October, 2020

Tensors and Fields

(Some useful formulae)
1 Indices
a = ai e i
Einstein summation convention
• One index – NO SUM
• Two same (or dummy) indices – SUM (like a computer ‘do’ loop)
• Three same indices – not allowed when using this convention

(
1 i=j
δij = Kronecker delta
0 otherwise


+1 if ijk even perm. of 123
ijk = −1 if ijk odd perm. of 123 Levi–Cevita symbol


0 otherwise
(Can generalise from rank 3 to rank N .)

a · b = ai bj δij . (a × b)i = ijk aj bk

a × (b × c) = (a · c)b − (a · b)c
or
ijk klm = δil δjm − δim δjl

!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇= , , , (∇)i = ≡ ∂i
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂xi
• ∇φ, gradient of scalar φ, (∇φ)i = ∂i φ
• ∇ · a, divergence of a vector a, ∇ · a = ∂ i ai
• ∇ × a, curl of vector a, (∇ × a)i = ijk ∂j ak
So
1
∇r = r , etc.
r

1
2 Matrices and Determinants
A, B, . . . usually 3 × 3 square matrices (can generalise to N × N ) with components
(A)ij = aij
 
TrA = aii , AT = aji
ij

C = AB ⇔ cij = aik bkj

 

 a11 a12 a13 

det A =

 a21 a22 a23 

 
 a31 a32 a33 

det A = lmn a1l a2m a3n = ijk ai1 aj2 ak3

ijk det A = lmn ail ajm akn , lmn det A = ijk ail ajm akn

3 Rotations/Reflections
Linear transformations from frame S to S 0 with

LT L = LLT = I

⇒ det L = +1 (rotation) det L = −1 (rotation + reflection)

• basis rotation/reflection – passive transformation

a0i = lij aj

• alternative: vector rotation/reflection – active transformation

y = x cos θ + (1 − cos θ)(n · x)n + (n × x) sin θ

for reflection of a vector in a plane (defined by n), inversion/reflection of a

vector in the origin

yi = σij xj σij = δij − 2ni nj yi = Pij xj Pij = −δij

2
4 Tensors
A tensor (of rank N ) transforms as
0
Tijk···rs = liα ljβ lkγ · · · lrρ lsσ Tαβγ···ρσ

tensor of rank 0 is a scalar; tensor of rank 1 is a vector. (Passive picture.) For rank
two tensors can also use matrix notation

T 0 = LT LT

Pseudo-tensors transform as
0
Tijk···rs = det L liα ljβ lkγ · · · lrρ lsσ Tαβγ···ρσ

A field is a tensor which is also a function of position, so (eg)

Eij0 (x0k ) = liα ljβ Eαβ (xk ) , x0k = lkα xα .

Quotient Theorem:
Let T be an entity with 9 components in any frame of reference, say Tij in S and
Tij0 in S 0 . Let a be an arbitrary vector and let bi = Tij aj . If b always transforms as
a vector then T is a second rank tensor.

Isotropic tensor

Tijk··· = liα ljβ lkγ · · · Tαβγ···

for all frames.

δij is a rank two isotropic tensor; ijk is a rank three pseudo-tensor. Build most
general rank isotropic tensors from product of δij , ijk , eg
isotropic
aijkl = λδij δkl + µδik δjl + νδil δjk

Generalised divergence (Gauss) and Stokes’ theorem

Z
∂ Z
Tij··· dV = Tij··· dSi
V ∂xi S

Z
∂ I
ijk Tklm··· dSi = drk Tklm···
S ∂xj C

For Tij··· → ai they reduce to the usual forms

3
5 Taylor expansions
∞
1  
(a · ∇r )n φ(r) ≡ exp a · ∇r φ(r)
X
φ(r + a) =
n=0 n!

eg for φ(r) = 1/r for r  a we have

1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ai ∂i + (ai ∂i aj ∂j ) + · · ·
|r + a| r 1! r 2! r
2 2 2
1 a · r 3(a · r) − a r 1
 
