Hunter-Gatherers from a

High-Elevation Desert:
People of the Salt Puna
Northwest Argentina

Edited by

Elizabeth Pintar

BAR International Series 2641

2014
Published by

Archaeopress
Publishers of British Archaeological Reports
Gordon House
276 Banbury Road
Oxford OX2 7ED
England
bar@archaeopress.com
www.archaeopress.com

BAR S2641

Hunter-Gatherers from a High-Elevation Desert: People of the Salt Puna, Northwest Argentina

© Archaeopress and the individual authors 2014

ISBN 978 1 4073 1278 1

Printed in England by Information Press, Oxford

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 CONTENTS

CHAPTER

1. Hunter-gatherer archaeology of a high elevation desert: current and future research themes in the
Argentine Salt Puna
Elizabeth L. Pintar 9

2. Hunter-Gatherers of the Puna in a temporal perspective (10,500-3500 BP): the case of Antofagasta
de la Sierra (Catamarca, Argentina)
Carlos A. Aschero 25

3. Late Quaternary paleoenvironments, South Andean Puna (25º-27º S), Argentina

Pablo Tchilinguirian and Daniel Olivera 43

4. Contributions to the knowledge of natural history and archaeology of hunter-gatherers of

Antofagasta de la Sierra (Argentine South Puna): the case of Peñas de las Trampas 1.1
Jorge Martínez 71

5. Desert hunter-gatherers: mobility and aridity thresholds. A view from the Argentine Salt Puna
Elizabeth L. Pintar 95

6. Holocene hunter-gatherers in the Puna. Integrating bones and other zooarchaeological evidence
in Antofagasta de la Sierra (Argentina)
Mariana Mondini and Dolores Elkin 117

7. The exploitation and use of faunal resources. The role of Quebrada Seca 3 and Cueva Cacao 1A
(Antofagasta de la Sierra, Catamarca, Argentina)
María del Carmen Reigadas 125

8. Archaeobotany and vegetal resources. Settlement systems and mobility in the Argentine South
Puna
María Fernanda Rodríguez 145

9. Grinding, processing, settlement and mobility in hunter-gatherers of the Argentine South Puna
(ca. 7400-3200 BP)
María del Pilar Babot 169

10. Continuities and discontinuities in the process of transition to food production in Antofagasta de
la Sierra (Argentine South Puna): the case of flaked stone tools
Salomón Hocsman 201

7
 CHAPTER 3

LATE QUATERNARY PALEOENVIRONMENTS, SOUTH ANDEAN PUNA (25º-27º S),

ARGENTINA

Pablo Tchilinguirian and Daniel Enzo Olivera

Introduction Radiocarbon (AMS) dates (15) were obtained from bulk

The South Puna is a morphostructural region that belongs
to the Andean Cordillera. It covers 2,000,000 km2,
and extends from 24º to 27º S and 66.5º to 68º W. It is
characterized by extreme aridity (Santoro and Núñez
1987) with dry conditions and low precipitation (120 mm/
yr), and ten-year cycles of extreme drought (<10 mm)
interrupted by years of abundant rain (200-300 mm). This
makes it impossible to predict the conditions from one
year to the next. These year-decennial scale situations, of
course, are extremely difficult to detect in the geological
record of this desert but they are crucial to the economy
of human groups. In this kind of environment, risky and
uncertain conditions have to be considered in order to
analyze economic strategies of these human groups. The
aim of this chapter is to study the paleoenvironmental
evolution in the South Puna during the Late Pleistocene
and Early-Middle Holocene (Figure 1), in particular, the
changes between aridity and humidity, and to link this
evolution to human occupation.
organic matter or plant debris. The AMS analyses were
undertaken at the Center for Applied Isotope Studies of the
University of Georgia, The National Science Foundation -
University of Arizona and the Laboratory of Radiocarbon
and Tritium (University of La Plata, Argentina).
Different stable isotopes (2H, 18O and 3H) were analyzed
in Los Colorados River (26.031º S, 67,448 ºW, 3421 m
asl) and Las Pitas River (26,028º S, 67.343º W, 3581 m
asl) in order to determine the origin of the recharge, its
altitude and age. The stable isotope analyses were carried
out at the INGEIS laboratories (Instituto de Geocronología
y Geología Isotópica) following Coleman’s techniques
(Coleman et al. 1982), and Panarello and Parica’s
techniques (Panarello and Parica 1984) for 2H and 18O
respectively.

Methods

Aerial photos and satellite images were analyzed to identify

glacial, periglacial and lacustrine landscape geoforms
with the aim of reconstructing the paleogeography from
the Late Quaternary on a regional scale. The mapping
of the moraines and lacustrine paleocoasts allowed
the reconstruction of the geographical and altitudinal
geographic extension of the icecaps and Late Quaternary
lagoons.
Figure  1.  Study  area  and  the  South  Puna  region
Detailed field studies of the Holocene deposits were
performed on outcrops exposed over three valleys –Las
Pitas (26.015° S, 67.325° W, 3645 m asl), Miriguaca Physiographical and geomorphological settings
(25.998º S, 67.388º W, 3471 m asl), and Confluencia
(26.056° S, 67.41179° W, 3360 m asl)– and by sediment The South Puna in Argentina is a high crustal region
cores taken from different parts of the Salar de Laguna (3300-4000 m asl) situated between the horst-garven belt
Colorada (26.032° S, 67.451° W, 3420 m asl) (Figure 2). of the Pampean Ranges (5000 m asl) to the east (Cajón
Lithofacies and depositional environments were determined range and Tipillas, Negroara and Cachi peaks), the active
on all recovered units, using visual core descriptions and volcanic arc of the Western Cordillera (6000 m asl) and
standard sedimentological facies analytical techniques the San Buenaventura (4500 m asl) volcanic transversal
(Miall 1978). Emphasis was placed on the identification of arc (Figure 3). The mountain ranges to the South and
changes in the vertical and horizontal facies indicated by East separate the high valleys of the South Puna from the
variations in grain size, sedimentary structures, biogenic, low valleys (mesothermal valleys) with warmer climates
pedogenic components and the abundance of organic (Figure 3).
material.

1
 Hunter-gatherers from a high-elevation desert. People of the Salt Puna (northwest Argentina)
The South Puna region includes a chain of mountains that
were elevated during the Tertiary by the Andean tectonic
movements. The most important ranges are Laguna
Blanca and Jote-Pirica to the southeast and the Calalaste
and Filo Colorado ranges in the south-central zone (Figure
3). Other positive ordinary elements in the Puna landscape
are the Pliocene volcanic centers. In the central zone the
outstanding ones are: Ilanco peak (26.04° S, 67.17° W,
5480 m asl), Mojones-Beltrán peaks (25.67° S, 67.32° W,
5740 m asl), Los Colorados and Mirihuaca peaks (25.94°
S, 67.29° W, 4640 m asl); in the eastern zone: the Antofalla
Volcano (25.55° S, 67.91° W, 6310 m asl) and Aguada
peak (25.67° S, 67.89° W, 5720 m asl).
The extensive Galán volcano caldera deserves being
highlighted. It has a diameter of 30 km, and its western
border is formed by the top of Sierra del Toconquis (25.9º
S, 67.1º W, 5500 m asl).
Figure  2.  Map  of  the  Punilla  basin  system  showing  site  
ůŽĐĂƟŽŶƐĂŶĚŐĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĨĞĂƚƵƌĞƐ͘ZĞĨĞƌĞŶĐĞƐ͗ϭͲƉŚĞŵĞƌĂů
ƐƚƌĞĂŵƐ͕ϮͲ͗ŽŵƉůĞƚĞƉĞĂƚĚĞŐƌĂĚĂƟŽŶ͕ϯͲWĞĂƚŝŶ
ĚĞŐƌĂĚĂƟŽŶ͕ϰͲWĞĂƚĚĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚŝŶƉĞƌŵĂŶĞŶƚƐƚƌĞĂŵ͕
ϱͲ^ĞĚŝŵĞŶƚŽůŽŐŝĐĂůƉƌŽĮůĞƐĂƚDŝƌŝŚƵĂĐĂ;ĂͿ͕>ĂƐWŝƚĂƐ;ďͿ͕
>ĂŐƵŶĂŽůŽƌĂĚĂƐĂůĂƌ;ĐͿ͕ŽŶŇƵĞŶĐŝĂ;ĚͿ͕/ůĂŶĐŽ;ĞͿ͕ƵƌƵƚŽ
;ĨͿ͕ŽƌƌĂů'ƌĂŶĚĞ;ŐͿ͖Y^͕YƵĞďƌĂĚĂ^ĞĐĂ͖W͕WĞŹĂĚĞůĂƌƵnj͖
WW͕WƵŶƚĂĚĞůĂWĞŹĂ͖Wd͕WĞŹĂĚĞůĂƐdƌĂŵƉĂƐϭ͘ϭ͖^͕ƵĞǀĂ
^ĂůĂŵĂŶĐĂ͕WĐŚ͗WĞŹĂƐŚŝĐĂƐϭ͘ϯ
There are extended plateaus with ignimbritic rocks from
the Mio-Pliocene Ages associated with the volcanic
calderas, as are the ones located in the eastern headwaters
of the Punilla catchment, in the middle course of Los Patos
River, in the north of Laguna Blanca (De Las Cuestas
2
Plateau, Figure 3) and in the far south of Incahuasi Salar
(26.5º S, 67.7º W).
The Andean mountains, volcanic hills and plateaus are part
of important orthographic barriers which divide the Puna
into several tectonic depressions occupied by extended
saltpans (salares) and Plio-Quaternary piedmonts with
arreic drainage. The largest tectonic depression is the
Peinado-Antofalla Salar alignment. It is located to the west
of the South Puna and is 200 km long in a sub meridian
sense. The central South Puna zone is determined by
several depression alignments: Salar de Incahuasi (south)-
Campo de Piedra Pomez, Salar de Carachipampa and
Punilla River (north).
Other important topographic depressions are the Caro
- Hombre Muerto - Ratones salares (north central area).
Towards the east, the depression of Laguna Blanca connects
the South Puna with lower mesothermal valleys (Figure 3).
The piedmonts, salares and plateau are, at a regional
scale, flat and high topographical features which are called
“fields” or pampas, allowing the Puna to also be called by
its generic name “Altiplanicie”.
According to what was stated, from a physiographic point
of view, the South Puna has three distinctive characteristics:
1) high altitude (ca. 3400-4600 m asl), 2) an endorheic
drainage, and 3) a “flatter” topography in relation to the
neighboring physiographic regions.
Climatological and hydrological settings
The South Puna desert is an area where the water availability
acts as a limiting factor, above all, for human activity. Not
only is the hydric availability critical to humans, but it is
also a key factor with respect to the distribution of other
resources basic to human groups (e.g., pasture for herds,
access to highly predictable resources for hunting, water
for farming). Therefore, the location and hydrology of the
water courses were a critical variable when establishing
methodological criteria, and the sampling strategies, both
to localize archaeological sites and in studies of resource
availability (Olivera 1991).
In Antofagasta de la Sierra (Figure 1), located at 3500
m asl, the annual rainfall is <127 mm/year (1999-2007)
where 80% is registered in summer and 20% in winter.
This shows that it is an extremely dry region dominated
by tropical summer moisture (87%) in the east and, in
lower proportion, by winter precipitations (cold fronts
from the Pacific) in the southwest (Tchilinguirian 2008a).
In Laguna Negro de San Francisco (27.5º S, 70º W), near
the South Puna edge, precipitation falls during the winter
months of May through September in the form of snow,
not exceeding 150-200 mm annually (Aravena 1995).
This climatic variation is the consequence of the shift in
latitude of South American summer rainfall (SASR) that
 Pablo Tchilinguirian and Daniel E. Olivera - Late quaternary paleoenvironments, South Andean Puna (25º-27º s),
Argentina
reaches the Central Andes during summer in the Southern
Hemisphere. In contrast, during the dry season (winter
and autumn) the SASR moves towards the north of the
South American continent.
In the northern Chilean Atacama desert this variability is
modulated by Pacific sea surface temperature (PSST) and
associated with upper air circulation anomalies (Vuille
and Ammann 1997; Garreaud 1999; Garreaud et al. 2003;
Vuille et al. 2003). In the South Puna, the influence of
PSST is low in comparison to the south-north seasonal
migration of the SASR.
&ŝŐƵƌĞϯ͘'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĂůƐĞƫŶŐƐ
The annual variability (80%), the seasonal variability
(90-120%) and the monthly variability (80-240%) of the
rainfall are really accentuated. Besides, it increases in
the driest season (winter variability rainfall: 144-200%),
which shows that the distribution of rainfall is more
unpredictable when arid conditions increase. In the period
between 1999-2006 there were 132 rainfall events, with
an average of 10 mm. Only 7% of rainfalls with values
larger than 30 mm were registered. The annual average
temperature is about 10º C. The warmest month is January
when the maximum average temperature reaches 21ºC
and the coldest month is August with 0ºC. During winter
and part of autumn and spring, freezing cold is frequent
and the ground freezes at night (Tchilinguirian 2008a).
The aridity of the South Puna is due to a combination of:
1) the extreme rainshadow effect of the Eastern margin of
the circum-Puna Cordillera (Pampean Ranges), blocking
3
the advection of subtropical moisture from the Atlantic
Ocean and Amazon Basin, 2) mid-latitude tropical desert
geographic position, 3) limited influence of advection of
moisture from the south and southwest due to the presence
of semi-permanent South Pacific Anticyclone (SPA), 4)
the constraint of the eastern penetration of Pacific moisture
by the cold Humboldt Current (Salati et al. 1979, Vuille
et al. 2003). The quantity of permanent spring water that
is distributed in the Puna reflects, to a certain point, the
climate behavior (Figures 4 and 5). In the mountain chains
of the eastern border of the Puna the number of permanent
springs is high (0.4 a 0.7 springs/km2), whereas in the
central region of the Puna the concentration is extremely
low (<0.01 springs/km2). In the south border of the Puna,
where San Buenaventura range is located, there is a low
to intermediate concentration of springs, which could be
indicating the influence of the rainfall in winter from the
southwest and south (Pacific humidity penetration). In the
Western cordillera the springs have a low to intermediate
density. This could be the result of the high elevation
(5000-6000 m asl) that causes an increase in rainfall
(orographic rainfall). The high ranges in the Puna (Laguna
Blanca and Calalaste ranges; Mojones-Beltrán peaks and
Cumbres del Toconquis) have intermediate concentrations
of permanent springs indicating there are orographic
rainfalls, especially in the windward-eastern slope. This
phenomenon plays an important role in the structure of
the resources of the Puna due to the high intra desert
mountains that generally form islands of more humidity
in a sea of dryness (Figure 4).
 Hunter-gatherers from a high-elevation desert. People of the Salt Puna (northwest Argentina)

