Measurements and

instrumentation
 UNIT - I

Introduction
CONTENTS:

 Functional elements of an instrument ,

 Static and dynamic characteristics of zero and first order instruments
 sources of Errors in measurement,
 Techniques for reducing error,
 Loading effect of instruments,
 Statistical evaluation of measurement data.
 FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
Describe the operation of measuring instrument and associated
equipment in terms of the functional elements of instrumentation
systems
1. Basic functional elements
a) Primary sensing element or transducer elements
b) Signal conditioning or intermediate modifying element
c) Data presentation element
2. Auxiliary elements
Calibration element to provide a built-in calibration facility,
External power element
Feedback element of control the variation of the physical quantity
 Primary sensing element
• This first stage of measurement system is known as a detector transducer
stage that senses and converts the desired input into a more convenient
and practicable form to be handled by the measurement system
• The measurand (quantity under measurement) if first detected by sensor.
• A sensor may be employed for detecting the existence or absence of a
condition, this act is then immediately followed by the conversion of
measurand into an analogous electrical signal by a transducer.
• A transducer may be considered to have accomplished the function of
measurement by drawing an insignificant amount of power and energy
from the system under study where as a sensor does it by standing aloof
without getting into physical contact with medium or system under
examination.
• For ex. Intensity of radiation and luminance of a source may be
measured by sensors, whereas the temperature of a fluid is measured by
transducers
 Signal conditioning or
intermediate modifying element.
• Variable – conversion element : to perform
the desired function, it may be necessary to
convert this variable to another more suitable
variable while preserving the information
content of original signal
• Not every instruments includes a variable –
conversion element, but some require several.
• For ex: A / D Converter
 Signal conditioning or intermediate
modifying element. Contd.
Variable manipulation element : may require
that a signal represented by some physical
variable by manipulated in some way. By
manipulation, here means specifically a change in
numerical value according to some definite rule
but a preservation of the physical nature of the
variable
For ex. An electronic amplifier
The term signal conditioning refers to many
other functions in addition to variable conversion
and variable manipulation
 Signal conditioning or intermediate
modifying element. Contd.
These processes may be linear like amplification,
attenuation integration, differentiation, addition
and subtraction. Some non – linear process like
modulation detection, sampling, filtering,
chopping clipping etc. are also performed on the
signal to bring it to the desired form to be
accepted by the next stage of measurement
system
In general signal conditioning element is for
manipulation / processing the output of the
transducer in a suitable form
 Data transmission element

• Functional elements - physically separated - to

transmit the data from one to another.
• element performing this function is called data
– transmission system.
• For ex. A shaft and bearing assembly or a
telemetry signal.
• The signal conditioning and transmission stage
is commonly known as intermediate system.
 Data presentation element

Information about the measured quantity is to be

communicated to a human being for monitoring,
control or analysis purposes,
put into a form recognizable by one of the human
senses [ visual sense, hearing and touch ].
An element that perform this translation function
is called a data – presentation element.
For ex: pointer over a scale and recording of pen
moving over a chart.
 Example:-

D’Arsonval Galvanometer
The coil and magnet assemble probably would
be considered as primary sensing element
The leads wires serve for data transmission
purpose.
The coil and tortional spring acts a variable
conversion element
The pointer and scale arrangement is the data
representation element.
 Block diagram
Data Transmission
element
Quantity to Amplifier Analog output
be measured
Digital Output
Force Primary Clipper
Sensing
Pressure Graphical Display
Voltage Filter 12344e0kkjfkl9
Secondary Printed output
Current Sensing
A/ D converter CD / DVD
Power Storage device
Detector Transducer
Etc. stage Signal Conditioning Data Representation
stage stage
Calibration 300 V, A.C
signal
generator 300 V, D.C

Calibration Element External Power Supply

Feed Back
Element