into the rigs, to simulate the effect of cooling
air.
7.4.3 Low Flow Rate Air Meter
It was necessary to measure air mass flow rates in the range of 0 - 15 g/s with good
accuracy, but the flow range was too small to be covered by the British Standard (1984)
calibrations. Flow meters such as those based on a float inside a spiral tube, and the
rotary paddle wheel did not have sufficient accuracy. A special venturi nozzle meter was
hence designed and manufactured as shown in Fig. 7.4.2.
Manometer (Water or Mercury)

Pressure gauge
(not for measurments)
Downstream
static tapping
Gaiire
Bourdon
Gauge
Inlet air hose
Feed hose
or dump to
atmosphere
atmospheric I
pressure I
I I I Upstream pitot tapping
Figure 7.4.2 The Air Flow Meter for Low Mass Flow Rate Measurement
268
A feature of this design was the inclusion of a plenum chamber to remove any velocity
profile from the compressed air supply and provide the venturi with uniform upstream
conditions. The Mach number M, at this point can be calculated on the basis of the ratio
of the inlet total pressure P0 to the static pressure P, using the well known compressible
flow relationship given as equation 7.4.15 : -
y-1 M2\ r-1

Eq 7.4.15
Ps k 2 J
The mass flow m can be computed as: -
m=C d p 5 AM '/yRT5 Eq7.4.16
where R is the gas constant and the ratio of specific heats for air. The static density and
temperature, p and T5 can be computed in a similar way to P using standard
compressible flow theory given in Massey (1984).
Although the boundary layer would be thin, there is some small effect of this, taken into
account by using a discharge coefficient Cd. A value for Cd was determined by collecting
a known mass of air inside a bag, enclosed by a box of known volume. The lid of the
box, fitted to slide inside the box, rose as the bag was inflated to a particular height in a
measured time. In this way, Cd was determined to be 0.97.
7.4.4 Experiments Involving the Measurement of Stator Torque
A simple method for determining the windage torque was devised in which the reaction
torque on the stator was measured. Only one face of the disc was used to simplify the rig.
If there was no net flow from the volume of air between the rotor and stator, then this
should be a valid measurement, since the torque exerted by the air on the stator must
equal the torque exerted by the air on the rotor. Thç apparatus designed and built for
carrying out the measurement of stator torque is detailed in Fig. 7.4.3. The method used
was to add a known weight onto one side of a freely pivoted stator. When the torque,
exerted by the weight, was counteracted by the windage torque, the stator rotated slightly,
with this being detected by a very sensitive microswitch. The stator was balanced in such
a way so as to require a negligible torque, compared to that being measured, to activate
the switch when no counter weight was added. The speed was noted when the switch
was activated, going up in speed, and also when the switch went off, going down in
speed. The speed at which the set torque was attained was then taken as the average of
these speeds, typically varying within 10% of each other with the accelerating speed
giving the highest speed value.
269
Parts Descrintion
1 Radial air compressor driven as turbine.

2 Supply air feed volute.
3 Ground steel shaft
4 Hydrodynamic floating bush bearings.
5 Main support bulkhead
6 High speed rotor.
7 The stator.
8 Stator disc holder arm.
9 Central air feed joint (frictionless).
10 Clock bearings.
11 Flexible feed air hose.
12 Stator holder.
13 Metered shop air feed
14 Pin to carry set weights.
15 The weight.
16 The micro switch.
17 Non-return stop.
Figure 7.4.3 Apparatus for the Measurement of Stator Windage Drag Torque
As well as testing with no net air flow, it was decided to see what would be the effect of
introducing net air flow. For this purpose, an entry port was added to allow air to be fed
onto a chamber around the centre of the disc. It was necessary to have a non contacting
270
frictionless coupling which was made from concentric tubes.A graph showing the stator
windage drag torque is shown in Fig. 7.4.4 for the case of zero net air flow and three net
air flows from centre to outer diameter.
10
• No net mass flow

E • Massflow=4.4g/s
E
• Massflow=5.5g/s
• Massflow=6.6g/s
i25
0•
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000
Rotational Speed r.p.m
Figure 7.4.4 Windage Stator Drag Torque (One side only)
Unfortunately, the rig stator suffered from vibration problems when it was attempted to
achieve high speeds and higher torques for the case of no net flow. Hence it was not
possible to make a measurement at 100 k.r.p.m. for the case of no net mass flow.
However, the torque found at 57 ks.p.m. could be extrapolated, with caution, using a
square law. Square law extrapolation was used since it should be pessimistic given the
exponent of speed was ii in equation 7.4.2, taking into account the speed dependency
of Cm. The calculation gave about 3 times the torque for 100 k.r.p.m., which equated to a
power loss of 260 W per face. For two faces, the loss is 520 W, and is substantially
lower than the loss predicted by Daily and Nece (1960) and the other predictions given in
Table 7.4.1.
The testing with mass flow showed that the flow within the passage was greatly affected
by the net flow of air. The results showed a marked drop in stator drag with net mass
flow, giving rise to hopes that the windage could be reduced by feeding in cooling air.
However, it was not known by how much the reduction in drag, as experienced by the
stator, was compensated by increased drag torque due to the momentum of the air leaving
the outer periphery of the rotor. The latter action, increased by adding mass flow, was
difficult to quantify, since the tangential velocity with which the air left the rotating disc
was not known.
7.4.5 The Energy Balance Method
A) Description of the Experiment : It was considered that a more satisfactory

method for measuring the windage loss was needed and so another scheme was devised
271
based on conservation of energy. Here, the windage power loss is equal to the heat input
into the cooling air, which could be established by measuring the temperature rise of the
air. Both sides of the disc had to be included in the rig, for this method which is
Pressure Measurement Point
Temperature Measurement Point