&ŝŐƵƌĞϰ͘ŶĚĞĂŶǁĞƚůĂŶĚƐ;ǀĞŐĂƐͿĂŶĚƐƉƌŝŶŐƐĂƐďůĂĐŬƉŽŝŶƚƐ͘ůƟƚƵĚĞ;ŵĂƐůͿĨŽƌĞŐƌŽƵŶĚŐƌĂLJĐŽůŽƌƐ

&ŝŐƵƌĞϱ͘^ŽƵƚŚWƵŶĂǁĞƚůĂŶĚ;ǀĞŐĂƐͿƐƉƌŝŶŐĚĞŶƐŝƚLJĂŶĚƌĞŐŝŽŶĂůŐĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐƵŶŝƚƐ

The orographic rainfalls recharge high Andean aquifers
that are, at the same time, responsible for the existence of
springs that permanently contribute water to the drainage
systems, lagoons and wetlands or vegas (Figure 5).
The wetlands are ecosystems that contain the highest
primary productivity of the desert and sustain a high
biological diversity of flora and fauna. They have a
high cultural value for humans and for Andean human
occupations because they constitute areas of the
landscape where water can be obtained for consumption,
for irrigation and as watering places for wild camelids
(guanacos, vicuñas) and herds of llamas, sheep and goats.
They occupy less than 1% of the deserted Puna matrix and
they are associated with rivers, salar margins, and high
Andean lagoons. The river wetlands are intermittent, as
the courses of the water that supply them are vaporized
or have infiltrated into the piedmont areas, although they
also flow into the salares and endorheic lagoons. The
rivers and vegas are more abundant on the eastern border

4
 Pablo Tchilinguirian and Daniel E. Olivera - Late quaternary paleoenvironments, South Andean Puna (25º-27º s),
Argentina
of the South Puna, especially in the high elevation ranges winter-autumn and not with the rainfalls that denote the
and on the eastern slope (east mountain flank). minimum value in this season.

To the west of the Puna, in the Salar de Antofalla, Another important characteristic of the South Puna is that
permanent drainage decreases as a result of a higher aridity. it does not have permanent snow. The eventual melting
Here, the most important rivers are the Aguas Dulces occurs in spring (winter snow) or in summer (summer
and Antofalla. In the central zone of the South Puna, snow). So, the absence of significant volume increases in
orographic rains from Calalaste range, Mojones-Beltran the Punilla River in the spring, or after a summer snow,
peaks, and Cumbres del Toconquist summits supply water allows us to assume that the snow cover vaporizes or
to the permanent streams, among which the Punilla River infiltrates after fusion.
and its tributaries (Calalaste, Mojones, Nacimientos, Las
Pitas, Ilanco, Miriguaca, Mojones and Curuto rivers, The groundwater level of the Punilla River presented
Figure 2) stand out. The rivers belonging to the Punilla a slight annual variation in the depth of the water layer
basin have a low conductivity (200 to 400 microohms), (9% to 15%), which implies that the volume of the Punilla
and low SAR (Sodium Absorption Ratio: 0.75-1.3) values River was steady and independent from the annual rainfall
which would indicate very low salinization processes and value (Table 1). This phenomenon is explained by the fact
mineral enrichment. that rivers receive a permanent supply of water from high
Andean springs, or by water lodged in the vegas. Also,
The stream discharge and wetland extension are the minor fluctuation in water flow is probably due to the
proportional to the basin surface, as well as their height. degree of seasonal variation in temperature and peatland
Accordingly, the longest wetlands (Punilla, Los Patos, Las evapotranspiration.
Cuestas) are the ones with the largest basin area, as well as
the highest elevations.
Vegetation setting
Catchment areas with sources in elevations lower than
4500 m asl do not develop rivers with wetlands, which Although the desert is the dominant environment in the
means that there is a threshold or critical elevation under region, there are obvious differences with regard to the
which the watercourse systems are ephemeral or passive. distribution of the vegetation (Cabrera 1976, Haber 1991
and Olivera 2006) due to the presence of an important
altitudinal component that regulates the temperature
WƌĞĐŝƉŝƚĂƟŽŶ 'ƌŽƵŶĚǁĂƚĞƌĚĞƉƚŚ and the rainfalls. In a bioclimatic sense, the South Puna
Year
(mm) ;ĚĐŵͿ is divided into six altitudinal vegetation belts (Table 2):
1999 143.5 11.18 1) above 6000 m asl with permanent snow and without
2000 140.5 12.519 glaciers (Nival zone), 2) between 5000-6000 m asl
2001 327.5 12,50 with infrequent seasonal snow and with bare ground, 3)
2002 135 12.81 between 3900-5000 m asl lies the high grassland which
2003 23 12.442 is also called high Andean pasture. This vegetation unit
2004 30 12.535 is dominated by tussock grasses such as Stipa, Nasella
2005 35.5 13.89
and Festuca, 4) mixed high Andean grass and Puna shrub
2006 45 13.18
(3900-3700 m asl), and 5) Puna belt (locally known as
dĂďůĞϭ͘WƌĞĐŝƉŝƚĂƟŽŶĂŶĚƐƵƌĨĂĐĞŐƌŽƵŶĚǁĂƚĞƌWƵŶŝůůĂZŝǀĞƌ Tolar-Campo: 3000-3700 m asl) dominated by shrubs.
ǀĂůƵĞƐ These vegetation belts have transition zones or ecotones,
whose spatial distribution will obey local factors, such as
7KHR[\JHQLVRWRSLFYDOXHVį2“GHXWHULXP the orientation of the slope towards the sun and humidity
į+“DQGWULWLXPWULWLXPXQLWV“RIWKH
surface water of Las Pitas, Punilla and Los Colorados
rivers have similar isotopic imprints. These would indicate
that the water comes from rainfalls from heights higher
than 4500 m asl and that they do not correspond to recent
seasonal values, on the contrary, they correspond to those
of more than 60 years ago approximately. In this way, these
rivers are provided and regulated by permanent slopes
whose water comes from rainfalls that occurred some time
ago in the mountain range.
The behavior of the phreatic layer in the inferior course of
the regional collector (Punilla River) indicates that during
the period January 1999-February 2007 it was slighter in
winter as compared to summer. This variation would be
associated with the lower evapotranspiration values during
5
as well as the wind action and geomorphic processes.
To the south of the South Puna, the vegetation cover
decreases considerably. This is due to the effect of eolian
erosion. Important deflation zones and dune fields are
observed towards the east of Purulla Lagoon (26.67º S,
67.82º W, 3880 m asl), from Campo de Piedra Pómez
(26.64º S, 67.58º W, 4100 m asl), Pairique salar (26.75°
S, 67.36 W°) and to the high valleys of Altohuasi range
(27.17° S, 67.12° W, Figure 3). The eolian sediment is
composed of pumice, bipyramidal crystal quartz sand and
ash coming from Quaternary pyroclastic materials ejected
by the explosive volcanic activity near Cerro Blanco
caldera (Figure 3). The pyroclastic material is transported
up to 50 km east of the caldera complex and is accumulated
forming sand mounds, sand shadows, ripple cinders dunes
 Hunter-gatherers from a high-elevation desert. People of the Salt Puna (northwest Argentina)
and sand sheets along an extended region of the south part
of the South Puna.
To the east of Laguna Blanca and La Orilla lagoon
(26.54° S, 66.89° W) there is a massive dune 34 km long
and 20 km wide composed of many parabolic dunes, sand
sheets and a barjanoid crest. In this place, the source of
sand came from the Late Holocene desiccation of Laguna
Blanca paleolake and the desertification of wetland soils
in Las Cuestas and Río River alluvial fans (Figure 3).
sĞŐĞƚĂƟŽŶ &ŽƌĂŐĞĂǀĂŝůĂďŝůŝƚLJ
hŶŝƚƐ WŽƚĞŶƟĂůŝƚLJ zŝĞůĚ
Pre  Punean Annual  (1)   they are complementary in an economic level and are
Very  High
Vega Seasonal
Punean  Vega High  (2) Annual
High  Andean   3
Low  ( ) Annual
Vega
Low  to  very  
Campo-­‐Tolar Seasonal  (4)
low
Tolar/Pajonal     Annual/
(5)
Very  low
Seasonal
Pajonal  (6) Low  to  high Annual
Páramo Very  low Very  low
(1)  Seasonal  for  llamas  (summer),  annual  for  goats  and  sheep;  (2)  limited   Punilla and Los Patos rivers, water is a permanent resource
ƐƉĂƟĂů ĞdžƚĞŶƐŝŽŶ͖ ;3Ϳ ůŝŵŝƚĞĚ ĞdžƚĞŶƐŝŽŶ͕ ůĞƐƐ ŶƵŵďĞƌ ŽĨ ƵƐĞĨƵů ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ͖
(4)   in   general,   some   pasture   of   sheep   and   goats   in   winter;   (5)   Puna
ĐŽŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƌLJǁĂƚĞƌŵĞĂĚŽǁƐ͖;6ͿƐŚĂƌĞĚƉĂƐƚƵƌĞďĞƚǁĞĞŶůůĂŵĂƐĂŶĚ
ǀŝĐƵŹĂ͘
dĂďůĞϮ͘ƵƌƌĞŶƚƉŽƚĞŶƟĂůLJŝĞůĚŽĨǀĞŐĞƚĂƟŽŶƚLJƉĞƐŝŶŶƚŽĨĂŐĂƐƚĂ
ĚĞůĂ^ŝĞƌƌĂ;ĂƚĂŵĂƌĐĂͿ;ŵŽĚŝĮĞĚĨƌŽŵKůŝǀĞƌĂϮϬϬϲͿ
Other important units of vegetation cover can be found in
wet zones, such as the edges of lagoons and alluvial plains
of the perennial rivers. The Andean wetlands (locally
known as vegas) appear as green oases in the Puna desert.
There are two altitude wetland types: Prepuneña and
Puneña wetlands, located between 3000 and 4000 m asl,
which are characterized by mineral soils and the absence
of freezing processes. Between 4000 m asl and 5000 m
asl there are high Andean wetlands that have organic or
mineral soils with surface mounds and water ponds as a
result of the sporadic or local permafrost.
The wetlands are composed of Oxychloe andina,
Distichia muscoides, Patosia cfr. Clandestina and
Scripus atacamensis, among others, and their presence
and proportion depend on their altitudinal and ecological
location (Haber 1991, Olivera 2006). On the Chilean
slope, at the same altitude, there are also different
altitudinal vegetation levels (Maldonado et al. 2005) that
would indicate that the vegetation distribution with regard
to height is a regional phenomenon.
Geoenvironmental units
The combination of the different components of the
environmental system of the South Puna allows the
landscape to be zoned into sectors of interest to human
occupations. These sectors are zones where the biotic
sources (type of vegetation), hydric sources (streams,
lakes, ponds, springs) and the physiographical-geomorphic
characteristics (type of relief) are similar and have a
similar function. From this point of view, the gorges and
valleys with permanent streams, together with the lagoons,
are the landscapes that are more suitable and have the
most resources to offer humans. In addition, these are the
natural paths followed by vicuñas in their search for water
and pasture (Olivera 1991, 1997).
ǀĂŝůĂďŝůŝƚLJ
However, interfluvial sectors must not be rejected because,
ŽĨĮƌĞǁŽŽĚ
with a variable resource offer and a reduced offer in forage,
Low
important paths of circulation and communication. Under
High
this criterion the South Puna landscape can be examined
from the perspective of a geo-ecologic zonification
Low
of the drainage basin, where at least four units can be
Low distinguished (Table 3):
Low/High a) Lower basin area (locally known as Fondo de Cuenca).
Low This zone is dominated by open landscapes that are
occupied by alluvial fans, fluvial terraces and lagoons
Nil
or salares. In a few places, such as in the lower basin of
since it is supplied by large basins with high orographic
 
