MECH 3492 Fluid Mechanics and Applications Univ.

of Manitoba Fall Term, 2021

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Field Theory

– Coordinates & Vectors
Dr. Bing-Chen Wang
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Univ. of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 5V6

In order to describe a flow field, it is necessary for us to be familiar with the “languages” and notations,
viz. the field theory, coordinate systems and vector operators. Because in this class we primarily study
external flows over a flat plate and inner flows inside a round pipe, here we only briefly review the
basic background knowledge related to two 3-D orthogonal coordinate systems, i.e. the rectangular
and cylindrical coordinate systems. For more detailed discussions, the reader is referred to Lewis and
Ward (1989).

Fig. 1: Position vector r in rectangular and cylindrical coordinate systems.

1. Position Vector and Coordinate Systems

The position of a point (we use symbol “P ” to represent this point) in a coordinate system can be
uniquely described using a position vector, which takes the following forms

r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ (Rectangular),
(1)
r = Ar êr + Aθ êθ + Az k̂ (Cylindrical),

in the 3-D rectangular and cylindrical coordinate systems, respectively; with x, y and z, and Ar , Aθ
and Az being the coordinates. The following coordinate transformations hold:

Ar = r cos θ, Aθ = r sin θ, Az = z . (2)

For the 3-D rectangular and cylindrical coordinate systems, the unit base vectors are:

êx = î , êy = ĵ , êz = k̂ (Rectangular),

(3)
êr = cos θ î + sin θ ĵ , êθ = − sin θ î + cos θ ĵ , êz = k̂ (Cylindrical),

respectively, with |î| = |ĵ| = |k̂| ≡ 1, |êx | = |êy | = |êz | ≡ 1 and |êr | = |êθ | = |êz | ≡ 1.

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MECH 3492 Fluid Mechanics and Applications Univ. of Manitoba Fall Term, 2021

2. Scalar, Vector and Tensor

In fluid mechanics and heat transfer, we study the flow and temperature fields which change with time
(t) and space (r, position vector). A field can be quantitatively described using scalar, vector and
tensor functions of t and r. In this class, we only deal with second-order tensors.
• Scalar: a scalar function φ has only 1 component, varying with t and r, i.e. φ = f (t, r).
Examples of a scalar: pressure field p, and temperature field T .

• Vector: a vector function A has 3 components, all varying with t and r, i.e. A = f (t, r).
This means that A = [Ax , Ay , Az ], and Ax = f (t, r), Ay = f (t, r), Az = f (t, r).
Examples of a vector:
◮ Velocity field V = [Vx , Vy , Vz ] = [u, v, w],
 ∂p ∂p ∂p 
◮ Gradient of a pressure field: grad p = ∂x , ∂y , ∂z ,
 
◮ Gradient of a temperature field: grad T = ∂T ∂T ∂T
∂x , ∂y , ∂z .
In fact, the gradient of a scalar is a vector.

• Tensor: a second-order tensor function τ has 9 components, all varying with t and r, i.e.
τ = f (t, r).
Examples of a tensor:
◮ Stress tensor
 
σxx τyx τzx
[τ ] =  τxy σyy τzy  , (4)
τxz τyz σzz
Figure 2 shows the stress tensor in terms of 3 normal and 6 shear stress components on the six
control surfaces of a control volume. The three diagonal components σxx , σyy and σzz are referred
to as the “normal stresses”; the six non-diagonal components τxy , τxz , τyx , τyz , τzx and τzy are
referred to as the “shear stresses”. For detailed explanation of the stress tensor, please review
contents on pages 30-33 of the textbook (Pritchard, 2011).

Fig. 2: Normal and shear stresses on the six control surfaces of a control volume.

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MECH 3492 Fluid Mechanics and Applications Univ. of Manitoba Fall Term, 2021

◮ Velocity gradient tensor (gradient of a velocity vector)

 
∂Vx ∂Vy ∂Vz
∂x ∂x ∂x
 
 ∂Vx ∂Vy ∂Vz 
[grad V] =  ∂y ∂y ∂y  . (5)
 
∂Vx ∂Vy ∂Vz
∂z ∂z ∂z

In fact, the gradient of a vector is a tensor.