()
Figure 7.4.5 The Energy Balance Rig for Windage Determination
The design and commissioning of the first version of this rig is reported in Raymond
(1990) which includes some experimental results. The rig was then modified and used to
obtain further results, some of which are reported in Etemad (1990). These modifications
included increasing the gap between the rotor and support casing to allow a thicker stator
272
plate to be fitted, and insulating the outside of the stator casings to reduce heat losses.
These heat losses did not result in errors in the energy balance but caused uneven
temperatures at the at the rotor/stator air gap entry.
Themainlimitationoftherigwasthatanetmassflowhadtobeusedtoevaluatethe
windage loss, hence the case of no net air flow could not be tested. The loss was
calculated using: -

P= mC,AT Eq 7.4.17
where AT refers to the temperature rise and is the specific heat capacity of air. The
lowest mass flow achievable was where the disc self pumped air. It was found that the
rotor self pumped a small mass flow radially outwards, when the inlet was unresiricted.
This is not surprising, since the system works rather like a very inefficient centrifugal
compressor. One other limitation was the maximum temperature rise which was restricted
by the materials used for the stator casing. This was made of perspex, which offered a
lower specific heat capacity and higher thermal conductivity than metal. This was
preferred so as to reduce stray heat losses.
The temperatures were measured using K-type thermocouples, read from a digital meter.
The temperature rise was taken as the difference between the maximum temperature
measured and ambient. In the case of the air flow path indicated by arrows in Fig. 7.4.5,
the maximum temperature appeared within the plenum into which the air from the
rotor/stator air gap was collected, measured by thermocouple 2. For the air going the
other way, the four thermocouples 3 to 6 were used, with these being averaged.
B) Results of the Experiments : Initially, testing was carried out with no forced air
feed as a datum. In this way, the mass flow drawn in by the rotating disc was small and
was in the direction as illustrated in Fig. 7.4.5. A pressure rise from hub to rim,
measured at P1 and P2, Fig. 7.4.5, was created by the pumping action of the disc as
explained earlier. Both the mass flow and pressure rise are plotted in Fig. 7.4.6, for the
geometry of the air gap equal to 0.5 mm and a 46 mm radius disc.
It can be seen that the pressure rise is quite small relative to the 10 kPa bar pressure used
to cool the alternator, which explains why the self pumping action was not enough to cool
the alternator alone during tests using the Mk II and Mk Ill rigs.
The first comparison was carried out for two disc sizes to see how well the results agreed
with theory. A larger disc of 50 mm diameter was used for the comparison against the
baseline 46 mm disc. This comparison is given as Fig. 7.4.7.
273

2.5 2500
2.0 2000
3
1.5 1500
1.0 1000
0.5 500
o.o-r I I I I 0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000
Speed - r.p.m
Figure 7.4.6 Mass Flow and Pressure Rise for the Case of a Free Ventilating Disc
(R=46mm,Airgap=0.5 mm)
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
or
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000
Speed r.p.m
Figure 7.4.7 Comparison of the Windage Loss for Two Disc Diameters and Repeatability
Test (Air gap = 1.5 mm all three cases)
The same test was also repeated for the 46 mm disc on a different day and hence there are
two sets of data and curves for this diameter shown in Fig. 7.4.7. The results of these
two tests appear to be consistent with each other.
It should be noted that the extrapolation from 75 k.p.r.m to 100 k.p.r.m was carned out
using a cube law equation. This should give a conservative estimate for reasons explained
earlier. The extrapolated values for 100 k.r.p.m. for the 46 mm disc were 750 and 800
W, which was close to the value of 780 W predicted using the correlation by Daily and
Nece (1960). These values were at the lower end of the range of predicted losses (760 -
1200W) by all the correlations given in Table 7.4.1.
274
The losses for the two disc sizes were compared at two different speeds. The exponents
for the speeds of 60 k.p.r.m and 50 k.p.r.m (interpolated), were determined as 5.29 and
4.86 respectively. This was slightly higher than the predicted exponent of 4.5 by Dailey
and Nece (1960).
The next set of comparisons carried out involved changing the rotor to stator air gap for
the 46 mm disc in three steps of 0.5 mm. The results of the comparison are shown in
Fig. 7.4.8.
600
x Airgap=0.5mm;test2 - ____ ____ ____ ____
: 500 • o Airgap=0.5mm:testl - ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
£ Airgap=lmm - ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
400 • AAirgap=limm
300 •__________
- V
___ ___ / -i
200 V ____ ___
100 •____ ____
0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000
Speed r.p.m
Figure 7.4.8 The Effect of Changing the Air Gap on Windage Losses (R =46 mm)
For the 1 mm air gap, the power loss did not change. This was surprising given that
theory by Dailey and Nece (1960), predicted an increase in loss. For the 0.5 mm gap, the
loss decreased substantially by about 30%, which certainly departed from the
understanding from Dailey and Nece (1960). Repeat tests, carried out some time later
confirmed this result. The reduction in loss was promising, and agreed more closely with
the loss based on the torque measurements at the 0.5 mm air gap. For the speed of 58
k.r.p.m., the loss based on the torque measurements for two disc sides was 96 W, and
the loss, as measured by the energy balance method, for the same speed was 110 W.
The next set of experiments involved forced air cooling. At flrst the air was forced in the
same direction as occurs when the inlet is freely ventilated. This was also the same
direction as currently used for the alternator cooling. The results for two mass flows have
been shown in Fig. 7.4.9, along with the free ventilating case. The windage loss was
found to increase significantly with increased mass flow, although not in the proportions
suggested by Ketola (1968) concerning the drag due to the momentum given to the exit
air at the disc rim. However, it was considered that possibly the drag caused by the
momentum was partly compensated by a reduction in the frictional resistance on the disc.
This suggestion was prompted by the reduction in stator drag evident from the stator
reaction torque measurements.
275
600 1 -----p—
Free ventilating :7
500 • • Forced mass flow
=9 g/s [
400 • L! - - 4Z
300 • zz - -
200
--- --
100
0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000
Speed r.p.m
Figure 7.4.9 The Windage Loss with Force Air Feed from Disc Tip to Bore
(R=46mm,Airgap=1.5mm)
In the next set of tests, the air was force fed in the opposite direction, from disc tip to
bore. Again, various mass flow rates were tried and the results are given in Fig. 7.4.10.
600
500
0 Free ventilating b
x Forced mass flow = 5.73 g/s -
a Forced mass flow = 12.45 -
400
El
300
200
100
0 - _______
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000
Speed r.p.m
Figure 7.4.10 The Windage Loss with Force Air Feed from Disc Tip to Bore
(R =46 mm, Air gap = 1.5 mm)
The loss was reduced by around 30% for a cooling mass flow rate of 5.75 gfs, close to
the value of 7.0 g/s currently used for the alternator. The loss only increased back to the
free ventilated case when a large mass flow of 12.45 g/s was used. One explanation for
this phenomenon could be that the frictional loss is reduced, without having as much
increase in momentum drag. There will be momentum drag due to the air which enters at
the rim, being accelerated.
The effect of mass flow on the loss can be seen more clearly in Fig. 7.4.11, for flow in
276
both directions. Each curve represents the loss for a particular speed as the mass flow is
varied in magnitude and direction.
o 30 kr.p.m x 45k.r.p.m • 60 k.r.p.m a 75 k.r.p.m 9Oks.p.m