precipitation. These basin bottoms have lagoons with
extended vegas. The majority of the rivers and streams in
the Puna do not reach the basin bottom (Pirica, Colorado,
El Peñón, Calalaste and Aguas Dulces rivers, Figure 2).
The dominant vegetation is the Puneña and Prepuneña
wetlands and Campo-Tolar shrub belt.
b) Middle basin sectors (locally known as Quebradas
Intermedias). These are the central sections of the
drainage basins with narrow valleys in the piedmont
or volcanic plateau areas. The valleys have several
Quaternary gravel alluvial terraces. These sectors are
occupied by either permanent or intermittent rivers with
Puna wetland community and interfluves being occupied
by Campo-Tolar shrub. Streams, even though permanent,
vary according to the seasons.
c) High basin sector (locally known as Quebradas de
Altura): These are the high sectors of the drainage basins.
Gorges with high Andean wetland communities and
interfluves are covered with pasture (grassland, locally
known as Pajonal). The rivers have a perennial discharge;
fresh water and organic soil freeze during winter.
d) High Andean lagoons: Located at an altitude higher
than 4500 m asl, these are permanent lagoons of volcanic
and tectonic origin. The lacustrine water is hyper saline
and it is supplied by permanent fresh water springs. In
these areas the relief is open, although there are rocky
scarps nearby. In general, high lagoons are located close to
mountain passes that join different catchments, so they are
points that articulate fluvial-wetland paths. At the lagoon
banks there are perilacustrine wetlands (high Andean
6
 Pablo Tchilinguirian and Daniel E. Olivera - Late quaternary paleoenvironments, South Andean Puna (25º-27º s),
Argentina
community) that contrast with the altitudinal ground of ZLWK UDGLRFDUERQ GDWHV RI  “   “ 
the Páramo or of the scrubland. Surrounding the lacustrine “DQG“%3
wetlands, there are paleocoasts that allow obtaining
morpho-chronologic inferences with the archaeological In the Quebrada de Las Papas, in the southern sector of
findings. The archaeological sites Laguna Diamante 1 and the South Puna (28ºS), there is a fluvial terrace covered by
2, Laguna Purulla 1 and Laguna Cavi are situated in this pyroclastic flows coming from the collapse and explosion
unit. of Cerro Blanco caldera volcanic complex. Under the
pyroclastic sediments there are paleobogs, whose higher
IUHTXHQF\LVSUHVHQWDW““DQG“
'ĞŽĞĐŽůŽŐŝĐĂů ůĞǀĂƟŽŶ ZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ %3$IHZSDOHRERJVDSSHDUHGLQ“DQG
ƵŶŝƚ ;ŵĂƐůͿ “%35DWWRet al.2008).
sĞƌLJůŽǁĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂůͲ
>ŽǁĞƌďĂƐŝŶĂƌĞĂ
without  perennial   3400-­‐
ƉĂƐƚƵƌĞƉŽƚĞŶƟĂůĂŶĚ Other paleoenvironmental studies include those in the
ĚŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞ 3550
ůŝŵŝƚĞĚĂǀĂŝůĂďŝůŝƚLJŽĨ western flank of the Western Cordillera between 27º S-
ǁĂƚĞƌĂŶĚĮƌĞǁŽŽĚ 24º S (Chile), such as the studies of Maldonado et al.
>ŽǁĞƌďĂƐŝŶĂƌĞĂ
,ŝŐŚƉŽƚĞŶƟĂůĂŐƌŽͲ (2005), Zech et al. (2006) and Quade et al. (2008) which
pastoral,  annual  water   are outstanding. Maldonado et al. (2005) in the Quebrada
with  perennial   3400-­‐
ĂǀĂŝůĂďŝůŝƚLJ͕   del Chaco (25.5º S), established: a) winter wet high phases
ĚŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞ 3550
ďƵŶĚĂŶƚǁŽŽĚ
between 24,000-17,000 cal yr BP, b) humidity in both
DŝĚĚůĞďĂƐŝŶ 3550-­‐   WŽƐƐŝďŝůŝƟĞƐĨŽƌŐƌĂnjŝŶŐĂŶĚ
seasons between 17,000-14,000 cal BP, and c) during the
ƐĞĐƚŽƌƐ 3900 ƐŵĂůůͲƐĐĂůĞĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĞ
summer between 14,000-11,000 cal yr BP. The authors
3900-­‐  
,ŝŐŚďĂƐŝŶƐĞĐƚŽƌƐ
4900 established that during the wet phases, the altitudinal
High  Andean   4800-­‐
Vegas  and  grassland  for   Andean belts of vegetation moved toward lower altitudes.
ǁŝŶƚĞƌŐƌĂnjŝŶŐ
lagoons 5000
In the Salar de Punta Negra (24.5° S) located in the western
dĂďůĞϯ͘ZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐŝŶŐĞŽĞĐŽůŽŐŝĐĂůƵŶŝƚƐ Andes (Chile), Quade et al. (2008), indicate that the rivers
;ŶƚŽĨĂŐĂƐƚĂĚĞůĂ^ŝĞƌƌĂƌĞŐŝŽŶͿ were active and permanent twice, 15,900-ca. 13,800
and 12,700 ca. 9700 cal yr BP. The authors relate this
phenomenon with the reinforcement of incoming wet
Regional paleoenvironmental aspects of the South winds from the Atlantic.
Puna (24º-28º S)

The study of the paleoenvironment of the Late Quaternary
provides information about the structure of the resources
(water, pasture) in the old landscape and how many
sources were at the disposal of human groups. In the
Argentine Puna there are few paleoenvironmental studies
compared to the ones in northern Chile and south Bolivia.
The paleoenvironmental research that was carried out by
the authors in nearby places (<100 km) and in the study
area is summarized below. In the South Puna there are
few comparative studies with the North Puna, northern
Chile and South Bolivia. What follows is a summary of
paleoenvironmental studies in these neighboring areas as
well as in the study area.
Godfrey et al. (2003) carried out a study in the Salar del
Hombre Muerto (25º 20´ S, 67º W) that consists of a 40
m deep perforation. They defined the phases according to
the lithology and to the isotopic value of the water trapped
in the sediment. They determined the formation of salty
lagoons during the really wet phases (85-75, 64, 57-55 y
45 Ka years U/Th cal BP) and the salty playa development
during the moderate wet phases (49, 44-38 and 24-19.8
Ka years U/Th).
Martínez et al. (2004, 2008) indicated the presence of
manure of extinct mega-herbivores in the sites of Peña de
las Trampas 1.1 (lower basin of the Las Pitas River, 3582
m asl) and Cueva Cacao 1A (Curuto River, 3730 m asl)
The Late Quaternary glacial in the South Puna
The South Puna does not have active glaciers and the snow
line is over 6400 m asl. The highest peaks, such as Antofalla
volcano (6310 m asl) or Cerro Galán (5770 m asl), do not
have permanent snow, although it is common to observe
their snowy peaks some years. The nearest active glaciers
are located 100 km to SSW (Nevado de Tres Cruces;
27º 06´ S, 68º 47´ W, Figure 6) and more than 300 km
towards the north where the snow line decreases to 5000
m asl (Sajama Volcano, 18ºS). This phenomenon implies
that ice accumulation and glacial growth is not limited by
temperature, but by low precipitation values (Clapperton
1994, Zech 2006).
Ancient glacial morphologies located in the Argentine
Puna and in the eastern flank of the Andes (21º S-28º
S) are briefly mentioned by many authors (Penck 1920,
Tapia 1925, González Bonorino 1951, Hasternrath 1971,
Irgazábal 1981, Sayago et al. 1991 and Sayago 1999).
In the western Cordillera the following research must
be highlighted: Ammann et al. (2001) and Zech et al.
(2006) in the south of Bolivia, Clapperton (1994) in Chile
and Zipprich et al. (2000) and Smith et al. (2006) in the
extreme north of Argentina. The photo-interpretation
carried out in the South Puna indicates that there are many
glacial morphologies assigned to Late Maximum Glacial
(Figure 6).

7
 Hunter-gatherers from a high-elevation desert. People of the Salt Puna (northwest Argentina)

&ŝŐƵƌĞϲ͘>ĂƚĞWůĞŝƐƚŽĐĞŶĞĂŶĚ,ŽůŽĐĞŶĞŐůĂĐŝĂůůĂŶĚĨŽƌŵƐŝŶƚŚĞ^ŽƵƚŚWƵŶĂ͘
dŚĞďůĂĐŬƉŽůLJŐŽŶƐŝŶĚŝĐĂƚĞ>ĂƚĞWůĞŝƐƚŽĐĞŶĞĂŶĚĂƌůLJ,ŽůŽĐĞŶĞŐůĂĐŝĂůůĂŶĚĨŽƌŵƐ

There is a higher density of glacial landforms in some of
the peaks of the eastern border of the Puna, for instance:
Pastos Grandes range (24.82° S, 66.39° W), Nevado del
Cachi, Nevado de Palermo (24.9° S, 66.3° W), Filo del Oira
Grande (24.95º S, 66.57º W), Cumbres de Luracato (25.1°
S, 66.6° W), Leones range, Gordo peak (25.6° S, 66.7 W°),
Loma Negra range (25.7° S, 66.6° W), Velazquez range
(25.8º-26º S, 66.6º W), Mula Muerta peak (26.1° S-66.4
W°), Tipillas peak (26.2 S°, 66.5 W°) and Cajón range
(26º-26.5º S, 66.3º W). In these different places there were
small ice caps that extended from the peaks up to 3650
m asl on average. Altogether, all the ice caps could have
formed a 300 km barrier for human and animal circulation
(from 24.5º S to 26.4º S). However, there were passes that
were not affected by ice (Figure 6).
67.96º W) with terminal moraines between 5050 and 5150
m asl (Figure 6).
In the center of the eastern border of the South Puna the
glacial landforms are less extended. The geomorphologies
are evident in the heads of the narrow passes in the eastern,
southern and northeastern slopes of Laguna Blanca range
(26.3º-26.6º S, 67º W). Here, the glacial cirques (n=16) are
located between 5850 and 5000 m asl high especially in the
HDVWHUQVORSHVRIWKHPRXQWDLQV7KH\DUH“NP
ZLGHDQG“NPORQJ7KHJODFLDOWURXJKVSUHVHQW
PLGGOHORQJLWXGHVRI“NPDQGDZLGWKRIP
“PDQGDWOHDVWWZRRUWKUHHFLUTXHVDUHREVHUYHGSHU
valley, although the most typical case is the development
of one cirque in each valley.

On the southern edge of the Puna, there are glacial
morphologies in the highest peaks of the San Buenaventura
range (26.7° S, 68° W), where glaciation was not as
extended. Glaciation was distributed between 4500 and
5100 m asl (Figure 6) such as the Negro peak (26.85° S,
66.83° W, 4536 m asl). Further southeast (40 km), there
are terminal moraines at 4200 to 3900 m asl in Famatina
In general, the high sectors located between glacial valleys
present structural pre-glacial morphologies. Features such
as horns (glacial needles) and zones of convergence of
cirques (Col) are not typical elements.
Two generations of moraines were found. Moraines located
near the limit of the piedmont-mountain fault front at 4257
range (27.4º S, 67.3º W) and El Mojon Peak (27.4° S, 67.2° “  P DVO Q   DQG PRUDLQHV ORFDWHG LQ WKH KHDGV
W). In addition, there is an unnamed cirque that elevates of valleys (n=2). Superimposed on the bottom moraines
5200 m asl towards the west of Purulla lagoon (26.6º S, are rock periglacial landforms. Also, fluvial wetlands are

8
 Pablo Tchilinguirian and Daniel E. Olivera - Late quaternary paleoenvironments, South Andean Puna (25º-27º s),
Argentina
developed in the depressions located in the moraines and Western Cordillera the Pleistocene-Early Holocene ice
the rocky glacials. action was practically absent, due to the increase in aridity
due to the rain shadow effect. This effect is superimposed
with the “arid diagonal”, developed between 24º and 27º S
(Amman et al. 2001).

