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Management of the Horseshoe Crab Limulus polyphemus

Alice Belskis
Stockton University
May 4th, 2020
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Summary of Management Issue:

Limulus polyphemus is a species of horseshoe crab that is found along the east coast of
Central and North America (Wetlands Institute, 2019). They are a marine species that nest along
the coast and through the Delaware Bay region, and they play a large role in the management of
migrating shorebirds. The horseshoe crabs nest and lay eggs on beaches during the peak
migration of birds like the endangered Red Knot, and their eggs provide much needed nutrients
and energy to these birds as they travel to their breeding area in the Arctic (Fish and Wildlife
Service, 2019). Horseshoe crabs influence Red Knot survival, and this was best seen in the
Delaware Bay region after horseshoe crab harvesting was increased in the 1990’s. In following
years there was a 75% drop in Red Knot numbers visiting the region, as there was a 90% decline
in horseshoe crab egg availability due to the increased harvesting (Niles et al., 2009). Horseshoe
crab management has become almost synonymous with Red Knot conservation, as it is clear that
horseshoe crab populations are essential for the success of the Red Knots.
One of the management strategies being used to boost horseshoe crab populations is
beach restoration. Beach restoration is the process of pumping offshore sediment onto the beach
to widen the shoreline. This is meant to fight erosion, and in the case of horseshoe crab
management, provide more space for nesting to allow more resources for migrating birds.
However, beach restoration may be deteriorating potential horseshoe crab habitat. Horseshoe
crabs have very specific preferences when it comes to where they lay their eggs. The process of
pumping sand onto the shore changes the sand grain size, temperature, and moisture to levels
that are not suitable for egg development. The impact beach restoration may have on horseshoe
crab populations is under debate, but models have shown that replenished beaches are less
suitable for nesting than untouched beaches (Avissar, 2006). Field research has yet to show
whether or not beach replenishment is a positive management strategy for the horseshoe crabs,
but their usage of certain beaches is being tracked.
Tracking horseshoe crab movements has been an issue in past studies as they spend much
of their time underwater. Past research has utilized radio telemetry and acoustic telemetry
separately, but these methods limit the scope of a study because separately they only focus on
one behavior. Radio telemetry has been used to study foreshore habitat utilization to estimate
spawning frequency, and acoustic telemetry was used to study submerged habitat use and
determine how long adults lingered near spawning habitat. New research on horseshoe crab
movement and behavior is utilizing CARTs (Combined acoustic and radio transmitters) to
combine these methods to simultaneously search for horseshoe crabs in foreshore and inshore
environments. Using these new trackers, researches are better able to determine horseshoe crab
behavior during the spawning season, and this data can be used to schedule the horseshoe crab
harvest season to minimize negative impacts to the horseshoe crab population, and to determine
population numbers (Brousseau et al., 2004).
When it comes to horseshoe crab harvest, there are two main stakeholders that are able to
profit from a harvest season. These stakeholders are the biomedical industry and the commercial
fishing industry. For the biomedical industry, horseshoe crabs are harvested to collect their
blood, which contains Limulus amebocyte lysate. This is used to detect toxins in human blood
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and vaccines, and the collection of the blood generates $60 million annually (Avassir, 2006). In
the commercial fishing industry roughly $25 million is generated from the sale of horseshoe
crabs as bait. Horseshoe crab harvesting is widely contested as there are now alternatives for
horseshoe crab blood in the medical field (Maloney et al., 2018), and there are discrepancies in
the mortality rate of horseshoe crabs that have been bled and released. There is also issues with
the regulations surrounding harvesting quotas for both of these industries. For the biomedical
industry, there is no limit to how many horse crabs can be caught in a season because it is seen as
a “catch and release” system with low mortality, but studies have shown a much larger mortality
than previously reported (Leschen and Correia, 2010). These two major stakeholders have a
large influence over horseshoe crab management, and other stakeholders such as Delaware Bay
residents and conservationists are fighting to have their voices heard.
Challenges and Issues:

When it comes to the management of Limulus polyphemus, I believe effort should be put
towards conserving and increasing their population numbers. When reading about the biomedical
and commercial fishing industry, the widely varying regulations caught my eye. Any fisherman
who catches horseshoe crabs must be permitted, but can only be permitted for either biomedical
or commercial fishing. This seems reasonable, as it would make tracking harvests easier if each
fishing boat was only used for one major industry. However, biomedical fishermen are under no
limit as to how many horseshoe crabs they can catch annually. This is due to the view that these
horseshoe crabs are under a low mortality “catch and release” system. Preliminary studies
showed that there was a low mortality rate for horseshoe crabs that were bled and released, but
recent studies have shown that there is actually a mortality rate as high as 29.8%. The Atlantic
States Marine Fisheries Commission actually allows a maximum annual mortality of 57,500
crabs coast-wide from biomedical bleeding, and this figure is based on the statistic that only 15%
of crab experience mortality from bleeding (Leschen and Correia, 2010). To me, this is
unacceptable. Current management strategies on biomedical harvest are operating on outdated
statistics and research.