700
600
500
I
• 400
300
200
100
0 I . . . . I . . I . . . I . . I . .
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Cooling mass flow - g/s ( +ve from bore to tip)
Figure 7.4.11 Variations in Power Loss for Different Cooling Mass Flows
(R=46mm,Airgap= 1.5mm)
Going from left to right the condition changes from maximum flow from tip to bore,
through zero flow to high flow from bore to tip. There is a dip corresponding to the
minium loss at a low negative flow, although the exact position and magnitude of the loss
cannot accurately be determined by interpolation. However, the cubic fit curve probably
makes the loss higher than the trend of points suggests but this is conjecture which can
only be settled by obtaining more experimental data around this region. One difficulty in
doing this, is the temperature rise which occurs when the mass flow rate is low.
However, it should be possible to obtain a negative mass flow with a low pressure feed
equivalent in magnitude to the freely ventilated condition.
The temperature rise for any condition can be read or interpolated using the straight lines
provided, which were constructed on the basis of equation 7.4.17. From this, it can be
seen that a zero flow should give an infinite temperature. This will not actually be the case
if heat can escape by conduction, but temperatures are likely to be high. This may
possibly explain the source of the vibration problems on the stator torque rig, since high
temperature could have caused buckling of the disc and stator and hence rubbing of these
components.
277
7.4.6 Conclusions
The experiments carried out have shown that the losses are generally lower than those
predicted by Daily and Nece (1960) and that the most pessimistic predictions are higher
by a factor of two. Approximate agreement has been found with the published
correlations in terms of the effects of changes in speed and diameter. However, the
predicted affects of air gap changes and net air flows are very different from what was
actually found by experiment. Reducing the air gap appeared to be beneficial, within the
0.5-1.5 mm range of air gaps for which tests were done, and for certain conditions, the
addition of a net mass flow further reduced the windage loss.
Many more tests are necessary to allow the windage to be more accurately predicted and
understood, although a tentative result can be obtained by assuming that the alternator
cooling air is reversed from its present direction and examining Figs. 7.4.8 and 7.4.10.
From Fig. 7.4.8, the loss for the 0.5 mm air gap is predicted to be 500 W. If the same
reduction in loss is achieved by cooling in the tip to bore direction as for the 1.5 mm air
gap, then the loss would be reduced to 350 W. This loss may be just about acceptable,
based on the analysis earlier on in this section.
This result must be viewed with caution however, since the cooling air tests have still to
be done for the 0.5 mm gap, and preferably up to 100 k.r.p.m. speed. In addition, the
surface finish of the alternator rotor and stator may not be as good as the aluminium rotor
disc and perspex stator as used for the test rig. The geometry of the windage rig does not
replicate that of the alternator such as the difference of axial length for the alternator rotor
and windage rig rotors.
Other tests are recommended, in which the cooling air would be preswirled. This should
reduce the relative velocity of the air around the rotor, and should reduce the loss.
However, pressurised air is required to accelerate the cooling air, and should be weighed
against the loss, should this actually be reduced.
278
8 SUMMARY OF PROJECT ACHIEVEMENTS AND FUTURE
RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1 Project Aims and Resources
The primary aim was to design and develop a directly driven high speed alternator and
gas turbine as a portable generator with a power of 50 kW. The motivation for producing
such a device was the substantial reduction in weight and size of the generator in
comparison to conventional low speed devices, such as those using an internal
combustion engine as the prime mover.
The success of the S.S.T. generator is dependent on having a lightweight alternator,
capable of generating the required power output without overheating and withstanding the
high operational speed. The gas turbine engine must have high performance in tenns of
power output, efficiency and reliability. AU of these can only be achieved by good
aerodynamic and mechanical design which in turn comes from having the best
understanding of the behaviour of the components which make up the engine.
The preferred end result of the project was to have a working demonstrator engine and
alternator which could be developed into a design suitable for low cost manufacture.
Initially there was uncertainty as to how difficult it would be to achieve this target. Much
of this uncertainty lay with the high speed alternator, which required a speed capability far
in excess of any other known designs. Another particular component which required
research to assist understanding was the high pressure ratio radial turbine.
The overall strategy adopted was to carry out theoretical and experimental research aimed
at the goals of creating a technology base for high speed alternator and gas turbine
research and of finally building the demonstrator S.S.T. generator. It has not yet been
possible to build a complete demonstrator although, based on the research to date, it is
considered that this target is now much closer. From the research programme, many
technical difficulties have been discovered and overcome and others remaining have been
identified and defmed more clearly.
In the next section, the achievements for the research programme are summarised to date
and the concerns remaining are listed. This is followed by a section giving details of
further work required in order to achieve the final objective of building a demonstrator
S.S.T. generator.
8.2 Summary of Project Achievements
The list of achievements has been divided under headings of major component or subject
areas. As explained in Chapter 1, it was not necessary to do research in the areas of the
279
compressor aerodynamics or combustion chamber design at Imperial College since this
was carried out elsewhere.
A) Concept Design and Performance Assessment
i) A number of different engine arrangements and component types have been