= − 3 + 5
+O 4 .
r r 2r r

6 Orthogonal curvilinear coordinates (u1, u2, u3)

∂r ∂r ∂r
dr = du1 + du2 + du3
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3

∂r ∂r ∂r
h1 e1 = , h2 e2 = , h3 e3 =
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3

!
1 ∂φ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂φ
∇φ = e1 + e2 + e ≡ , ,
h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3 3 h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3

" #
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇·a= (h2 h3 a1 ) + (h3 h1 a2 ) + (h1 h2 a3 )
h1 h2 h3 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3

 
 h e h2 e2 h3 e3 
 1
1  ∂ 1 ∂ ∂

∇×a= 
h1 h2 h3  ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3 
 h1 u1 h2 u2 h3 u3 


The Laplacian ∇2 = ∇ · ∇
" ! ! !#
2 1 ∂ h2 h3 ∂φ ∂ h3 h1 ∂φ ∂ h1 h2 ∂φ
∇ φ= + +
h1 h2 h3 ∂u1 h1 ∂u1 ∂u2 h2 ∂u2 ∂u3 h3 ∂u3

Some (common) examples:

h1 = 1 h2 = 1 h3 = 1 (x, y, z) Cartesian coordinates

h1 = 1 h2 = ρ h3 = 1 (ρ, φ, z) Cylindrical polar coordinates
h1 = 1 h2 = r h3 = r sin θ (r, θ, φ) Spherical polar coordinates

4
7 Conservative Fields

∇×E =0 ⇔ E conservative field

• path independent
Z Z
E · dr = E · dr
C1 C2

• there exists a potential φ such that

E = −∇φ

In general
Helmholtz’s Theorem: ‘The fundamental theorem of vector analysis’
A continuous vector field, a, can be decomposed

a = −∇φ + ∇ × ω

φ is called the scalar potential and ω the vector potential.

8 Potential theory
ρ
∇2 φ = − ,
0
called the Poisson Equation. (Here for electrostatic potential.)
Point charge q at r0

ρ(r) = qδ(r − r0 )

where

Z  f (r0 ) r0 ∈ V
dV f (r) δ(r − r0 ) =
V  0 otherwise

useful identity
Z +∞ X f (xi )
dx f (x)δ(g(x)) = ,
−∞ i |g 0 (xi )|

where g(xi ) = 0, ie xi are simple zeros of g.

Theorem: Solution unique, so finding a solution is the solution.

5
 1. Guess
2. Numerical methods
3. Direct integration of Poisson’s equation
4. (Use symmetry and) Gauss’ theorem
5. Method of images
6. Separation of variables
7. Method of Green’s functions

Illustrate the Method of Green’s Functions: split the problem into two pieces:
• first solve problem for a point charge with ‘simple’ boundary conditions
• use for more general charge distributions / more complicated boundary con-
ditions
For a unit point charge at r = r0 we have (ρ = δ(r − r0 ) and φ → G),
1 1 1
∇2r G(r, r0 ) = − δ(r − r0 ) , ⇒ G(r, r0 ) = + f (r, r0 ) ,
0 4π0 |r − r0 |
where f must obey ∇2r f (r, r0 ) = 0. f is chosen so that the homogeneous boundary
conditions are satisfied.

∂G(r, r0 ) 0
" #
0 ∂φ(r )
Z Z
0 0 0 0 0
φ(r) = dV G(r, r ) ρ(r ) − 0 dS φ(r ) − G(r, r )
V S ∂n0 ∂n0

Books
• Any Mathematical Methods book that you are comfortable with.
• K. F. Riley, M. P. Hobson and S. J. Bence,
Mathematical Methods for Physics and Engineering, (CUP 1998).
• P. C. Matthews,
Vector Calculus, (Springer 1998).
• M. L. Boas,
Mathematical Methods in the Physical Sciences, (Wiley 2006).
• G. B. Arfken and H. J. Weber,
Mathematical Methods for Physicists, (Academic Press 2001).
• D. E. Bourne and P. C. Kendall,
Vector Analysis and Cartesian Tensors, (Chapman and Hall 1993).