Important concepts:
• a key difference between scalar, vector and tensor is that a scalar has only 1 component, a vector has
3 components, and a tensor (second order) has 3 × 3 components;
• all these quantities, a scalar, a vector and a tensor, are functions of time (t) and space (r);
• a vector is a tensor of the 1st order, and a scalar is a tensor of the zeroth order.

3. Del Operator ∇
In the field theory, it is very useful to introduce the Del operator ∇ (also referred to as the “Nabla
operator” or “vector operator”), which takes the following forms in 3-D rectangular and cylindrical
coordinate systems, respectively,
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ =î + ĵ + k̂ (Rectangular),
∂x ∂y ∂z
(6)
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇ =êr + êθ + k̂ (Cylindrical).
∂r r ∂θ ∂z
An operator “operates” on a mathematical object (typically, a function such as a scalar, vector or
tensor) to result in a new mathematical object. The following shows how to use the Del operator to
generate the gradient of a scalar, divergence of a vector, curl of a vector, and Laplacian of a scalar.
Weblinks:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Del
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Del%5Fin%5Fcylindrical%5Fand%5Fspherical%5Fcoordinates

3.1. Gradient
The gradient of a scalar (grad φ = ∇φ) is a vector, which is obtained by applying the Del operator
onto a scalar φ. It takes the following forms in 3-D rectangular and cylindrical coordinate systems:
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∇φ = î + ĵ + k̂ (Rectangular),
∂x ∂y ∂z
(7)
∂φ 1 ∂φ ∂φ
∇φ = êr + êθ + k̂ (Cylindrical).
∂r r ∂θ ∂z
 ∂φ ∂φ 
We can also express the above equation using matrix notations, e.g.: grad φ = ∇φ = ∂φ ∂x , ∂y , ∂z .
The momentum equation of fluid can be expressed in a form to explicitly include the gradient of the
velocity field. The gradient of a vector is a tensor similar to that given by Eq. (5).

3.2. Divergence of a Vector

In vector calculus, there is an important theorem, so-called “divergence theorem” (also referred to as
“Gauss’s theorem” or “Ostrogradsky’s theorem”). This theorem connects a 2-D integral over of closed
control surface to a 3-D integral over a control volume. It relates the flux of a vector field through

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MECH 3492 Fluid Mechanics and Applications Univ. of Manitoba Fall Term, 2021

a control surface to the behavior of the vector field (specifically, divergence of the vector) inside the
control volume (see Fig. 3a), viz.
y {
∇ · AdV = A · dS , (8)
V S
where V is a control volume enclosing point P and bounded by a closed curved control surface S.
Here, dS is the elemental surface vector defined as dS = n̂dS, n̂ is the unit surface normal
vector and dS is the surface element. In the above equation, quantity ∇ · A is the so-called
divergence of vector A; and the elemental flux is dF = A · dS = A · n̂ dS. The flux of vector A
through a finite surface ∆S (see Fig. 3b) is defined as
x x
F = A · dS = A · n̂ dS (9)
∆S ∆S
s
Example: the mass flux through a finite surface ∆S is m = ρ ∆S A · dS.

Fig. 3: Demonstration of vector A going through: (a) the control surface S of a closed control volume
V, and (b) a finite curved surface ∆S.

Assume that the control volume is centered about point P (which can be specified by the position
vector r), and the control volume is infinitesimally small (i.e., V → 0). Then Eq. (8) becomes:
{
V∇·A ≈ A · dS , (10)
S
which holds approximately in the vicinity of point P . From the above equation, the divergence of
vector A can be defined, i.e.
 {   { 
def 1 1
div A ≡ ∇ · A = lim A · dS = lim A · n̂ dS . (11)
V →0 V V →0 V
S S
The physical meaning of the above equation is clear: the divergence of the a vector A at point P , is
the flux of A through the control surface of an infinitesimal control volume (enclosing point P ).
From the definition equation (11), the divergence of a vector in 3-D rectangular and cylindrical
coordinate systems can be derived as:
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
∇·A = + + (Rectangular),
∂x ∂y ∂z
(12)
1 ∂(rAr ) 1 ∂Aθ ∂Az
∇·A = + + (Cylindrical),
r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z
respectively.
A weblink for explanation of divergence:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergence%5Ftheorem

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MECH 3492 Fluid Mechanics and Applications Univ. of Manitoba Fall Term, 2021