investigated and assessed to find the basic engine design which is most
appropriate for the S.S.T. generator concept.
ii) A basic design scheme has been drawn up identifying all the components of
the engine and alternator giving the overall geometiy and size of the device.
This has shown that the S.S.T. generator should have a weight of about one
twenty fifth of the same power rating diesel generator set.
iii) A simplified cost analysis has indicated that the S.S.T. generator should be
capable of being manufactured in quantity at a cost similar to that of a
comparable diesel generator set.
iv) The performance of this engine has been theoretically predicted using
computer simulation and compared to that of a diesel generator to quantify
the differences in performance. Although the specific fuel consumption is not
as good as the diesel it is considered that this disadvantage will be
outweighed in many situations by the benefits of drastically reduced size and
weight making the unit easily portable.
v) The selected disc alternator design has been compared to other candidate high
speed designs and still appears to be the best solution.
B) Mechanical Design
i) A methodology has been developed for fmite element modelling of the

rotating components of the engine and alternator for the determination of
stress.
ii) Simple assessment methods have shown that the rotating components should
have a life of at least 5000 hours and this is considered as adequate for the
portable generator application.
iii) Shaft vibration prediction models have been used to assist in high speed rig
design, for the testing of the turbine and alternator, as well as for engine
design.
280
C) Turbine Aerodynamic Research
i) A cold flow turbine test facility has been designed and commissioned for the
high pressure ratio radial turbine testing.
ii) Methods have been evolved for the determination of turbine performance
based on an energy balance.
iii) A method was devised for determining the properties in the turbine exhaust,
which was used as an alternative way of obtaining turbine performance.
iv) An experimental investigation of the turbine volute has been carried out
leading to a greater understanding of the flow pattern and losses.
v) Experiments have shown that the initial turbine geometiy should be modified
and retested before incorporating the turbine into the engine if the desired
performance is to be achieved.
D) Alternator Research
i) A number of high speed alternator test rigs were commissioned and

successfully run to speeds up to 70 k.r.p.m. compared to the target of 100
k.r.p.m.. Full design current has been drawn from a demonstrator alternator
stator for a rotor speed of 50 k.r.p.m.
ii) Two problems with the initial design geometly, the etched sheet type stator
and having the incorrect magnet shape, have been identified and rectified.
iii) Design techniques have been developed based on the theoretical and
experimental investigations, allowing the design to be optimised.
iv) The carbon fibre composite strength shell structures necessary for the
alternator rotor have been manufactured and testing methods have been
developed. Shells of sufficient strength are now available to allow the target
speed of 100 k.r.p.m. to be reached.
v) Disc windage has been identified as a potential problem which may cause
alternator overheating. A research programme, mainly experimental, has
been aimed at increasing understanding of the problem. Early results show
that an acceptable solution should be possible by careful design of the air
feed cooling system.
281
8.3 Recommended Future Work Required to Build a Demonstrator
S.S.T. Generator
The tasks remaining to be carried out can be divided into the areas of engine and
alternator. These are listed below : -
A) Engine
i) The turbine stator geometiy must be modified and the turbine retested. It is
advised that the turbine is first tested at or near the non-dimensional design
point to check that the expected performance is achieved. The turbine should
subsequently be tested for all the conditions of pressure ratio and non-
dimensional speed parameter NIT likely to be encountered in the engine.
ii) The generated turbine characteristic should be inserted into the engine
performance program, along with the characteristic for the compressor to
allow more accurate engine simulation studies to be carried out.
iii) After the turbine and compressor geometries have been fmalised, detail
design of the engine can be carried out and parts for at least one demonstrator
manufactured. The most expensive and difficult items to manufacture are the
turbine and compressor rotors which must be either 5-axis milled from solid
forgings or lost wax cast. The latter route is likely to need development but
would prove beneficial to assist the long term aim for low cost manufacture
for a production engine.
iv) The demonstrator engine could be tested using the alternator as a

