ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS THEORY

Chapter 2
Vector Analysis-Part 2

Textbook : Fundamentals of Engineering Electromagnetics,

David K. CHENG

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 Gradient of a Scalar Field

 Gradient of a scalar:
𝜕𝑉
gradV= 𝛁𝑉 ≜ 𝐚𝒏 𝜕𝑛 (Directional Derivative)

 : del (nabla) operator,

 In general,
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛁 ≡ 𝐚𝑢1 + 𝐚𝑢2 + 𝐚𝑢3
ℎ1 𝜕𝑢1 ℎ2 𝜕𝑢2 ℎ3 𝜕𝑢3

 (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ) : orthogonal coordinates

 (ℎ1 , ℎ2 , ℎ3 ) : metric coefficients

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 Gradient in Cartesian Coordinate Systems :
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝛁𝑉 = 𝐚𝒙 + 𝐚𝒚 + 𝐚𝒛
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

 Gradient Operator in Cylindrical & Spherical Coordinate Systems :

 Cylindrical System

𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
𝛁 = 𝐚𝒓 + 𝐚𝜙 ( ) + 𝐚𝑧
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧
 Spherical System

𝜕 1 𝜕 1 𝜕
𝛁 = 𝐚𝑹 + 𝐚𝜃 ( ) + 𝐚𝜙
𝜕𝑅 𝑅 𝜕𝜃 𝑅 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙

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Example:

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Soln:

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 Example:

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 Divergence of a Vector Field
 Derivatives of a vector field : Divergence and the curl of a vector.
 Flux Lines : Directed field lines or curves that indicate the direction of the vector
field at each point (see figure below)
 In Figure (a), the field in region A is stronger than that in region B
 In Figure (b), radial field is strongest in the region closest to q. Because arrow lengths are
decreasing away from the point q.
 Figure (c) represents a uniform field.

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 The divergence of a vector field A at a point, (div A) :
 The net outward flux of A per unit volume as the volume about the point tends to zero.

 ds = ands,
 an : unit normal vector pointing outward from the enclosed volume.
 The enclosed surface integral represents the net outward flux of the vector field A.
 divA is a scalar quantity.

Example :

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 A differential volume is centered about a point P(x0, y0, z0) in the field of vector A.
 In Cartesian coordinates, A = axAx + ayAy + azAz.
 Let us find divA at the point (x0, y0, z0) .
A differential volume
in Cartesian coordinates.

 Since the differential volume has six faces, then

 On the front face,

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Ax(x0 + (x/2), y0, z0) can be expanded as a Taylor series at (x0, y0, z0) :

Similarly, on the back face,

The Taylor-series expansion

Then we have

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• Similarly, for the right and left faces, we have +y/2 , - y/2, and s = xz, and

• For the top and bottom faces,

• Then

• Since

v = xyz and

Note: 𝛁 ∙ 𝐀 is a measure of the strength of the flow source of A.

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• Divergence in Cartesian Coordinates

Example:

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Divergence in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates

Example:

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Example:

We again obtain

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 Divergence Theorem

 The volume integral of the divergence of a vector field equals the total outward flux
of the vector through the surface that bounds the volume; that is,

 This identity is divergence theorem.

 ds is always outward normal, perpendicular to the surface ds and directed away from
the volume.

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Example: Given A = axx2 + ayxy + azyz, verify the divergence theorem over
a cube one unit on each side. The cube is situated in the first octant of the Cartesian
coordinate system with one corner at the origin.

The divergence of A is

Then,

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 Curl of a Vector Field

 The curl of a vector field A (curl A ) ∶ 𝛁 × 𝐀

 Its direction is the normal direction of the area when the area is oriented to make
the net circulation maximum.

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18
Example:

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Example:

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 Stoke’s Theorem

 The Stokes’s Theorem converts the integral of the curl of a vector over an
open surface S into a line integral of the vector along the contour C
bounding the surface S.
 If 𝛁 × 𝐀 = 0, then the vector is conservative or irrotational.

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 Example: Given F = axxy - ay2x, verify Stokes's theorem over a quarter- circular disk with a
radius 3 in the first quadrant, as shown in Figure.

 For the line integral around ABOA

• The part around the arc from A to B:

(Stokes’s Theorem)

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 • For the surface integral of 𝛁 × 𝐅:

Then, Stokes's theorem is verified.

Note: Be careful to use the proper limits for the two variables of integration. We can
interchange the order of integration as

and get the same result.

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Two Null Identities

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Two Null Identities

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