This harvest strategy also does not account for the preferentially harvested females.
Females are often harvested instead of males because they typically are larger and able to be bled
more, but this is possibly hurting their population numbers. Females that are harvested and bled
face a higher mortality rate than males, which has been reported at 29% but is estimated to be
higher. Horseshoe crab females play a larger role in population dynamics than males because
they are able to lay multiple clutches of eggs each breeding season and are able to mate with
multiple males. When these females are bled after laying clutches, they not only face the stress of
being handled and blood loss, but also face the stress of having expended most of their energy
laying eggs (Leschen and Correia, 2010). If females of breeding age are continuously harvested
each season and removed from the population, a decline in their abundance may be seen in the
future. I think in this case, fishermen should be limited to a harvest number for the biomedical
industry and that the number of females harvested each season should be limited so as to mitigate
any possible population declines in the future. I also think that as alternatives to horseshoe crab
blood become available, they should be utilized more. One alternative that has finished trials is
predicted to decrease our reliance on horseshoe crabs by 90% (Maloney et al., 2018). If we have
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these alternatives available to us, I believe we should be using them so that we play less of a role
in altering the horseshoe crab populations.

Aside from the biomedical harvest, the commercial fishing industry is also plagued by
outdated research regarding horseshoe crab harvest. They do, however, have an annual harvest
quota. Each fisherman that holds a bait fishing permit is permitted to catch 165,000 crabs per
season. In this industry, horseshoe crabs are used as bait for eels and whelks. Like the biomedical
industry, alternatives are now available. Rather than using horseshoe crab meat, bait bags and
artificial bait are becoming more popular (Avissar, 2006). I think this industry is less problematic
because the harvest quotas are made with a high mortality rate in mind that consider the effect on
future horseshoe crab population numbers. Unfortunately, these numbers currently do not take
into account the higher than states mortality rate that bled horseshoe crabs face. If both industries
utilized alternatives to horseshoe crabs and addressed the issues harvested females face,
horseshoe crabs would possibly be able to move from being listed as near threatened to least
concern.

Unfortunate, as with most wildlife issues, this is not a black and white situation. The
harvest of horseshoe crabs brings 340-440 jobs to the Delaware Bay region annually, and
generates roughly $80 million (Avissar, 2006). If harvest quotas were lessened, it would affect
the employment of fishermen and their boat crew. It is difficult for me to suggest a complete ban
on a harvest because it provides such a large economic boost. The issue also attracts
conservationists and residents of the region who see the practice as damaging and unattractive
(McGowen et al., 2014). One of the main reasons they see the harvest as destructive is the recent
decline in migratory birds traveling through the Delaware Bay region.

As someone who appreciates birding, I personally place importance on the spring

migration of different birds. Not only do local residents get to appreciate new wildlife landing in
their backyard, but migration seasons also bring tourists to the region, stimulating local
economies. In 2011, roughly 666,000 jobs were created in relation to bird watching, and bird
watchers annually spend $41 billion on bird-watching expenses (Fish and Wildlife Service,
2018). Horseshoe crab eggs are an essential part of the diet of many migratory birds. In the
Delaware Bay region, migratory birds such as the ruddy turnstone, the least sandpiper,
sanderlings, and the federally threatened Red Knot rely on these eggs to fuel their migration from
the tundra of the central Canadian Arctic to Tierra del Fuego. In looking at management
strategies for horseshoe crabs, I saw a lot of focus on the conservation of these migratory birds
and hardly any focus on the economic and social impact they have. Horseshoe crab management
has become almost synonymous with Red Knot conservation, as an increase in horseshoe crab
harvesting led to a significant decrease in Red Knot populations in following years (Avissar,
2006). While this view of horseshoe crab management highlights the importance that horseshoe
crabs play on other species and the global food web, it does not consider the human aspect. I
think more emphasis should be put towards how horseshoe crab management and harvest
practices influence local economies, and the benefit that a conservative harvesting method could
have in potentially increasing Red Knot populations and consequently attracting tourists and
jobs.