dynamometer if this is available at the time or, alternatively, by use of a
turbocharger compressor as an air dynamometer. The latter method may be
preferable as it would allow separate testing of the engine and alternator.
B) Alternator
v) The important issue of the 100 k.r.p.m speed capability of the rotors must be
proved by spin testing at this speed and beyond to give a safety margin. To
achieve this target with confidence, further research and development of the
carbon fibre strength rings, static testing methods and improvements to the
fmite element modelling of the rotor structure are required.
vi) Further work is required to investigate the windage losses, especially some
of the unexplained phenomena discovered in tests carried out so far. Ideally a
theoretical and experimental study should be carried out to examine more
closely the flow in the air gap for the case of net mass flow.
282
vii) Using the results of the work from v) and vi), the Mk Ill alternator rig
should be developed to achieve the 100 k.r.p.m. target.
viii) Once a working single stator device has been demonstrated, a four stage
alternator should be detail designed, built and tested. It is likely that it will
only be possible to test the alternator at full speed and low power using an air
turbine such as used for the Mk ifi rig. The full power could be developed
by driving it with the demonstrator engine.
8.4 The Demonstrator and Beyond
If a demonstrator S.S.T. generator can be successfully manufactured, then this will mean
reaching a significant milestone of proving the technical possibility of the device. Two
very important questions which will also be addressed in achieving this will be
establishing the performance and manufacturing cost of the generator. It will
subsequently be possible to cany out detailed market research to determine the size of
market and seffing price. These parameters will decide whether large scale production is
viable. It is envisaged that the generator will not sell merely as an alternative to a diesel
generator, but will create a new market in making it possible to have electrical power in
situations previously considered not viable. Examples of this include on board vehicles to
power drive motors, in rural and remote areas with no road access and for marine vessels
with the power either used for primary drive or for ancillary equipment. Other markets
for a non-portable but efficient device could also be exploited by adding a heat exchanger
to the engine as described in Chapter 1.
283
Appendix I - Cost Comparison Analysis for the S.S.T. Turbine Engine
In this appendix, the calculations for the cost analysis given in Chapter 1 for the
comparison between the diesel and gas turbine engine are given. These are based on data
given in O'Brien (1980). Since data for exact comparisons is not available, values have
been interpolated as described below. The comparison has to be done at the 150 H.P. size
and it is assumed that the ratio of costs for both engines will scale equally for engines at
half this size.
i) From Table 6.28, page 309, values for the seffing price of a two shaft heat exchanged
engine and a turbocharged diesel are compared, in 1977$ US, to a petrol Otto engine, all
for engine powers of 150 H.P. From this, it is possible to calculate that the gas turbine
selling price is 36% higher, and the diesel 15% higher than the Otto engine.
ii) From Table 4.8, page 194, variable costs for the major components used for a 150
H.P., two shaft heat exchanged engine are given which amount to a total of $735 US in
1977. II the cost of components not found in the single shaft gas turbine are deducted,
such as the power assembly, the regenerator assembly and the reduction drive assembly,
then the variable cost amounts to $400 US. Since the turbine on the single shaft engine is
larger than the high pressure twin shaft turbine, the cost for this component must be
increased. A suitable scaling factor was calculated, based on the comparison between a
100 H.P. engine and 150 H.P. engine given in the same table and given that the single
shaft engine turbine must produce 1.8 times the power of the twin shaft high pressure
turbine. This increased the turbine assembly cost to $180 US and brings the total cost of
the single shaft engine to $445 US.
iii) In Table 4.13, page 199, a breakdown of costs is given for various engine
alternatives. Some costs for the single shaft engine can be calculated from the variable
cost according to the methods specified, although the cost of tooling is not known. It was
decided to scale down the cost of special tooling and Return on Investment (ROl) with
the reduction in variable cost. This is not unreasonable, since fewer parts need to be
manufactured such as the regenerator which would require special tooling and factory
facilities required would be smaller. The values calculated are given in Table Al-i. The
cost given for the two shaft engine in this table was $711 US and so the $445 US was
scaled down slightly by 7351711.
284
Two Shaft Heat Exchanged Engine Single Shaft Engine
Variable Cost 711 430
Special Tooling 53 32
Factory Fixed Cost 271 243
Manufacturing Cost 1,035 705
Corporate Over Head 305 256
ROl 245 148
Wholesale Price 1,585 1,109
Dealer Selling Price 2,108 1,475
Table Al-i
These calculations estimate that the selling price for the single shaft engine would be 30%
less than the two shaft heat exchanged engine.
iv) If section i) is re-examined, then it can be shown that the single shaft engine would be
priced at 1.36/1.3 = 1.045 times the cost of the Otto engine and hence is 91 % lower cost
than a diesel.
285
Appendix II - Details of Staff and Student Contributions to the S.S.T.
Project
A- Member of Academic Staff at Imperial College

R- Member of Research Staff at Imperial College
T- Member of Technician Staff at Imperial College
P- Student at Imperial College studying for Doctorate
M- Student at Imperial College studying for Masters Degree
M[Cam] - Student from Cambridge University Industrial Course
U- Student at Imperial College studying for 1st Degree
RR Member of Rolls-Royce plc or RR Business Ventures LtdStaff
C Independent Consultant
The S.S.T. Project Management - Prof C.Besant (A), Prof J.Coplin (RR), R.Bnen (RR)
Gas Turbine Engine
Basic concept and design - Prof C.Besant (A), Dr N.Baines (A), R.Brealey (C),
schemes K.Pullen (P), M.Harris (RR)
Cycle performance analysis - Dr N.Baines (A), K.Pullen (P), S.Walker (U),
J.Stanley (U), A.Rushman (U)
Compressor aerodynamic design - P.Pinot (RR)
Combustion chamber design - R.Brealey (C), A.Salt (RR)
Turbine aerodynamic design - S.Hill (RR), Dr N.Baines (A)
Compressor and Turbine Volute - Dr N.Baines (A), R.Brealey (C), K.Pullen (P),
Design M.Harns (RR)
Compressor and turbine stress - Dr M.Etemad (R), K.Pullen (P)
analysis
Shaft vibration analysis - Dr M.Etemad (R), K.Pullen (P)
Axial shaft thrust loading - K.Pullen (P)
calculations
Control studies - Dr M.Ristic (A), Georgantis (U and M)
The Turbine Test Rig
Overall design concept - Dr N.Baines (A), K.Pullen (P)
Design of turbine housing, shaft - K.Pullen (P)
and compressor modifications
Design of compressor inlet - Dr N.Baines (A),W.Nonde (M)
system
Design and analysis of shaft - K.Pullen (P)
Manufacture of turbine housing, - D.Selbourne (1), P.Broomsfield (1'), L.Eggleston (1)
nozzles, shroud, volute - K.Pullen (P), K.Awan (P)
Manufacture of turbine rotor - Richard Arnold Ltd. L.Eggleston (T)
Instrumentation - K.Pullen (P), D.Bloxham (I'), L.Eggleston (1'),
E.Pask (U)
Rig build and commissioning - K.Pullen (P), J.David (T), D.Bloxham (T)
Volute testing - K.Pullen (P), W.Nonde (M), E.Pask (U),C.Pond(M)
286
Turbine perfomiance testing - K.Pullen (P), C.Pond (M)
Data aquisition sytem - C.Pond (M), Dr Baines (A), K.Pullen (P),
The High Sneed Alternator
Initial concept - Prof H.Bolton (A)
Electrical design and analysis - Prof H.Bolton (A), A.Fenocchi (P), K.Horton (RR),
J.Williams(M-[Cam]),A.Knill-Jones(M-[Cam])
Mechanical design and analysis - Dr M.Etemad (R), K.Pullen (P), R.Brealey (C)
Combined electrical and - K.Pullen (P), A.Fenocchi (P)
mechanical optimisation
Stator design - A.Fenocchi (P), K.Pullen (P), K.Horton (RR)
Rotor Manufacture and Backup Experimental Work
Magnet mechanical testing - Dr M.Etemad (R), K.Pullen (P)
Magnet characterisation - A.Fenocchi (P), A.Knill-Jones (M-[CamJ)
(Magnetic properties)
"Prepreg" carbon fibre shell - Dr M.Etemad (R), K.Pullen (P), L.Eggleston (1')
manufacture
Filament wound carbon fibre - Harwell Laboratories, Oxfordshire, England
shell manufacture
Carbon fibre shell rig - Dr M.Etemad (R), K.Pullen (P), L.Eggleston (1),
manufacture and testing E.Pask (M), D.Butler (U.)
Manufacture of the Mk I rotors - L.Eggleston (T)
and rig fittings
Manufacture of the Mk II rotors - L.Eggleston (T), Alex (1)
Manufacture of the Mk ifi rotors - L.Eggleston (T), C.Adamou(T)
Alternator Rigs
Design and manufacture of - R.Brealey (C), P.Barwell (RR), P.Dixon (RR),
Mk I rig A.J.Fraser (RR), P.Haywood (RR), R.Minor (RR),
C.S.Smith (RR), M.H.Yond (RR)
Modifications to make Mk II rig - L.Eggleston (T), K.Pullen (P), Dr M.Etemad (R)
Design and manufacture of Mk ifi rig - Dr M.Etemad (R), K.Pullen (P), LEggleston (1)
Manufacture of etched stators - K.Pullen (P), Dr M.Etemad(R)
Manufacture of wire wound - A.Fenocchi (P), K.PulIen (P),K.Horton (RR),
stators C.Adamou ('1)
Control and Instrumentation - A.Fenocchi (P), P.Williams (F), A.Knill-Jones
(M[Cam]), K.Horton (RR), K.Pullen (P)
Testing of alternator - A.Fenocchi (P), Dr M.EtemaLl (R), K.Pullen (P),
K.Horton (RR)
Other Rigs
Design and manufacture of - R.Capp (U), K.Pullen (P)
overspeed test rig
Design and manufacture of - K.Pullen (P), Dr M.Etemad (R), LEggleston (T),
windage test rigs R.Raymond (U)
Windage testing - Dr M.Etemad (R), K.Pullen (P), R.Raymond (U).
287