EŽŶ ŽƌƌĞĐƚĞĚ
ϭϯ
EǑ>Ăď͘ Site ĂůŝďƌĂƚĞĚ ĂƚĞ
(0/00)
ŐĞŝŶW ;zĞĂƌƐWͿ
LATYR  
1 4110  ±180a -­‐ n.d.
4
LATYR  
1 4560  ±  60a -­‐ n.d.
5
UGA  8786 2 3300  ±  40a 3430±40 -­‐17.26
a
UGA  8787 2 3710  ±  40 3910±40 -­‐12.87
UGA
2 6150±    60a 6360±60 -­‐12.33
8788
&ŝŐƵƌĞϳ͘>ĂƚĞYƵĂƚĞƌŶĂƌLJŐůĂĐŝĂůůĂŶĚĨŽƌŵƐŝŶŶŽƌƚŚĞĂƐƚ UGA
2 9900  ±  50a 9910  ±50 -­‐24.58
8790
DŽũŽŶĞƐƉĞĂŬ͕^ŽƵƚŚWƵŶĂĚĞƐĞƌƚ
UGA  8789 2 8690±    40a 8710±40 -­‐23.76
AA a
3 -­‐ 3620±48 -­‐23.4
Other intrapuna glacial landforms are located in the Mojones 78533
and Beltran peaks, in the center of the South Puna (25.5º AA
3 -­‐ 3917±44a -­‐23.3
78536
S, 67.3º W, Figures 6 and 7). Here, the cirques are located
AA
between 5400 m asl and 4900 m asl and the glacial valley 3 -­‐ 5963  +/-­‐  52ď -­‐24.2
96539
VKRZORQJLWXGHVRI“NP)LYHWHUPLQDOPRUDLQHV 4
were detected in the north and northeastern flanks (25.65º UGA  8793 1550±40 1560±40a -­‐24.2
6ž:ZKHUHWKHORZHVWDUHORFDWHGDW“
m asl (Figure 7).
In Alto del Pedernal (25.9° S, 66.8° W), at the foot of
the oriental slope of Galán peak (5148 m asl), there are
frontal moraines at an elevation of 4900 m asl, and on the
Antofalla Volcano (6300 m asl) there are frontal moraines
at an elevation of 5900 m asl (25.58º S, 67.89º W).
There are several elevations over 5000 m asl that do not
have accumulated glacial landforms such as Cumbres del
Toconquis (25.9º S, 67.1º W, 5500 m asl), the Ilanco peak
(26.04º S, 67.17º W, 5480 m asl) and the Calalaste range
(25.7º- 25.9º S, 67.6º W, 5400 m asl), among others (Figure
3). This would be indicating that the glacial phenomenon
had different intensities along the South Puna.
By carrying out a regional spatial analysis of the geographic
and altitudinal distribution of the glacial landforms it is
shown that these glacial landforms have a higher density
and better morphological expression in the Eastern Puna.
In the eastern border the moraines are more extended and
they reach lower altitudes as compared to the central sector
of the South Puna. To the west, near the Chilean-Argentine
border (Western Cordillera) no clear glacial features could
be found (Figure 6).
This phenomenon would be associated with the east-
west range of the rainfalls during the glaciation. In the
eastern Puna border, glacial action was greater due to
the orographic rainfall effect coming from the east, north
and northeast. To the west of the South Puna, and in the
9
UGA  8692 4 2910±40 3060±40 a
-­‐15.77
UGA
4 5860±40 5880±40a -­‐23.88
8791
AA
4 5641±45a -­‐23.3
85737
AA
4 2690±39ď -­‐23.0
85738
ZĞĨĞƌĞŶĐĞƐ͗ UGA:   Center   for   Applied   Isotope   Studies   (University   of  
'ĞŽƌŐŝĂͿ͖ >dzZ >ĂďŽƌĂƚŽƌLJ ŽĨ dƌŝƟƵŵ ĂŶĚ ZĂĚŝŽĐĂƌďŽŶ ;>Ă WůĂƚĂ͕
ƌŐĞŶƟŶĂͿ͖͗E^&ͲƌŝnjŽŶĂD^>ĂďŽƌĂƚŽƌLJ͖Ŷ͘Ě͗͘ƚŚĞůĂďŽƌĂƚŽƌLJĚŝĚŶ͛ƚ
provide  Gϭϯ͘ϭͲŽŶŇƵĞŶĐŝĂƐŝƚĞ͕WƵŶŝůůĂZŝǀĞƌ͕Ϯ͗>ĂŐƵŶĂŽůŽƌĂĚĂƐĂůĂƌ͕
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et al.ϮϬϬϲĂŶĚdĐŚŝůŝŶŐƵŝƌŝĂŶϮϬϬϴĂ͖;ď):  from  Grana  2013.
dĂďůĞϰ͘ZĂĚŝŽĐĂƌďŽŶĚĂƚĞƐŝŶŇƵǀŝĂůĂŶĚůĂĐƵƐƚƌŝŶĞƉĂůĞŽƐŽŝůƐ
ĨƌŽŵŶƚŽĨĂŐĂƐƚĂĚĞůĂ^ŝĞƌƌĂ
In the southern limit of the South Puna, the Late Quaternary
glacial action was local in some high peaks and associated
with the presence of humidity coming from the southeast
and the Pacific Ocean (San Buenaventura and Purulla
peaks, Figure 6).
This paleogeographic landform data indicates that the
glacial advances are mainly related to the humidity
coming from the north, northeast and east. Other evidence
of Atlantic moisture source is the asymmetric distribution
of the altitude of till deposits on both flanks of the Puna.
On the eastern flanks, the terminal glacial landforms are
lower than on the western flanks. Similarly, Fox (1993, in
Clapperton 1994) indicates a tropical easterly atmospheric
circulation during the Late Quaternary.
 Hunter-gatherers from a high-elevation desert. People of the Salt Puna (northwest Argentina)

&ŝŐƵƌĞϴ͘>ĂƚĞYƵĂƚĞƌŶĂƌLJƉĂůĞŽůĂŬĞƐŝŶƚŚĞ^ŽƵƚŚWƵŶĂ͘ůĂĐŬƉŽůLJŐŽŶƐŝŶĚŝĐĂƚĞ>ĂƚĞWůĞŝƐƚŽĐĞŶĞĂŶĚĂƌůLJ,ŽůŽĐĞŶĞƉĂůĞŽůĂŬĞƐ͘
'ƌĂLJƉŽůLJŐŽŶƐŝŶĚŝĐĂƚĞƐĂůĂƌƐĂŶĚƉůĂLJĂůĂŬĞƐ

As a result, chronological and paleoclimatic inferences
obtained from glacial and periglacial evidence could be
connected with the research carried out in the Bolivian Andes
and in northern Patagonia (South Pacific humidity source).
According to the regional Tropical Andes summary studies
(Smith et al. 2006), the minimal ages of the moraine
deposits are about 21,000-9000 BP (14,000-10,200 yr
cal BP). This is a temporally wide window that makes
the specific assignment of the glacial period difficult.
Furthermore, the authors point out that the moraines
dated in a cosmogenically way usually present ages that
correspond to the isotopic 3 stadial (35,000-30,000 cal
yr BP) and, in a lower quantity, yield ages between the
21,000 yr cal BP.
To the south of the South Puna, in the valley of Encierro
(29º S), cosmogenic data (10Be) is obtained from erratic
blocks in different moraines (Zech et al. 2006). Their study
points out the presence of important glacial advances ca.
“%3DQGHYHQWXDOO\ca“%3
Minor advances were detected ca. 11,600 BP. However,
these values can differ significantly depending on the
chronological method of transformation to calculate the
exposed age of the block.
The last glacial stadial, called Neoglacial, is dated in 2620
“%3*URVMHDQet al.1998) in Encierro valley (29º 11´S,
69º 38´ W) and in Del Elqui valley (29.3º S) by Veit (1996)
ZLWK DQ DJH RI  “  %3 +HUH WKH DQFLHQW JODFLDO
tongues advanced up to 3450 and 3650 m asl, much lower
than in the South Puna.
In the study area, this progress can be represented in
several fossil and rock glaciers as well as active and fossil
solifluction lobes. These landforms are located on mountain
peaks above 4800/5100 m asl and cover the deposits of Late
Pleistocene till (Corte 1976; Igarzábal 1982; Ahumada et
al. 2004). They are observed, for instance, at the top of
Laguna Blanca range (26.542° S, 67.037° W), to the south
of the caldera of Galán (26.123° S, 66.857° W), in Tipillas
peak (26.287° S, 66.526° W), and in Cajón range (26.28°
S, 66.29° W).
Among the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene and Late
Holocene advances an important glacial drawback took

10
 Pablo Tchilinguirian and Daniel E. Olivera - Late quaternary paleoenvironments, South Andean Puna (25º-27º s),
Argentina
place, most of which disappeared accordingly during the In Argentina, the Altiplano paleolakes were found in the
Middle Holocene arid period. northern Puna by Irgazabal (1984), Abril and Amengual
(1999) and Camacho (2001).

&ŝŐƵƌĞϵ͘KƌŝĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨĂŶĐŝĞŶƚďĞƌŵƐĂŶĚůĂĐƵƐƚƌŝŶĞ
ĂĐĐƵŵƵůĂƟŽŶƚĞƌƌĂĐĞƐ

The development of the Late Pleistocene glacial of the

South Puna would indicate a relevant permanent snow line
decrease, currently located over 6300 m asl. Furthermore,
the moraines would indicate that hydric-nival balance
would have been considerably positive to sustain nival
accumulation, the ice formation and its advance through
the valleys. It can be inferred that the rainfalls (P) would
have increased significantly, as temperature (T) decrease
in the rainfall/temperature (P/T) relation is not enough to
justify a glacial advance in an arid region.
&ŝŐƵƌĞϭϬ͘ĂƌſƉĂůĞŽůĂŬĞůĂŶĚĨŽƌŵƐ͘ϭ͗ŝŶĂĐƟǀĞĂůůƵǀŝĂůĨĂŶ͖
Ϯ͗ƐĂůĂƌ͖ϯ͗ůĂĐƵƐƚƌŝŶĞďĞĂĐŚƚĞƌƌĂĐĞ͕ůĞǀĞů/͖ϰ͗ůĂĐƵƐƚƌŝŶĞďĞĂĐŚ
Late Quaternary palaeolakes ƚĞƌƌĂĐĞ͕ůĞǀĞů/͖ϱ͗ĂĐƟǀĞĂůůƵǀŝĂůĨĂŶ͖ϲ͗ƉĞƌŵĂŶĞŶƚƐĂůƚůĂŬĞƐ͖
ϳ͗ůŝŵŝƚƌĞĂĐŚĞĚďLJƚŚĞƐĂůŝŶĞ͖ϴ͗DĂdžŝŵƵŵůŝŵŝƚƌĞĂĐŚĞĚďLJƚŚĞ
ůĂŬĞĞdžƉĂŶƐŝŽŶ͖ϵ͗ƉĂůĞŽĐůŝīůĂŬĞ
The water bodies in the South Puna are represented by
ephemeral lakes (playa lakes), salares and hypersaline
lagoons. The salares and playa lake systems are located
In the South Puna, several lacustrine paleoforms are
generally below 4500 m asl, while the hypersaline lagoons
distinguished in salares, playa salt lakes and lagoons,
are well represented above 4500 m asl due to lower
which are correlated to the ones in the northern Puna and
evaporation and greater rainfall.
northern Chile (Tchilinguirian 2008b, 2009) (Figure 8).
While at low altitude (< 4500 m asl) is not common to
The relevant places with lacustrine landforms in the
find permanent lagoons, there are few places where this
South Puna are the following: Laguna Diamante (26.01º
occurs. These places are: Laguna de Antofagasta (26.1º S,
S, 67.04º W), Laguna Caro (25.55º S, 67.04º S), Laguna
67.4º W, 3320 m asl) and Laguna Blanca (26.6º S, 66.9º
Carachipampa (26.42º S, 67.48º W), Alto de las Lagunas
W, 3190 m asl). This particular situation would be due to
(26.13º S, 66.71º W), Laguna Pasto Ventura (26.76º S,
the fact that they are supplied by permanent rivers, which
67.13º W), Laguna Blanca (26.62º S, 66.92º W), Colorada
have their sources in mountaintops that register orographic
de Culampaja (26.87º S, 67.13º W), Laguna Cavi (26.29º
rainfalls (sources above 4500 m asl).
S, 67.08º W), Incahuasi (26.34º S, 67.66º W), Laguna
Grande or Las Parinas (26.24º S, 67.05º W), Laguna de
Several paleolake studies carried out in the southern
Antofagasta (26.11º S, 67.41º W), Laguna Salitre (26.24º
Bolivian and Northern Chilean Altiplano have made
S, 67.05º W), Laguna Verde (26.88º S, 68.46º W) and
important paleoclimatic contributions to the tropical
several unnamed salares (Figure 8).
Andean region (Servant and Fontes 1978, Lavenu et al.
1984; Clapperton 1993; Grosjean 1994; Clapperton 1997;
The paleoforms include old beach ridges, paleoberm
Geyh 1999; Barker et al. 2001; Bobst et al. 2001; Godfrey
crests, lacustrine terrace levels, paleofan-deltas, paleospits,
et al. 2003; Servant et al. 2003, and Plazeck et al. 2006).
cuspate forelands and lacustrine cliff levels. The ancient
beaches located in the salar peripheries have a larger

11
 Hunter-gatherers from a high-elevation desert. People of the Salt Puna (northwest Argentina)

area and acquire a higher morphological development in snow or permafrost melting (e.g.: Colorada de Culampaja,
the southeastern (47%) or eastern margins (31.6%) of the Alto de las Lagunas, Salitre and Las Parinas).
salares (Figure 9). This phenomenon allows us to think
that the stronger or more frequent winds came from the
opposing quadrant during the development of the lacustrine
bodies.