3.3. Curl of a Vector

The curl of a vector is a vector. In a 3-D rectangular coordinate system, it can be expressed as
 
 î ĵ k̂ 

 ∂ ∂ ∂ 

∇ × A =  ∂x ∂y ∂z  , (13)
 
 Ax Ay Az 

or,      
∂Az ∂Ay ∂Ax ∂Az ∂Ay ∂Ax
∇ × A = î − + ĵ − + k̂ − ; (14)
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
and in a cylindrical coordinate system,
 
 ê
 r rêθ k̂


1  ∂ ∂ ∂

∇ × A =  ∂r ∂θ ∂z
 , (15)
r 

 Ar rAθ Az 

or,       
1 ∂Az ∂Aθ ∂Ar ∂Az 1 ∂(rAθ ) ∂Ar
∇ × A = êr − + êθ − + k̂ − . (16)
r ∂θ ∂z ∂z ∂r r ∂r ∂θ

3.4. The Laplacian

The operator, defined as: div grad = ∇·∇ = ∇2 is called Laplacian. In 3-D rectangular and cylindrical
coordinate systems, the Laplacian of a scalar φ can be expressed as

∂2φ ∂2φ ∂2φ

∇2 φ = ∇ · ∇φ = + 2 + 2 (Rectangular), (17a)
∂x2 ∂y ∂z
 
1 ∂ ∂φ 1 ∂2φ ∂2φ
∇2 φ = ∇ · ∇φ = r + 2 2 + 2 (Cylindrical), (17b)
r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z

respectively.
If a scalar function φ is twice-differentiable and satisfies:

∇2 φ = 0 , (18)

then φ is said to be a harmonic function, and the above equation is called Laplace’s equation. If
the right-hand-side of the above equation is not identically zero, it is typically referred to as Poisson’s
equation, i.e.
∇2 φ = f (x, y, z) . (19)
Obviously, Laplace’s equation is a special form of Poisson’s equation when f (x, y, z) ≡ 0. Poisson’s
equation is crucial in the study of scalar diffusion processes. For instance, the steady state heat
conduction equation is a Poisson type equation.
The above equations deal with the Laplacian of a scalar. The Laplacian operator can be also
applied to a vector. In fact, in the momentum equation that governs the fluid flow motions, there
is a viscous diffusion term (i.e., µ∇2 V) which is associated with the Laplacian of the velocity vector
(V = [Vx , Vy , Vz ]). To evaluate the Laplacian of a vector, simply, let it operate on each component
(individually), i.e.

∇2 V = [∇2 Vx , ∇2 Vy , ∇2 Vz ] or ∇2 V = î∇2 Vx + ĵ∇2 Vy + k̂∇2 Vz . (20)

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MECH 3492 Fluid Mechanics and Applications Univ. of Manitoba Fall Term, 2021

Discussions:
• the gradient of a scalar is a vector, and the gradient of a vector is a tensor.
• the divergence of a vector is a scalar, and the divergence of tensor is a vector.
• the gradient operation increases the tensor order by 1, and the divergence operation decreases the
tensor order by 1.
• in this class, we deal with scalars, vectors and second-order tensors. By default, a ‘tensor’ refers to
a second-order tensor.

3.5. Properties of ∇ Operator

Let α and β represent two constants (fixed numbers), φ and η represent two scalar fields (variables),
and a and b represent two vector fields (variables). The following lists some frequently used identities
in the field theory:
(1: linearity) ∇(αφ + βη) = α∇φ + β∇η
(2: linearity) ∇ · (αa + βb) = α∇ · a + β∇ · b
(3: linearity) ∇ × (αa + βb) = α∇ × a + β∇ × b
(4) ∇(φη) = φ∇η + η∇φ
(5) ∇ · (∇ × a) ≡ 0
(6) ∇ × (∇φ) ≡ 0

REFERENCES

Chorlton, F. 1976, Vector & Tensor Methods, Ellis Horwood, London.

Kemmer, N. 1977, Vector Analysis: a Physicist’s Guide to the Mathematics of Fields in Three Dimen-
sions, Cambridge University, Cambridge.

Lewis, P. E. and Ward, J. P. 1989, Vector Analysis for Engineers and Scientists, Addison-Wesley,
Reading, England.

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Example 1

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Example 2