Appendix III - Results of Dynamic Analysis on High Speed Shafts
Speeds in r.p.m. matching shaft resonant modes

(i) Mk I Alternator High Speed Rig - Ovethung 2 x 24 mm thick Mk I Rotors
Bearing Stiffnesses N/rn
1x105 1x106 1x107 1x108
Mode 1 1 380 3 780 6 360 7500
Mode2 10500 32760 72120 102180
Mode3 38100 43620 86120 313840
(ii) Mk I Alternator High Speed Rig - Overhung 2 x 10 mm thick Mk II Rotors

1x106 3x106 1x107
Model 3400 4700 5500
Mode2 32000 55000 85000
Mode 3 42 000 48 000 69 000
(iii) Mk I Alternator Hi2h Speed Riz - Three bearin g support thick 2 x 10 mm thick Mk
U Rotors
1x106 3x106 1x107
Mode 1 11000 22500 36000
Mode 2 21500 33000 51000
Mode 3 42000 56000 89000
(iv) Mk 11 Alternator High Speed Rig -2 x 10 mm thick Mk U Rotors

1x106 3xl06 1x107
Mode 1 11 000 26 000 44000
Mode2 29500 50000 88500
Note - Mode 3 (Bending critical)>> iOO k.r.p.m
(v) Turbine Rig Shaft

Results shown in Figure 3.2.5, Chapter 3
(vi) Proposed Engine Shaft

1 x iO 1x104 lxlO5 1x106 lxlO7
Mode 1 170 530 1690 5160 13600
Mode2 1040 1 690 10420 32220 87 600
Mode3 120000 120 120 120 600 126 120 177 700
Note - Analysis shows that a bearing stiffnesses <1 x 106 N/rn is favoured to give large window between
modes 2 and 3 for operating in. Effective bearing stiffness can be reduced using squeeze films or flexible
bearing mounts.
288
Appendix IV - Coordinates for the Volute Instrumentation Positions
Positions of the Access Holes for the Probe Traversing

Hole Number Angle ,° Radius R - mm Hole Number Angle ° Radius R - mm
01 0 83.00 121 180 84.79
02 0 96.33 122 180 94.97
03 0 109.67 123 180 105.15
04 0 123.00 141 210 84.14
21 30 82.77 142 210 93.36
22 30 95.46 143 210 102.58
23 30 108.14 161 240 83.44
24 30 120.83 162 240 91.61
41 60 82.46 163 240 99.78
42 60 94.49 181 270 85.00
43 60 106.51 182 270 94.32
44 60 118.54 201 300 83.64
61 90 82.25 202 300 91.16
62 90 93.58 221 330 81.92
63 90 104.92 222 330 87.16
64 90 116.25 231 345 83.00
81 120 81.98 232 345 99.00
82 120 92.59 233 345 115.00
83 120 103.21 234 345 131.00
84 120 113.82 Distancex Distancey
101 150 85.39 241 -70.40 80.00
102 150 96.48 242 -85.07 80.00
103 150 107.57 243 -99.73 80.00
244 -114.40 80.00