Each beach ridge has a height of between 1 and 2 m and

a width of between 2 and 30 m. They are composed of
medium gravels in a coarse sandy matrix and coarse sand
with parallel lamination beds.

The paleocoastlines are discontinuous. In Laguna Diamante

there are four paleobeach ridge levels, and in Laguna Caro
(Figure 9) and Carachipampa there are two levels. This
would imply that the lacustrine expansion would have
presented phases of stabilization and construction of beach
bars.

There is a lack of dates that prevents the construction of

a chronology of the different generations of South Puna
lacustrine paleocoast groups. However, comparison with
other studies carried out in the northern Chile and southern
Bolivia show that the lower level paleocoastlines would
correspond to the Coipasa Phase (Pleistocene-Holocene
transition) and the following one (upper level) to the Tauca
phase (Late Pleistocene) (Hastenrath and Kutzbach, 1985;
Wirrmann and Mourguiart, 1987).

In the Salar de Laguna Colorada and in the Laguna de

Antofagasta there is a Late Holocene low paleocoastline
level (1-2 m). There is no evidence of a higher paleoshore,
which is a different situation from that found at other sites.
In these cases, the sedimentary aggradation exceeded the
level reached by the paleocoasts of the Late Pleistocene
and Early Holocene.

Other landforms associated with the paleolakes are the old

fan-delta and marginal piedmont (alluvial fan and pediment
levels) that had the old lacustrine body as base level.
At the southern bank of Laguna de Pasto Ventura, eight
alluvial levels which developed telescopic fan shapes can
be detected. These levels bevel the Pleistocene lacustrine
sediments and are covered by a thin layer of coarse gravel
sediments.

In the extreme northeast of the Laguna de Carachipampa

there are three alluvial levels, while in the southeast bank
of the Laguna Cavi there are four levels. These geomorphic
surface levels would indicate stabilization phases of the
decrease in water levels.

Around 40% of the paleolakes have moraines in their

supplying basins. The other 60% do not register glacial
action and have inactive landslides, old cryogenic flows
and relict lobate rock glaciers. This would imply that the
paleolake hydric regimes can be labeled under two types:
1) those supplied by glacial ablation (e.g.: Laguna Blanca, &ŝŐƵƌĞϭϭ͘>ĂŐƵŶĂŽůŽƌĂĚĂƐĂůĂƌƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚĂƌLJƉƌŽĮůĞƐ͖
Caro, Cavi and Pasto Ventura) as shown by the existence of Wϭ͗ĐŽƌĞŽŶŶŽƌƚŚƐŝĚĞŽĨ>ĂŐƵŶĂŽůŽƌĂĚĂ͕WϮ͗ĐŽƌĞŝŶƚŚĞ
varves in the lacustrine deposits, and 2) those supplied by ĐĞŶƚĞƌŽĨ>ĂŐƵŶĂŽůŽƌĂĚĂƐĂůĂƌ

12
 Pablo Tchilinguirian and Daniel E. Olivera - Late quaternary paleoenvironments, South Andean Puna (25º-27º s),
Argentina
The paleocoasts appear in 90% of the salty bodies. They
tend to appear in: 1) salares or lagoons which have
hydrographic basins that stand on extensive areas over
4500 m asl; 2) salares with low catchment area and coasts
with high slopes. On the contrary, in low altitude basins
(< 4500 m asl) and with big and shallow water bodies
there are no paleocoasts. This would indicate that the
paleolakes were likely formed under two conditions: 1) in
extended and high basins over 4500 m asl; 2) in deep and
low area bodies where the vaporization values are lower
(Tchilinguirian 2008b, 2009).
In the South Puna, the paleoenvironmental information was
obtained from three cores collected in Laguna Colorada
(26.03º S, 67.45º W), located in the lower Punilla basin,
near Antofagasta de la Sierra (Tchilinguirian and Olivera
2005). The sedimentological analysis indicates the
existence of four sedimentary units.
During the arid Middle Holocene, the paleolakes would
have dried up and would have been affected by eolian
erosion. The paleolakes most vulnerable to the regression-
degradation would have been possibly located in the lower
basin due to higher evapotranspiration conditions.
Early-Middle Holocene fluvial systems
The Pleistocene-Early Holocene alluvial deposits in the
Puna are generally located in fluvial terraces (Units A, B
and C, Figure 12) and alluvial fan levels. These records
are discontinuous, due to periods without deposition and
erosive processes typical of arid and semiarid fluvial
environments.

Unit A, located in the lower sedimentary section, is

composed by lacustrine-coastal facies formed between
 “  %3 DQG  “  %3 )LJXUH  7KH ORZ
oxygen isotopic values in the record indicate cold and wet
conditions. Between 8400 BP and 6500 BP the water body
dried up and there was deflation (eolian erosion).

At a depth of 4 m there is massive bioturbated and

hydromorphic clay that would have been under a
sedimentation process in a wet playa lake system (Unit B).
A radiocarbon date in organic matter indicates an age of
“%3

%HWZHHQ“DQG“%3WKHUHLVDQHURVLYH
hiatus and an alluvial gravel (Unit C) deposited in distal
alluvial fans. These sediment facies are associated to the
regressive conditions of the wet playa lake system.

After around 3900 BP and until the 1300 BP there are

green clay, diatoms and organic matter layers (Units D,
E and F) accumulated in permanent lagoons with coastal
wetlands with organic soils (Figure 11). These units would
correspond to the lacustrine transgression of the Late
Holocene. Finally, after 1300 BP this lagoon was dry and
covered by sand dunes and alluvial fans (Unit G).
The paleoenvironmental analysis of Laguna Colorada
indicates that there were two lacustrine expansions: one
belonging to the Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene and the
other one to the Late Holocene, between ca 3900 and 1300
BP. In the Middle Holocene, towards the 6300-6500 BP,
a brief wet pulse appeared in the center of the salar (Unit
B, Figure 11).
The Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene paleolakes had
a great distribution in the South Puna (Figure 8). They
occupied the lower basin areas (Laguna Caró, Colorada,
Blanca, Carachipampa, Figure 8) as well as the high altitude
zones (Laguna de Pasto Ventura, Grande, Diamante, Alto
Las Lagunas, among others).
&ŝŐƵƌĞϭϮ͘^ƚƌĂƟŐƌĂƉŚŝĐƵŶŝƚƐŝŶDŝƌŝŚƵĂĐĂ;ĂͿ͕>ĂƐWŝƚĂƐ;ďͿ͕
WƵŶŝůůĂ;ŽŶŇƵĞŶĐŝĂƐŝƚĞͿZŝǀĞƌ;ĐͿ͖dϯ͗>ĂƚĞWůĞŝƐƚŽĐĞŶĞŇƵǀŝĂů
ƚĞƌƌĂĐĞůĞǀĞů͖dϲĂŶĚdϳ͗>ĂƚĞ,ŽůŽĐĞŶĞŇƵǀŝĂůƚĞƌƌĂĐĞůĞǀĞů͖
dϵ͗,ŝƐƚŽƌŝĐŇƵǀŝĂůƚĞƌƌĂĐĞůĞǀĞů͖͕͕͗ĂůůƵǀŝĂůƵŶŝƚƐ͖ϭ͕Ϯ͕
ϯ͗ĂůůƵǀŝĂůƐƵďͲƵŶŝƚƐ
The fluvial valleys in the Puna contain between five and
eleven fluvial terrace levels of Quaternary age. These
alluvial landforms are better expressed in the mid and
upper basins of fluvial systems. In the lower basin, the
accumulative processes dominate and there are alluvial
fans with lagoons and salt lake systems.
The Quaternary lithology and sedimentology in each
studied basin (as seen in Figure 12: Confluencia, Las Pitas
and Mirihuaca) is highly variable with regards to texture,
color, thickness and layer continuity. This is due to the