In conjunction with this, horseshoe crab habitat management becomes a factor as areas
are needed for Red Knots and horseshoe crabs to congregate to be observed. This leads to the
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issue of beach restoration. I have a number of issues with this management strategy, as it has
historically not considered the impact it has on horseshoe crab egg development, and how it
affects areas that are dredged to provide the sediment. Horseshoe crabs have very specific
criteria that needs to be met to allow for the development eggs once they are laid. Previous
management ideas assumed that with beach restoration, the beach could be widened and would
allow more area for horseshoe crabs to nest. Unfortunately, these practices pull sediment from
the bottom of offshore areas. This not only disrupts the natural formation of the bottom the
dredged area, but it can lead to anoxic pits that do not sustain life. Dredging also disrupts carbon
sinks that store carbon dioxide under the water, and the carbon dioxide is released into the water
and eventually the atmosphere.

Once the sand is placed on the beach, it can alter the grain size, temperature, dissolved
oxygen, moisture, and albedo of the sand. All of these factors influence horseshoe crab egg
development. In a study that modeled habitat quality for horseshoe crabs, they found that
untouched beaches were consistently more favorable than replenished beaches (Avissar, 2006).
The natural state of the Delaware Bay region is favorable habitat for horseshoe crabs, and this
management strategy seems to be doing more damage than good by turning ideal habitat
unfavorable. Given this study, I think this management strategy should be re-evaluated. It is
currently the most popular habitat management strategy for horseshoe crabs, but it does not
consider the possible negative effects it can play on egg development. If possible, I think that
instead of widening beaches, we could instead limit access to horseshoe crab nesting beaches
during the breeding season. Rather than alter their current breeding area, we should focus more
on conserving it as it is naturally so we do not accidentally do more harm than good.

To aid in this beach protection attempt, we could utilize more horseshoe crab tracking
technology. There is currently a large knowledge gap when it comes to understanding horseshoe
crab behavior and movement offshore. Since these animals spend most of their lives underwater
in a marine environment, observation is difficult. However, new technologies are now available
that allow us to follow their movement more thoroughly during the breeding season as they
travel along shore. The use of CARTs is becoming more popular as it allows researchers to
follow females to see how many clutches of eggs they lay in a season, and to determine where
they congregate offshore (Brousseau et al., 2004). This allows researchers to better understand
horseshoe crab population dynamics, and to help to set an appropriate harvest season. The
females are able to lay multiple clutches a year, and once they are done, they all migrate away
from the beaches together around the same time (Brousseau et al., 2004). By using this tracking
technology, a season could be set that begins once the crabs more away from the shore. This
would allow the females to only be harvested after they have released all of their eggs, and could
mitigate issues with harvesting the crabs before they have bred to the fullest extent. I think this
should be something to be considered by the fishing industry. It could potentially address issues
with the declining horseshoe crab population without erasing the harvest industry. There are
issues with tracking horseshoe crabs. The CARTs have a limited range when completely
submerged, and require active monitoring to determine the location of the horseshoe crab. This
requires researchers to spend many hours in the field which can become costly. The trackers
themselves are also expensive and are limited in number. It also does not offer insight into how
these animals travel during winter seasons, or what their migration looks like.
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When it comes to horseshoe crab management overall, I think it is an issue that deserves
a more careful and researched approach. These animals affect the global migration patterns and
survival of numerous birds. They are an iconic scene along the Delaware Bay region that locals
and tourists have come to enjoy. They represent a “living fossil” that has withstood many
changes to Earth’s climate (Wetlands Institute, 2019). These crabs are used for human health and
safety, and provide a huge economic benefit to the biomedical and fishing industry. They also
indirectly promote tourism and stimulate local economies through ecotourism with birding.
Horseshoe crabs are not only a unique animal, but are thoroughly connected to other organisms
through diet and presence. Since they are such an influential animal, I think their management
should consider all of their potential impacts and needs, and not only focus on the conservation
of one bird species or benefit to one industry.
Further Research and Experiments:
Further research is needed on a number of issues regarding horseshoe crab management.
Tracking horseshoe crabs could definitely be improved through advancing the tracker technology
so that it has a wider range, and by implementing dataloggers and radio towers throughout the
bay region so that researchers no longer need to go out to the field daily. Tracking more female
horseshoe crabs would also allow researchers to better estimate population numbers because they
could see how many clutches females laid each season. It would also allow researchers to see
which beaches were more popular for nesting, and could allow preemptive protection of the
beach to occur before the horseshoe crabs showed up to nest.
More research is also needed in determining how much beach restoration affects
horseshoe crab egg development. All of the available studies use models to determine habitat
quality and egg success, but there are no field studies assessing how much a beach is actually
changed after beach restoration has occurred. Field studies should be conducted to provide data
on the before-and-after effects of the restoration, and how horseshoe crab egg development is
affected by the change in sediment.
If possible, more research should be done on how the biomedical industry affects
horseshoe crab populations. Research should focus on how many crabs are actually dying
annually from this industry using new studies that estimate a higher mortality rate. Combining
this industry with the tracking would be interesting, as over a long-term study it may be possible
to see the effects of a harvest after horseshoe crabs have moved away from the shore. It could be
determined whether or not harvesting after the females lay all their clutches will passively boost
the population.
To test this, I would first question if changing the harvest season to immediately follow
movement away from the beaches would help increase horseshoe crab populations. I would then
hypothesize that by only harvesting the crabs once they move away from the beach after multiple
nesting attempts, the maximum number of eggs possible would be laid on the beach. To test this,
I would randomly select females and attach CARTs to them. I would set up a system of
dataloggers and radio towers throughout the Delaware Bay at different distances to shore to pick
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up the signal of the tracked horseshoe crabs as they moved throughout the bay. Using this
system, after a few seasons I would identify which beaches the horseshoe crabs preferred to nest
in, and from those beaches select the ones that have not been restored. This selection would be
done to ensure that the best quality habitat was being used in the study so that no issues
stemming from poor quality habitat would affect the egg count. After the target beaches were
identified, I would sample a 10x10 meter section of each beach at the midbeach level where
horseshoe crabs typically lay their eggs. After a nesting season following current harvesting
regulations, I would count the number of nests made in this section of each beach and estimate
the egg count of each nest to come up with an average. The following season, I would use my
trackers to determine when nesting was over by seeing when the crabs moved offshore after the
females made multiple nesting efforts. I would then have the harvest season happen after females
were finished laying their clutches. I would return to the previously sampled beaches and 10x10
sections and count the number of nests and estimate the eggs to determine if there was a
difference in the number of nests at each site and if there were a higher number of eggs. From
that, I could determine if using the tracker data start the harvest season after females moved
offshore impacts the number of eggs laid in a nesting season, thereby increasing the population.
This would be done for at least three seasons to ensure that the sampling had replicates and that it
was not just coincidental.
This study would allow researchers to work in collaboration with fishermen, allowing for
conservation efforts to be made without taking away potential jobs and revenue. If it was found
that horseshoe crab populations increased in years following the offshore movement harvest
method, it could be considered as a new management technique for horseshoe crabs. It would not
only address the decreasing population size, but also provide plenty of food for migrating birds if
it was effective.
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References:

Avissar, Naomi G. “Modeling Potential Impacts of Beach Replenishment on Horseshoe Crab

Nesting Habitat Suitability.” Coastal Management, vol. 34, no. 4, 2006, pp. 427–441.,
doi:10.1080/08920750600860514.

Brousseau, Lorne J., et al. “Acoustic-Tracking and Radio-Tracking of Horseshoe Crabs to Assess
Spawning Behavior and Subtidal Habitat Use in Delaware Bay.” North American Journal
of Fisheries Management, vol. 24, no. 4, 2004, pp. 1376–1384., doi:10.1577/1548-
8675(2004)24<1376:aarohc>2.0.co;2.

Fish and Wildlife Service. “Economic Impact: Birds, Bird Watching and the U.S. Economy”,
U.S. Department of the Interior. 2018.

Fish and Wildlife Service. “Rufa Red Knot (Calidris canutus rufa)”, U.S. Department of the
Interior. 2019.

Leschen, A.S., and Correia, S.J. “Mortality in Female Horseshoe Crabs (Limulus Polyphemus)
from Biomedical Bleeding and Handling: Implications for Fisheries Management.”
Marine and Freshwater Behaviour and Physiology, vol. 43, no. 2, 2010, pp. 135–147.,
doi:10.1080/10236241003786873.

Maloney T, Phelan R, Simmons N (2018) Saving the horseshoe crab: A synthetic alternative to
horseshoe crab blood for endotoxin detection. PLoS Biol 16(10): e2006607. 

McGowan, C.P., Lyons, J.E. and Smith, D.R. “Developing Objectives with Multiple
Stakeholders: Adaptive Management of Horseshoe Crabs and Red Knots in the Delaware
Bay”. Environmental Management 55, 972–982 (2015).

Niles, L.J., et al. “Effects of Horseshoe Crab Harvest in Delaware Bay on Red Knots: Are
Harvest Restrictions Working?”, BioScience, Volume 59, Issue 2, Pages 153–164. 2009.

Wetlands Institute. “Horseshoe Crab Conservation”, Wetlands Institute. 2019.