Angles of Pmbe Hole Positions to the Vertical for Station 24 241 41.35°
242 46.76°
243 51.26°
244 55.04°
Static Pressure Tapping Positions
Tapping No Radius R - rum Tanving No Radius R - mm Tapping No Radius R - mm
05-09 89.66 75-79 87.61 145-149 88.75
06-08 116.33 76-78 109.56 146-148 97.97
07 128.50 77 119.67 149 88.75
15-19 89.39 85-89 87.29 155-159 88.14
16-18 115.41 86-88 108.52 156-158 96.84
17 121.50 87 118.30 157 107.52
25-29 89.12 95-99 89.11 165- 169 87.53
26-28 114.49 96-98 105.28 166-168 95.67
27 126.08 97 118.00 175-179 88.60
35-39 88.80 105- 109 90.93 176-178 92.68
36-38 114.01 106-108 102.02 185-187 89.67
37 124.40 107 115.46 195-197 88.53
45-49 88.47 115-1 19 90.42 205-207 87.40
46-48 112.53 116-118 101.05 215-217 85.97
47 123.60 117 113.98 225-226 84.54
55-59 88.20 125-129 89.88 235-2310 91.00
56-58 111.56 126-128 100.06 236 107.00
57 122.31 127 112.44 237-238 123.00
65-69 88.02 135-139 88.82 r-8O.O0 A
66-68 110.59 136-138 98.52 245-248 77.74
67 121.00 137 111.00 246-247 107.06
289
Appendix V - Additional Graphs for the Probe Calibration
Ax = - 7.207e-4 - 1.563e-3 Ma + 2.8186e-3 Ma'2 R'2 = 0.650

-70e-4
-750-4
-BOe-4
-85e-4
-9 Oe-4
-9.50-4
-1.Oe-3 I I I I
0.00 0.10 0 20 0.30
Mach Number
Figure A3.2. 1 Coefficient Ax as a Function of Mach Number for the Wedge Probe
Bx = 1.228e-2 - 2.576e-2 Ma + 5.58 le-2 Ma"2 RA2 = 0.69 1

0.012
0.011
- 0.010
E
0.009
0.0081 1 -1 1
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30
Mach Number
Figure A3.2.2 Coefficient Bx as a Function of Mach Number for the Wedge Probe
Cx = 1.0324 + 0.40905 Ma - 1.t333 M&'2 RA2 = 0.988
1.08
1.07
1.06
11
1.03-I- I I I
0.00 0.10 0 20 0.30
Mach Number
Figure A3.2.3 Coefficient Cx as a Function of Mach Number for the Wedge Probe
290
Ày = - 7.376e-4 - 1.687e-3 Ma + 4.006e-3 Ma"2 RA2 = 0.882
-8 Oe-4
-8 2e-4
-844
-86e-4
-8 __ ______ __ __
-90e-4
.9.20-4
-940-4
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30
Mach Number
Figure A3.2.4 Coefficient Ày as a Function of Mach Number for the Wedge Probe
By = - 2.524e-2 + 5.9834e-3 Ma - 3.4762e-3 MaA2 R A2 = 0.844

-0.023
-0.024
-0.025
-0.026 I I I I I
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30
Mach Number
Figure A3.2.5 Coefficient By as a Function of Mach Number for the Wedge Probe
Cy = 0.8746 + 0.6612 Ma - 1.576 Ma"2 RA2 =0.944
0.95
094
0.93
0.92
0.91
0.90
0.89
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30
Mach Number
Figure A3.2.6 Coefficient Cy as a Function of Mach Number for the Wedge Probe
291
Appendix VI - Loss Coefficients and Flow Angles for the Volute
Measurement Angle° Depth/z Measurement Angle° Depth
01c 0.084 3.2 1.911 81B 0.139 4.8 1.500
01C* 0.107 11.8 2.500 81C 0.029 9.2 2.500
02B 0.026 6.5 0.911 82A 0.042 1.4 0.500
02C 0.019 8.7 1.911 82B 0.038 2.8 1.500
02D 0.029 10.2 2.911 82C 0.022 3.0 2.500
02D* 0.025 10.9 3.500 82D 0.037 4.5 3.500
03B 0.013 6.9 0.9 11 83A 0.071 5.0 0.500
03C 0.006 8.5 1.911 83B 0.034 1.5 1.500
03D 0.006 9.3 2.911 83C 0.061 3.4 2.500
03D* 0.008 10.2 3.500 83D 0.048 3.8 3.500
04C 0.049 7.0 1.911 84B 0.057 4.8 1.500
04C* 0.066 10.2 2.500 84C 0.089 6.2 2.500
21C 0.091 0.7 1.480 1O1B 0.067 4.1 1.500
2 1C* 0.125 7.9 2.500 loic 0.082 7.1 2.500
22B 0.05 1 2.1 0.480 102A 0.078 6.6 0.500
22C 0.032 2.2 1.480 102B 0.041 2.3 1.500
22D 0.029 3.5 2.480 102C 0.057 3.6 2.500
22D* 0.024 3.7 3.500 102D 0.047 4.0 3.500
23B 0.040 2.8 0.480 103B 0.062 3.1 1.500
23C 0.013 2.2 1.480 103C 0.078 4.5 2.500
23D 0.011 3.3 2.480 121B 0.060 4.0 1.500
23D* 0.015 3.7 3.500 121C 0.077 7.3 2.500
24C 0.048 1.7 1.480 122A 0.058 6.2 0.500
24C* 0.122 4.0 2.500 122B 0.059 2.6 1.500
41B 0.076 2.5 1.500 122C 0.084 4.0 2.500
41C 0.109 10.1 2.500 122D 0.049 4.2 3.500
42A 0.035 1.8 0.500 123B 0.096 3.8 1.500
42B 0.040 2.0 1.500 123C 0.098 5.7 2.500
42C 0.036 3.2 2.500 141B 0.069 5.1 1.500
42D 0.026 3.5 3.500 141 C 0.088 8.6 2.500
43C 0.024 3.4 0.463 142A 0.049 6.8 0.500
43D 0.020 3.7 1.463 142B 0.069 3.3 1.500
43A* 0.019 2.7 2.500 142C 0.083 4.9 2.500
43B* 0.016 1.7 3.500 142D 0.056 5.5 3.500
44B 0.062 2.4 1.500 143B 0.060 4.0 1.500
44C 0.109 5.8 2.500 143C 0.068 6.2 2.500
61B 0.107 3.7 1.500 161B 0.091 8.5 1.500
61C 0.096 11.7 2.500 161C 0.059 8.2 2.500
62A 0.057 4.9 0.500 162A 0.057 3.5 0.500
62B 0.045 2.2 1.500 162B 0.087 5.3 1.500
62C 0.036 3.3 2.500 162C 0.062 5.5 2.500
62D 0.025 3.6 3.500 162D 0.047 7.8 3.500
63A 0.030 4.8 0.500 163B 0.060 6.2 1.500
63B 0.026 2.4 1.500 163C 0.066 9.0 2.500
63C 0.039 3.2 2.500 181A 0.071 2.7 1.000
63D 0.028 3.5 3.500 181B 0.105 60 2.000
64B 0.064 4.3 1300 181C 0.067 5.4 3.000
64C 0.107 6.2 2.500 182A 0.046 4.2 1.000
182B 0.069 43 2.000
182C 0.052 5.3 3.000
201A 0.080 6.5 1.000
201B 0.091 9.2 2.000
201C 0.060 9.3 3.000
202A 0.055 7.3 1.000
202B 0.061 5.9 2.000
202C 0.061 8.3 3.000
292
Measurement Angle° D
221A 0.086 15.9 1.000
221B 0.074 16.9 2.000
221C 0.044 17.9 3.000
222A 0.085 13.3 1.000
222B 0.067 13.0 2.000
222C 0.05 1 13.6 3.000
231B 0.270 57.4 1.229
23 IC 0.139 14.6 2.229
231C* 0.127 21.1 2.500
232A 0.071 18.2 0.229
232B 0.011 22.2 1.229
232C 0.019 22.3 2.229
232D 0.013 22.3 3.229
232D* 0.020 22.1 3.500
233A 0.03 1 24.5 0.229
233B 0.008 24.5 1.229
233C -0.000 24.3 2.229
233D -0.009 24.2 3.229
233D* 0.001 24.8 3.500
234B 0.035 27.3 1.229
234C 0.028 28.7 2.229
234C* 0.036 29.9 2.500 Angle Relative to the vertical
241B 0.149 55.0 1.572 -6.3°
241C 0.166 34.0 2.572 147°
242A 0.018 39.4 0.572 3 9°
242B 0.010 38.7 1.572 4.6°
242C 0.020 38.4 2.572 4.9°
242D 0.015 38.5 3.572 4.8°
243A 0.032 35.3 0.572 3.4°
243B 0.002 35.2 1.572 3.5°
243C -0.011 35.1 2.572 3.6°
243D -0.011 35.2 3.572 3.5°
244B 0.048 31.2 1.572 3.8°
244C 0.047 34.2 2.572 0.8°
293
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IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND MEDICINE