13
 Hunter-gatherers from a high-elevation desert. People of the Salt Puna (northwest Argentina)
different geological, geomorphological, hydrological and
topographical characteristics within each basin.
There is also sedimentological variability along the
longitudinal stream profiles. At the sources, near the
springs, there are sedimentological facies with paleosoils
or permanent rivers, while in the lower basin there are
ephemeral or eolic facies.
This intrinsic variability of the sedimentology of fluvial
deposits in the Puna makes the lithostratigraphic correlation
difficult. So, radiocarbon data constitutes the only reliable
tool for correlating events along and between basins (Table
4, Figure 13).
&ŝŐƵƌĞϭϯ͘WĂůĞŽĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂůƉŚĂƐĞƐŝŶĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚƐŝƚĞƐ͕
ŶƚŽĨĂŐĂƐƚĂĚĞůĂ^ŝĞƌƌĂďĂƐŝŶ
Mirihuaca geological profile
In the lower basin of the Mirihuaca River there are
seven levels of old fluvial terraces. Terraces 1 to 4 are of
Pleistocene age, Terrace 5 is of possible Early Holocene
age, and Terrace 6 has deposits that range between Early
and Late Holocene. An outcrop study of Terrace 6 was
carried out near Las Escondidas site (25.99º S, 67.38º W).
In this location there are six meter high outcrops, whose
exposed deposits are between ca. 6000 BP to ca. 1500 BP
(Figures 3 and 12).
14
The deposits of Terrace 6 have three units separated by
erosive discontinuities: B1, B2, and B3 (Figure 12). The
sequence starts with 1 m of cross and planar bedding medium
gravel with root bioturbation and oxide concretions. On
top of this lies a dark grey mineral paleosoil. Two dates
IURP WKLV SDOHRVRLO VSDQ “ DQG  “  %3
(Figure 12, Mirihuaca, Unit B1). The base of Unit B1 is
not exposed, whereas the upper contact with Unit B2 is an
erosion channel surface.
In discordance to Unit B1 paleosoil, there are planar
bedding clasts and gravels that are bioturbated by roots and
mottled with red iron. Over these gravels, are pale brown
(7.5 YR 6/3), massive, matrix-supported gravel beds (3 m),
resulting from mud flows (Figure 12 Mirihuaca, Unit B2).
On the top of the upper mudflow bed is a brown, poorly
developed mineral paleosoil (0.5 m).
The Unit B3 is composed of gravel beds interbedded with
multiple white fine layers of diatomite, diatomaceous silt,
thin carbonized plant material, and uncarbonized vascular
peat plant (3 m). Dates from the organic layers range between
2910 and 1550 BP (Figure 12, Mirihuaca, subunit B3).
Las Pitas geological profile
In the middle and lower Las Pitas basin there are nine
fluvial terraces, from which terraces 1 and 6 are Pleistocene
(Figure 12, Las Pitas, Unit A). Fluvial Terrace 7 is ca.
6000 to 3699 BP and consists of three units: B1, B2 and
B3 (Figure 12).
The Pleistocene aggradational Unit A consists of crudely
or horizontal bedded, well sorted, rounded to sub-rounded,
medium to coarse pebble conglomerates containing
Neogene volcanic and sedimentary clasts. These sediments
are interpreted as originating from high energy braided
fluvial plains.
Aggradational fluvial deposits associated with the terraces
7 and 8 are inset into either these alluvial Pleistocene
deposits or within the Pliocene ignimbritic rocks.
Subunit B1 is composed of 2 m massive matrix supported
gravel interbedded with thin layers of red and horizontal
bedding pebbles. This unit would correspond to debris
and mudflow deposits and tractive currents in ephemeral
streams.
Subunit B2 contains several layers of reddish, horizontally
bedded pebbles in channel mesoforms. In lateral and
downstream accretions macroforms appear light green
with planar cross-bedding, and horizontally bedded sand,
interbedded with white massive and laminated diatom
sediments. Unaltered thin roots are often preserved
within iron rich and CaCO3 rhizoliths. This unit would
correspond to medium energy anastomosed fluvial plain
of intermediate or perennial rivers with some shallow
backswamp peat (Unit B2).
 Pablo Tchilinguirian and Daniel E. Olivera - Late quaternary paleoenvironments, South Andean Puna (25º-27º s),
Argentina
Subunit B3 (4 m) contains several layers of grey,
horizontal and planar cross bedding fine pebbles and very
coarse sands interbedded with lenses of white laminated
to massive diatoms sediments and black laminated
organic and plant debris sediments. These sediments
have monticular structures that result from cryogenic
deformation processes. This unit would have been
deposited in a medium-low energy perennially discharging
stream with many backswamp peats. Two radiocarbon
ages were obtained from paleobackswamp sediments of
8QLW%7DEOH“DQG“%38QLW%
Figure 13). After ca. 3600 BP the river descended 8 m
from the base level.
Punilla River: Confluencia site
In the lower drainage of the Punilla basin, at the Confluencia
site (26.050º S, 67.412º W, 3370 m asl), there are three
terrace levels (1 m, 2 m and 3.5 m).
The 2 m fluvial terrace has two units: A and B (Figure
12, Confluencia). Unit B is composed of green, massive,
bioturbated clay, interbedded with black, horizontal
lamination, and organic mud that indicate ages ca. 4110
show an evolutionary trend at a millennial-scale and local
variations at a century scale (between and within basins)
depending on the beginning, duration and magnitude of
the different wet or arid phases. Therefore, the availability
of resources for the ancient humans of the Puna desert was
also variable at different times during the Late Quaternary.
It is not expected that the arid or wet events were of the
same intensity, extension and duration in all of the fluvial
basins.
Another relevant aspect of the geomorphologic analysis
is the paleogeography of the fluvial systems during the
Pleistocene to Early-mid Holocene. In Las Pitas and
Mirihuaca rivers, fluvial terraces are distributed between
20 to 300 m from the bed of the current river course. The
fluvial paleogeography was different from the current one,
as these rivers had base levels between 0 to +8 m above
the current bed (Figure 12, Unit B). As a consequence,
the potential “Paleoindian and Archaic” archaeological
records could have been eroded, buried or located on the
external banks of these fossil terrace landforms.
South Puna paleoenvironmental phases
“%3FPGHSWKDQG“%3FP
depth). On these units, there are mineral paleosoils and
ephemeral alluvial facies (Unit B). The 3.5 m fluvial
terrace (Unit A) is prior to 4500 BP. Other affluent rivers
to Punilla, such as Ilanco, Mojones (Corral Grande) and
Curuto have sedimentary facies and similar paleosoils.
The stratigraphic information in the fluvial terrace
deposits indicates the existence of alluvial aggradation
and erosive periods, where the rivers descended the
base level and formed terraces (Figure 12). Three fluvial
paleoenvironmental types formed: 1) perennial river with
high energy and discharge in channels and wetlands that
formed in the overbank areas (Humid sediments facies,
Figure 13); 2) a perennial stream with low-energy, stable
and low runoff discharge with organic soils, diatomaceous
sediments, laminated mud, and fine sand (Humid sediment
facies, Figure 13), and finally 3) ephemeral rivers where
gravity flows and tractive currents dominated. No organic
soils appear in this fluvial paleoevironment (Arid sediment
facies, Figure 13).
The sedimentary, erosive and soil formation processes
show a lack of synchronization of the fluvial erosive or
accumulative events between basins (at a centennial scale,
Figure 13). The fluvial process and changes in base level
do not have the same origin in all basins.
Changes of the base level of this river system were due to:
1) water lake variation (Late Quaternary paleolakes), 2)
phreatic layer changes (paleoswamps in the stratigraphic
profiles), 3) river dammed by debris flow, 4) valley
filled by sand dune sediments or debris avalanches,
5) river dam by hard rocks in river channels. Another
conclusion from examining Figure 13 is that the rivers
15
Until now, the studies of the evolution of the Altiplano
paleoclimate present divergences with regard to intensity,
frequency and timing of the climatic variability. The
differences between these studies could be due to:
1) Geographic variability due to the latitudinal, longitudinal
and altitudinal position of each analyzed site.
At a regional scale, the Eastern Cordillera and Northern
Altiplano receive more moisture than South Puna and
Western Cordillera. At a local scale, the mountain
elevations control the intensity of aridity by the föhn
wind phenomenon that perturbs the rainfall regime of the
adjoining region. Altitude is another variable factor, as
different geomorphic-sedimentary processes are relative
to the mountainous climate.
These phenomena are relevant in terms of the sensitivity
that the sedimentary basin had during climatic changes.
Consequently, past climatic change in South Puna
displayed both a temporal and spatial component
depending on geographic and altitudinal position.
2) Intrinsic variation of the depositional environment.
Each environment has a sedimentary rate regulated by
the topographic-geomorphologic characteristics of the
sedimentary basin and/or the zone with water and debris
supply. Sedimentary environments with large and high
basins are more sensitive in terms of the sedimentary rate
when compared to smaller basins, with less slope and
altitude.
3) Variation due to sensitivity of proxies to climatic
variability (e.g. Grosjean et al. 2003). In this study, glacial
and lake landforms are considered proxies, with millennial
 Hunter-gatherers from a high-elevation desert. People of the Salt Puna (northwest Argentina)
scale and regional reach for sedimentary data, a century-
local scale for soil formation, annual to daily scale for
alluvial bedded sediments, and daily-local scale for debris
flows deposits.
4) Variation due to rejuvenation and ageing. There are
two main processes that lead to the probable errors in the
dates: the input of old carbonate material into the system
(reservoir effect) and/or the introduction of modern
carbon into previously precipitated carbonates. According
to different studies there is an augmentation of the order
of 300 years for the carbonate ages with regard to the ages
determined from organic matter (Abbott et al. 1997a).
Grosjean (1994) provides reservoir effect evidence of
8000 yr for carbonates and of 2000 yr for organic matter
derived from subaquatic macrophytes of Laguna Lejía in
northern Chile. Other examples are found in other Andean
lacustrine studies (Geyh et al. 1999, Valero Garcés
1999).
5) Other problems could be related to pollution by new
roots or misinterpretations of the record in the dated
materials.
The compilation of antecedents has allowed the
differentiation of five paleohydrologic phases, some
regional, and some local, that developed between 15,000
and 4500 BP (Figure 13). These phases would be associated
15,900 and ca. 13,800 yr cal BP, and according to Latorre
et al. (2006) around 17,400 BP.
In the Northern Puna, this would be associated with a
lake transgression at Salar de Uyuni (Sylvestre et al.1998;
Placzek et al. 2006). Other evidences are the existence of
wetlands between 16,500 and 13,750 yr cal. BP (Nester et
al. 2007, 20.9º S-21.4º S and 69.46º W) in Morena range,
northern Chile.
Second phase (arid: 11,800 - 10,700 BP)
The geomorphology indicates the existence of at least two
lacustrine paleocoast ridge levels (e.g., Laguna Caró and
Diamante) and two terminal moraines after the glacial
maximum. This implies the presence of an intermediate
arid phase where the lakes and glaciers returned. The dates
do not allow adjusting the chronology of the first post-
maximum glacial and lake recession. In other Altiplano
areas, this Late Pleistocene descent of water level was
defined as Ticaña phase (Geyh et al. 1999; Sylvestre et
al. 1999).
Third phase (wet: 10,700-7900 BP)
The Laguna Colorada lake transgression developed in
to climatic changes due to the obedience of the regional
paleohydrological variability of the lakes and desert water
bodies towards, mostly, the hydric balance controlled by
the rainfall, snowfall and evapotranspiration.
First phase (wet-cold: 15,000 and 11,800 BP)
The first phase (cold and wet), corresponds to the late
glacial period and lacustrine phase, evidenced by the
moraines (4200-4300 m asl), paleocoasts and fossil
alluvial fans present in the area. Several questions
are still pending about the synchronicity between the
maximum glacial advance, the minimum temperature,
the maximum pluviosity, and the lacustrine extension
in the South Puna. The fluvial and lacustrine terrace
surface trimming points have synchronization between
the maximum lacustrine development and the formation
of the more extended paleofans. Furthermore, terminal
moraines are associated with the mentioned paleofans,
implying certain synchronization between the glacial
action and the paleolakes during their maximum
development.
Other evidence in the zone is the presence of megafauna
remains in Peña de las Trampas and Cueva Cacao 1A in
the period between 20,000 to 12,500 BP in a region with
little current ground cover. This could indicate that the
WKH (DUO\ +RORFHQH  “  %3 DQG  “  %3
and would have ended around 8400 BP. It must be taken
into account that, during the development of this phase,
the base level was situated 3.5 to 4.5 m below the current
salar level. Therefore, the Paleoindian and Archaic
archaeological record would be buried and would only
be visible above the surface of the Early Holocene lake
transgression.
This third phase could be associated with the second
generation of the lacustrine paleocoast of Laguna Caró
(Figure 10) and Laguna Diamante. Also included would be
the terminal moraines located above the maximum glacial
advance. This phase could be correlated with paleosoils
GDWHG““DQG“%3LQWKHVRXWKHUQ
extreme of the South Puna (Ratto et al. 2008) and with
the second moment of paleobog formation (12700 to ca.
9700 cal yr BP, Quade et al. 2008) in the Atacama Desert.
Additionally, this phase could be also correlated with the
wet phase defined in the Northern Puna by: a) Markgraf
(1985) between 10,000-7500 BP in El Aguilar (23º 5´
S, 65º 45´ W, 4000 m asl); b) Fernández et al. (1991) in
Barro Negro (23º S, 65.5º W, 4000 m asl) before 11,000
BP; c) Kulemeyer et al. (1999) in Yavi (22º S, 65.3º
W) between 10,000 and 8100 BP; d) Camacho (2001)
in Laguna Pozuelos (22.1º S, 66º W, 3700 m asl), where
calcareous material of argillic paleohorizon was dated to
paleoenvironment would have been wetter when these “%3H<DFREDFFLRDQG0RUDOHVLQ
herbivores lived (Martínez et al. 2008). In the Atacama Susques (23.22º S, 66.21º W, 3650 m asl) with paleobogs
region, this phase is correlated with the first moment of LQDIOXYLDOWHUUDFHGDWHGWR“““
bog formation indicated by (Quade et al. 2008) between DQG“%3I0RUDOHVet al. (2008), Morales