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The Design and Development of a Small Gas

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

"Commit to the Lord whatever you do,

2 DEVELOPMENT OF STRESS AND VIBRATION ANALYSIS

3 DESIGN, MANUFACTURE AND COMMISSIONING OF THE

4 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN AND INVESTIGATION OF THE

5 EXPERIMENTAL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF THE

7 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE DISC ALTERNATOR 226

8 SUMMARY OF PROJECT ACHIEVEMENTS AND FUTURE

Section 6.4 and 6.5

1.1.1 Project History

1.1.2 Description of the Gas Turbine Generator

High speed disc

'iL ' itt,- ' i-ir ' ii

Ancillaries Oil pump 0 20 40 60 80 100mm

Figure 1.1.2 The Turbine Volute

1.1.3 Applications and Advantages of the Portable Gas Turbine Generator

The generator has applications in the following situations:-

i) Where portable electrical power is needed - For example, where it is not

1.2 The Gas Turbine Engine

12.1 Engine Requirements

i) Low weight and size.

1.2.2 Choice of Engine Design to Meet the Requirements

Prefer high P.R.

NUMBER Air mass flow

I Main articles of consi&ration

(_) Specific questions

1.2.2 Choice of Engine Thermodynamic Cycles

Genemr -. Air Flows

1172 1272 1372 1472 1572K

ISO 200 250 kw 300 350

12.3 Compressor, Turbine and Numbers of Shafts

A) The Compressor : There is a choice of two basic types of compressor as

Rotor Blades Blades

A Radial Compressor An Axial Compressor

Figure 1.2.4 Types of Gas Turbine Compressors Available

A Radial Inflow Turbine

An Axial Flow Turbine

Figure 1.2.5 Types of Turbine Available

C) Numbers of Shafts : An important decision to be made was the number of rotor

Free Power Turbine Shaft

Figure 1.2.7 The Two Shaft Engine

D) Summary : By consideration of the attributes of compressors, it was decided to

1.2.4 Engine Layout, the Combustion Chamber and Ducting Features

A) Possible Component Orientations : There are twelve theoretically possible

9. 10. 11. 12.

Figure 1.2.8 Theoretically Possible Component Arrangements

Combustor liner I Fuel spray nozzle

A Single Can Combustor (Reverse Flow)

A Multican Combustor I An Annular Combustor

Figure 1.2.9 Alternatives for the Combustion Chamber

Figure 1.2.11 The Exhaust Silencer / Heat Exchanger Unit

12.5 Performance Prediction, Design and Off-Design

Turbine Entiy Temperature T03 = 1200K

A) Simple Design Point Performance Calculation :

T02s/Toi = (P.Rc) '' lIT = 50.286 = 1.584 (= 1.4) Eq 1.2.1

Pc = rhC( T 02 - T01 ) = 81.5 kW Eq 1.2.3

To3/Ts = (P.RT)T 1 / y = 4.60.248 (7= 1.33) Eq 1.2.4

1lcycle = Net Power = Net Power = 57.8 kW = 20.4% Eq 1.2.7

B) Off Design Performance : The engine is likely to operate under conditions