16
 Pablo Tchilinguirian and Daniel E. Olivera - Late quaternary paleoenvironments, South Andean Puna (25º-27º s),
Argentina
(2010) and Tchilinguirian et al. (in press), in the area of
Pastos Chicos (Puna de Jujuy: 23.674º S, 67.42º W, 3527
m asl) between 9000 and 7000 BP according to pollen
and diatom records; g) Morales and Schittek (2008) in
Alto Tocomar (24.202º S, 66.548º W, 4380 m asl) where
diatom analysis and the carbonic/nitrogen index indicate
a wet period between 8250 and 5700 BP; h) Schäbitz et
al. (2001) in Yavi between 15,000 and 11,500 BP from
the advance of the forest towards the west and its gradual
reduction about 8300 BP.
Other studies indicate a continuity of the wet phase from the
Late Pleistocene to the Early Holocene times: >15,000 to
9000 BP in Atacama desert (Betancourt et al. 2000; Latorre
et al. 2002, 2003); 15,000 to 10,200 BP in Quebrada Chaco
(Maldonado et al. 2005; Latorre et al. 2005); ca. 12,000 to
8000 BP in Laguna Miscanti (Grosjean. et al. 2003); and
Tauca and Coipasa paleolake phases (Servant and Fontes
1978; Servant et al. 1995; Wirrmann and Mourguiart 1995;
Sylvestre et al. 1996, 1999; Bradbury et al. 2001; Placzek
et al. 2006).
At the end of this phase most of the lakes dried up. The
lake recession caused the lowering of the fluvial base level
and the subsequent incision of the drainage network. The
alluvial fans prograded the lacustrine bed and produced
telescopic shaped fans. With this paleodata it is inferred
that before the settlement of the first hunters (Martínez et
al. 2008: ca. 10,200 BP, Peñas de las Trampas 1.1) and
during the Early Holocene, the study area presented wetter
conditions than the current ones. As a consequence, the
availability of resources would have been greater with
regard to the current ones at a centennial scale.
Fourth phase (7900 - 4500 BP)
The fourth phase, in the Middle Holocene, has discrepancies
as regards to the paleoclimatic conditions. There are studies
carried out with rodent middens in paleowetlands of the
Atacama Desert that indicate wet conditions between 7000
and 3000 BP (Betancourt et al. 2000), or between 7600
and 6000 BP and 4500-3200 BP with a drought at ca. 5000
BP (Latorre et al. 2003). However, the predominant proof
points to a period during which conditions varied from
arid to extremely arid (Morales 2010; Tchilinguirian and
Morales, in press).
The evidences for a dry Middle Holocene environment are:
1) repeated short-term cycles of flooding and desiccation
between 6000 and 3600 BP in Laguna del Negro Francisco
(27º 13´ S, 69º11´ W, 4125 m asl, Grosjean et al. 1997b); 2)
lacustrine regression in Lake Titicaca¸ 800 – 900 km to the
north of the South Puna (Wirrmann and Mourguiart 1995,
Cross et al. 2000), as well as Laguna Miscanti (Valero-
BP in El Aguilar (Markgraf 1985); 5) accumulation of
debris flows between 6200 and 3100 BP in the Puripica
fluvial system in northern Chile (22º15` S, 68º 10.5` W,
3250 m asl, Grosjean et al. 1997a); 6) paucity of high-
altitude peatlands and soils recorded in the Norte Chico
region of Chile (27-33º S) before ca. 4000 BP (Messerli et
al. 1993; Veit 1993, 1996; Grosjean et al. 1998); 7) a lack
of evidence for human settlements in the Salar de Atacama
(silencio arqueológico as per Núñez et al. 2002). Grosjean
et al. (2003) indicated that the differences are due to the
sensitivity of different proxies. The macrofossil vegetation
in rodent midden records is possibly highly variable in
a sub-decade scale associated with humid spells. On the
contrary, the subdecade scale environmental changes are
not (or poorly) recorded in lake sediments or ice cores.
Another different paleoenvironmental interpretation refers
to the origin of paleowetland fluvial records. Grosjean et
al. (2001) interpreted the higher groundwater tables in
valleys as local features driven by geomorphic processes,
while Rech et al. (2002, 2003) interpreted them as regional
features driven by humid climates. In our case, we support
the hypothesis that the organic fluvial paleosoils and
the diatoms of the South Puna (fluvial paleopeats) were
formed when the rivers had a: 1) perennial discharge with
low discharge volume and variability, 2) low erosion and
sedimentation process, 3) shallow and stable groundwater
levels (<0.1 m), 4) high biomass productivity, and 5) the
river was near the equilibrium profile.
These conditions can be found in streams, which are
regulated by spring discharge that permanently supply
water and allow wetland formation (Figures 4 and 5).
Therefore, the organic paleosoils in fluvial systems would
be formed in a catchment with orographic precipitation
which is seasonally well distributed and guarantees a high
mountain aquifer recharge. In the study area, the fluvial
paleosoils dates (Figure 13) are synchronous with those of
several other basins at millennial scale. For this reason, we
consider these paleosoils a regional-humid proxy.
Regarding the South Puna, the data in the fourth phase
would indicate three paleoclimatic conditions (Subphases
4.1 (arid), 4.2 (wet) and 4.3 (arid), Figure 13).
Subphase 4.1: 8700-6300 BP
Geological evidence of this subphase indicates arid
conditions in Laguna Colorada (hiatus between units A
and B, Figure 11).
Subphase 4.2: 6300-5800 BP.
The evidences for wet conditions in Laguna Colorada are
shown by coastal environments with diatoms and organic
materials formed ca“\HDUV%38QLW%)LJXUH
11) and paleosoils in the Mirihuaca profile dated to
Garcés et al. 1996 and Grosjean et al. 2001) between “ DQG  “  %3 8QLW  % )LJXUH  2WKHU
9000 and ca. 4000 cal yr BP.; 3) accumulation of eolian evidence was the thin organic layers in alluvial sediments
sediment in alluvial environments in Yavi (Kulemeyer et DW“%3LQ/DV3LWDVQHDU3XQWDGHOD3HxDDQG
al.  EHWZHHQ   “  DQG  “  %3  Cueva de Salamanca sites (Figure 1c and Figure 13).
accumulation of arid pollen taxas between 7500 and 4000

17
 Hunter-gatherers from a high-elevation desert. People of the Salt Puna (northwest Argentina)
Some other data that supports this minor wet event are the
SDOHRERJVGDWHGWR“DQG“%35DWWR
et al. 2008), a poor humid spell around 6000 – 5500 cal yr
BP in Laguna Miscanti (Grosjean et al. 2003) and organic
paleosoils in Alto Tocomar profile dated from 6400 to
5700 BP (Morales and Schittek 2008)
Subphase 4.3: 5800-4500 BP.
Sedimentological data for this subphase are present at
three sites:
1) In the Mirihuaca profile, debris and mudflow
accumulations took place between the paleosoil of Unit
Binford et al. 1997; Mourguiart et al. 1997, 1998; Tapia
et al. 2003); 2) Late Holocene glacial advances in the
eastern Cordillera (Abbott et al. 2003) and Laguna Negro
Francisco (2600 BP, Grosjean et al. 1998), and 3) soil
formation in the Chilean Altiplano at 28º S between 2600
and 2300 BP (Veit 1996).
Human settlement and paleoenvironment
Finally, we would like to make some observations about the
potential incidence that the different paleoenvironmental
%““%3DQGWKHSDOHRVRLODWWKHWRS
RI8QLW%WKDWRFFXUVEHIRUH“%3)LJXUHV
and 13). During the initial development of this phase, the
base level was below the current course, whereas by the
end of the phase the base level was 3 m over the current
course level.
2) In the lower basin of Las Pitas River, braided channels
were developed. This fluvial environment was composed
of multiple-thread channels, and was dominated by mid
channel bars, commonly gravel (Unit B2, Figure 12). No
soil or wetland was formed and the river discharge could
have been intermittent or ephemeral. This phase finished
with an erosive discontinuity where facies corresponded to
an alluvial plain environment with higher wet conditions
before 4500 BP.
3) In Laguna Colorada there is a hiatus between Units
B and C (6300-4500 BP, Figures 11 and 13) that was
produced by an eolian erosion process in an exposed dry
surface playa lake basin.
The arid phases 3, 4.1 and 4.3 (ca. 7900-6300 and 5600-
4500 BP) can be partially correlated with the Middle
Holocene dry event in the Atacama Puna between 8000
and 3500 BP defined by Grosjean and Nuñez (1994).
Fifth phase: beginning 4500 BP
The fifth phase, wetter than the previous and the current
ones (Figure 13), would be represented by: 1) the presence
of gravel facies with hydromorphic clay, diatoms and
SDOHRVRLOV GDWHG WR  “  DQG  “  %3 DW
Confluencia site (Figure 12, Unit B1 and Figure 13), 2)
the presence of alluvial interbedded gravel and paleosoil
facies in the Las Pitas profile dates to 4500 BP (Unit B3,
Figure 13) and in the Mirihuaca record dates to 2900 BP
(Unit B3, Figure 13), and 3) lacustrine transgressions that
took place after 3900 BP in Laguna Colorada profiles
(Units D, E and F, Figure 11) and advances of lobate rock
glaciers in Laguna Blanca range and the Oriental border
of the Puna.
Similar timing for highstand lake levels was also found
in: 1) Laguna del Negro Francisco (Grosjean et al. 1997b)
and far north, in Lake Titicaca (Wirrmann and De Oliveira
Almeida 1987; Martin et al. 1993; Abbott et al. 1997;
18
conditions could have had for the human groups that
inhabited the Puna during Early and mid Holocene
(Aschero et al. 1991, Aschero 1994, Aschero et al. 1993-
1994, Aschero and Martínez 2001, Pintar 2004 and 2009,
Martínez et al. 2010, and others) and the beginnings of the
Late Holocene.
It is necessary to clarify that it is not our intention to argue
and interpret the archaeological record. More qualified
specialists in this volume will carry this out. We would
like to propose some possibilities and relative restrictions
that the changing environmental and geographic settings
would have had on human decision-making and mobility.
During Phase 1 and 3, the wet and cold conditions would
have offered relative abundant conditions and resource
predictability for the potential human settlements. During
several times of the Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene
human groups would have found a wetter desert, where
water availability and hunting possibilities would have
been higher than at present. Many lakes existed in the
desert and led to an ecological mosaic different than today
(Figure 8).
However, we should not view this as an excessively
well-disposed environment for human adaptation. It is
likely that potential Puna inhabitants would have faced
extremely cold winters, especially in mid and high valley
sectors, and rainy summers with an important increase in
the water volume of streams and lagoons. The evidence of
extinct fauna in Cueva Cacao 1A and Peña de Las Trampas
(Martínez et al. 2008) supports the idea of larger forage
wetland or grassland extensions. This would have favored
wild camelid sustainability, but we cannot evaluate the
interspecific competition level in the ecosystem.
The higher humidity and the temperature decrease during
the late glacial-lacustrine expansion phase must have been
relevant to the extension of higher pasture sectors, especially
during winter, which could have made the animals move
towards lower sectors with an unknown incidence in the
ecosystem. However, there are few vegetal species for
human consumption in the Puna nowadays. Although we
do not accurately know the vegetation conditions 12,000-
20,000 years ago, it is unlikely that these conditions
would have changed drastically. That is why the potential
inhabitants must have been oriented especially towards an
economy based on hunting.
 Pablo Tchilinguirian and Daniel E. Olivera - Late quaternary paleoenvironments, South Andean Puna (25º-27º s),
Argentina
There is still no evidence associated with the so-called
Paleoindian and coexistence with an extinct fauna. This
allows us to think that during the main glacial phase,
either the South Puna could not be inhabited or the
demographic density was extremely reduced. However, the
paleogeography would indicate that the ice-free corridors
were wide and would not have been relevant barriers (Figure
6). So, mobility circuits that included different zones within
the Puna and its border could have been active during the
maximum and late glacial times (Figure 6).
The following glacial and paleolake recession could
coincide with an arid phase (Phase 2), which is still not very
clear in our region. This could have negatively influenced
the resource supply, especially at the basin bottoms where
dry conditions were higher. However, glacial evidence
indicates that this retraction was not as intense as that
during the mid Holocene, and it had certain stabilization
pulses or readvances. In this way, the panorama can be
more complex.
Higher humidity conditions are indicated at the beginning
of the Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene boundary by
lacustrine transgression (ca. 13,000 to 12,000 BP) and
maximum lacustrine transgression (between 10,800-9200
BP). These conditions developed before and during the
first clear hunter-gatherer evidence appeared (Phase 3).
Perhaps the geographic distribution of palaeolakes was
similar to that of Phase 1 (Figure 8).
A great quantity of lithic artifacts in open-air sites with
hearths have been located in the late glacial and Early
Holocene lacustrine paleocoastlines at several locations
in the Atacama Puna (i.e., Salar Tuyaito). The end of
this first period of human settlement (8000-8400 BP)
coincides with the regression and desiccation of paleolakes
(Grosjean and Núñez 1994; Núñez et al. 1996; Grosjean et
al. 1997b; Geyh et al. 1999; Núñez et al. 1999; Grosjean
et al. 2007).
During the Phase 3 in Antofagasta de la Sierra,
archaeological evidence is found in the high basin of Las
Pitas River (Quebrada Seca 3 site, with dates ranging ca.
9790 and 9410 BP) and in the mid-low basin (Peñas de las
Trampas 1.1, dated ca. 10,200 BP and Punta de la Peña 4
site dated ca. 8900 BP) (Aschero et al. 1993-1994; Aschero
and Martínez 2001; Hocsman 2002; Martínez et al. 2004;
Pintar 2004; Hocsman 2007; Martínez et al. 2008; Pintar
2009; Martínez et al. 2010; Martínez this volume).
These settlements and the geological interpretation of
Las Pitas profile would indicate that both the upper and
lower basin the stream was perennial, and the resource
availability was important for the foraging species and,
consequently, human settlements. In addition, human
groups would have had predictable and accessible water
and wood resources, as well as other plant resources.
Good conditions for settlements should have existed in
the Early Holocene paleolagoons. The archaeological
19
evidence is not strong enough yet, but the discovery of an
Archaic record over the Early Holocene paleoberm crest
of Laguna Colorada (lower basin) and Laguna Cavi (high
basin) open up the interesting possibility that these areas
might be least partially linked to this period.
The important factors mentioned previously (Phase 3)
would have raised potential conditions for different
mobility systems and human use of space in the Early
Archaic. A possibility would be the use of large territories
that involved middle and high valley zones, concomitantly
with the use of lower basins in relation to a seasonal
periodicity. These economies would have had a high
mobility, with a mixed logistical and forager component
in well-established circuits.
Another possibility would imply less vertical circuits,
where mobility would be verified in more restricted
territories within an almost constant altitudinal belt.
In this way, “paths” could have involved lower basin
lagoon and fluvial wetland valleys, as for instance the
Laguna Antofagasta and Laguna Colorada paleolagoons
in articulation with the Colorado-Calalaste streams, or
the Laguna Antofagasta and Laguna Colorada paleolakes
in articulation with the Punilla River (Figures 2 and 8).
Another possible human path could have involved fluvial
paleopeat valleys with high basin lagoons as for instance
the Las Pitas paleowetland with the Real Grande vega and
the Cavi paleolake (Figure 2 and 8). In this model, the lower
Punilla River–Laguna Antofagasta might have acted as a
“buffer” area partially shared by different groups, given its
location in the lowest part of the drainage system.
This model would be supported by the evidence of certain
projectile point types predominantly manufactured from
local raw materials, with less representation of non-local
raw materials that were less accessible from these sites.
These can be suggested in the archaeological record
analyzed by specialists in this region (Aschero and
Martínez 2001; Martínez 2005). Also, the highly available
obsidian from Laguna Cavi is the only known case of the
preeminent use of this raw material over other volcanic
rocks and it could support the precedent idea. Furthermore,
this model of more restricted circuits and “buffer” territory
would explain the scarce archaeological record found at
the bottom of Antofagasta basin, where it is not possible
to find clearly established settlements from the Early
Archaic.
Obviously these are not necessarily the only possible
adaptive situation; they simply constitute an example
of the possibilities that would offer a more benevolent
environment, with good availability and predictability of
resources and without important paleogeographic glacial
barriers (Figure 6) or extreme dune barriers (e.g. Campo
de la Piedra Pómez or Purulla-Pairique dune field area,
Figure 3) that restrict mobility among different ecologic
sectors. Besides, this does not necessarily imply ethnic
differences, or conditions of competence or rivalry. On the
 Hunter-gatherers from a high-elevation desert. People of the Salt Puna (northwest Argentina)
contrary, the relationship and interchange among groups
should be a habit, as regards access to different groups,
social exchanges and, what is more, genetic exchanges as
well (couple exchanges for reproduction).
However, the conditions seem to begin to change ca. 8000-
7900 BP becoming slightly more arid with the beginning
of Phase 4. The lacustrine Andean paleogeoraphy changed
notably at the beginnings of Middle Holocene, with lagoon
recession and dry salt playa lakes, especially in the lower
basin areas of Purulla, Incahuasi, Carachipampa, Laguna
Colorada, Caro and Pairique where the evapotraspiration
rates is higher than middle and high basin areas (Figure
8).
Evidence of humidity in Mirihuaca profile in 5600-5800
BP, at 6300 BP in Laguna Colorada, and 5900 BP in Las
Pitas (Figure 13) should be taken into account in regard to
the internal variability in the Middle Holocene dry phase
(Subphase 4.2). Also, the intensity of the maximum aridity
in lake and wetland sites cannot have been identical and
occurred at the same time.
But it is unquestionable that these new situations of more
aridity must have stated a new scenario in the distribution,
availability and productivity of the resources in a fragile
risky environment such as the South Puna. Accordingly,
the groups must have adopted decisions that led to changes
in their settlement-subsistence patterns. An example
could be the so-called silencio arqueológico in Atacama
(Grosjean and Nuñez 1994), that could indicate migrations
and partial and/or total abandonment of certain areas
by Puna inhabitants, probably looking for less rigorous
conditions in lower altitudes or more stable wetlands at
higher elevations (Figure 4 and 5).
As regards the South Puna case, the silencio arqueológico
was present in fluvial wetlands that were more vulnerable
to arid processes. Short river wetlands with lower altitude
catchment areas (< 4300 m asl) were more vulnerable
to desertification with respect to larger ones within the
high altitude basin areas. It is hypothesized that the most
important rivers of the South Puna (Punilla, Los Patos, and
Las Cuestas rivers) did not have a silencio arqueológico
because the water bodies were perennial and offered good
resources throughout the Holocene. This is the case with
Cueva Salamanca 1 (Pintar 2009, and this volume).
In our study area, in the lower basin of Ilanco stream
(Figure 3), there is an Archaic site (Peñas de La Cruz,
permanence at the sites (Peñas de la Cruz site) found in
the lower area of gorges with an easy access both to the
resources at the bottom of the basin and in the high gorges.
Perhaps the population density decreased due to the
abandonment of more dried paleolakes and paleo-wetland
sectors (Carachipampa, Laguna Colorada and Caro).
Data suggest a wet event of short duration and intensity
between ca. 6300 and 5900 BP (subphase 4.2). It is difficult
to determine resource patch establishment in the ecological
landscape, but it cannot have been homogeneous in the
entire region. For instance, the lower course of Ilanco
stream does not seem to have recovered its previous wet
conditions as Peña de la Cruz site (Martínez 2005) was not
reoccupied after ca. 7200 BP. Further, there is no geologic
evidence that the stream ever flowed again at this sector
of the basin.
As has been pointed out, although Puna rivers show a
regional paleohydrical tendency (millennial scale), they
have local centennial variations (between basins and inside
them) with regard to the beginning, duration and end of the
different wet or arid phases (Figure 13). In this way, the wet
or arid events were not of the same intensity, extension and
duration in all fluvial basins. So, the resource availability
for ancient people was also differential in the landscape at
certain moments of the Holocene.
The following subphase 4.3 (Figure 13) is definitely arid
and its duration is even today a topic under study, but it
seems to extend more rigorously until ca. 4500 BP even
though its effects could reach to ca. 3900 BP in some
wetlands systems. The drought would have had a strong
impact especially in lagoon landscape and in peat fluvial
valleys.
The best conditions of availability and predictability of
resources may have moved to more humid high altitude
areas with springs with perennial discharge (Figure 5).
It is possible that human groups may have used mobility
systems focused on the middle to upper river courses
with shorter incursions to lower basin areas. Further, it is
possible to propose a small settlement density with low
mobility.
During this arid subphase 4.3 (Figure 13), the natural
environments of the peats in thin and deep gorges expressed
less environmental variability, whereas the large valleys,
such as the alluvial fan of the lower basin of the Punilla
River and Laguna Colorada Salar expressed the strongest
3&]“DQG“0DUWtQH]ZKLFK
is, today, adjacent to an ephemeral riverbed without soils
or vegetation. The presence of this site suggests that water
and vegetation were adjacent to this site when it was
occupied.
We propose that until 7500 BP human groups would
have maintained, in general terms, a logistic subsistence-
settlement system with a high mobility. Towards the end
of this period there might have been a higher degree of
20
variations in regard to water availability and grass-peat
areas. In this way, the hypothesis about the existence of
ecorefuges (Nuñez et al. 1999) was more probable for the
environments that have restricted springs in peats, mainly
between 6000 and 5000-4500 BP.
About 4500-3900 BP, the environment appears to have
changed to wetter conditions (Phase 5, Figure 13). Late
Holocene highstand water formed in Laguna Colorada
(Tchilinguirian and Olivera 2005), Carachipampa and
 Pablo Tchilinguirian and Daniel E. Olivera - Late quaternary paleoenvironments, South Andean Puna (25º-27º s),
Argentina
Laguna Blanca, and lower basin wetland expansion
appears in several fluvial landscape sectors.
At this moment, there are suggestions of a domestication
process of camelids, both in the Argentinean and Chilean
areas of the Atacama Puna (Olivera and Elkin 1994;
Yacobaccio et. al. 1994). The coexistence of wild and
domesticated species was recorded in Puripica and
suggested in QS3, in our study area, as well as in the
Jujuy Puna (Olivera and Elkin 1994; Yacobaccio et al.
1994; Núñez et al. 1999). It may be possible that this
domestication process had an older antecedent in the
groups that ca. 7000-7500 BP restricted their mobility
during the difficult climatic conditions prior to the mid
Holocene. We consider there is not enough evidence yet
to discuss this hypothesis, but it is exciting to consider it
for the future.
Conclusions
Throughout these pages, we think it is quite evident that,
apart from the relevant advances in the last years, there are
still several questions about the Holocene paleoclimatic
evolution in the Puna. However, there is a certain precision
that is worth highlighting and which has great relevance
for the environmental and earth sciences as well as for the
study of the South Puna societies. Until a few years ago,
the studied paleoenvironmental archives in the Atacama
Puna were scarce. This situation was exacerbated due to
the scattered data, which was separated by hundreds of
kilometers and, many times, corresponding to a unique
proxy. In the last two decades systematic, regional and
multiproxy work began, and this constitutes a substantial
advance in the paleoenvironmental knowledge of the
Andean desert. The work initiated by our team was carried
out in the Argentinean South Puna. This work began in
1998 with an almost non-existent base record, which
obliged the design of a suitable methodology. Next, we will
present a summary of the most important developments
that have been described in this paper which constitute a
solid starting point for more accurate investigations.
Five main palaeoenvironmental phases were distinguished
between the Late Pleistocene (ca. 15,000 BP) and Middle
Holocene (ca. 4500 BP). It could be determined that, from
Late Pleistocene to Middle Holocene, the South Puna
revealed changes, in regard to paleohydrological conditions
of the lagoons, rivers, wetlands, glaciers and permafrost.
This considerably influenced the structure of the resources
throughout time, with a subsequent impact on the decision
making of human societies. In a general sense, during the
wettest phases (Phases 1, 3, and 4.2 and 5) the rivers were
extended in length, there was a larger quantity of springs,
and fluvial wetlands were more extended and continuous
across the stream network.
At high altitudes and in big mountains ranges, glacial
(preferably in Phases 1 and 3) or periglacial features
developed (Phase 5) as a consequence of rainfall. The
21
lacustrine bodies had highstand water levels, and coastal
wetlands or peatlands had less saline water. During the
arid phases (Phases 3, 4.1 and 4.3), glaciers drew back
and/or disappeared, but the high peaks continued acting
as zones of orographic rainfalls that sustained hydrical
supply to the rivers, especially in high basins, where
“ecorefuges” were formed, adjoining permanent water
streams (Figure 5). Further, it is possible to suggest that
basins located at lower altitudes did not have suitable
conditions for human settlements (silencio arqueológico).
Human groups with logistic mobility would have given
priority to the exploitation of certain areas (from mid to
high basin areas) and they would have only occasionally
used the basin bottom. The abandonment of those areas
more affected by the arid climatic conditions could explain
the silencio arqueológico in certain places.
A salient aspect of this study is the wide-ranging variability
of climatic conditions in desert microenvironments. Within
the same arid or wet phase, it is possible to encounter areas
within a few kilometers with better resource conditions.
Likewise, the evolutionary chronology (beginning,
duration, ending) of a phase is not identical all over the
Atacama Puna at a centennial scale, from north to south
and east to west. Finally, it is important to consider the fact
that the recovery of landscape resources after an arid phase
was not always the same. It most likely depended on the
conditions (geomorphologic, microclimatic, etc) of each
geographic location.
Another aspect that was dynamic in the Puna landscape
was the mobility of the altitudinal vegetation belt. This
belt defined a structure of resources (vegetation, pasture)
that is important for understanding human adaptation to
the Puna. Evidently, climatic changes of centennial and/
or millennial scale, in temperature as well as humidity,
originated an ascending movement (arid Phases 2, 4.1
and 4.3) or descending movement (Phases 1, 3, 4.2 and
5) of the vegetation belt, which initiated a change in the
spatial structure of the resources, as proposed in Pintar
(2009). These changes had to do with the availability
and distribution of the vegetal species as well as the
availability of human species for hunting (especially wild
camelids)
We conclude that a paleoenvironmental framework
constitutes an essential element to understanding the
functioning and evolution of human settlements in the
Puna, but it cannot be applied directly to explain the
decisions taken by the different human groups throughout
time. The environment does not determine human
decisions but it establishes a limit on their possibilities at
a certain time and place. This is particularly relevant in
a desert environment, such as the Puna, with extremely
unpredictable and uncertain conditions. In conclusion,
only a proper combination of the paleoclimatic,
paleoeviromental and archaeological records will allow
a full understanding of the key aspects of past human
societies living in the Puna.
 Hunter-gatherers from a high-elevation desert. People of the Salt Puna (northwest Argentina)
Acknowledgments
This research had financial support from National Council
of Scientific and Technical Researches (CONICET,
Argentina), University of Buenos Aires (UBA, Argentina)
and National Agency for Promotion of Science and
Technology (ANPCYT, Argentina). Thanks to the field
assistance from Antofagasta Archaeological Project team
and the support of the National Institute of Anthropology
(INAPL, Argentina). Special thanks go to Jorge Martínez
for his voluntary help in Peinado-Purulla-Colorada research
trip, Salomon Hocsman in the Salar de Laguna Colorada,
Lorena Grana and Jenny Grant for their assistance.
Finally, we would like to thank the NSF-Arizona AMS
Laboratory.
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