Asian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Research

Volume 26, Issue 1, Page 61-71, 2024; Article no.AJFAR.111059

ISSN: 2582-3760

Understanding Overfishing: A
Literature Review
Hountcheme Idossou A. Clovis a++*
and Ahouansou Montcho Simon a
a Unit of Aquaculture Research and Fisheries Management (URAGeP), Laboratory of Fisheries and
Animal Sciences (LaSAH), National University of Agriculture (UNA), Ketou, Republic of Benin.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration between both authors. Both authors read and approved the
final manuscript.

Article Information
DOI: 10.9734/AJFAR/2024/v26i1727

Open Peer Review History:

This journal follows the Advanced Open Peer Review policy. Identity of the Reviewers, Editor(s) and additional Reviewers,
peer review comments, different versions of the manuscript, comments of the editors, etc are available here:
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Received: 01/11/2023
Accepted: 04/01/2024
Review Article
Published: 13/01/2024

ABSTRACT
Fishery resources are in danger due to the increase in the world’s population, which has led to
overfishing, manifested in several ways but very little noticeable and apprehensive. So, to reveal
the characteristics of overfishing, a bibliographical synthesis was made. Thus, a typology,
manifestations and drawbacks with some methods of overfishing are presented. It is an excessive
fishery that leads to a decrease in the average size of individuals caught, a decrease in their
reproductive capacity, in their number until their disappearance, and even negative impact on the
income of the fishermen. This definition includes: i- growth overfishing, which occurs when
juveniles are caught before they have a chance to grow (Lc 50< Lm50); ii- recruitment or reproduction
overfishing, when adult fish are fished in large numbers affecting their reproduction, hence the
overfishing of reproduction (Lm50 < Lopt and % of sexually mature fish in catches below the target
reference point; iii- ecosystem overfishing, where the decline of a previously abundant fish stock is
not offset by an increase in stocks of other species; iv- economic overfishing, where fishing effort
exceeds that necessary to maximize economic rent; v- Malthusian overfishing, which manifests
itself in the overpopulation of fishermen making a great effort to maintain their income and sources
of animal protein.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
++
PhD Student;
*Corresponding author: Email: hountchemeclovis@yahoo.fr;

Asian J. Fish. Aqu. Res., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 61-71, 2024
 Clovis and Simon; Asian J. Fish. Aqu. Res., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 61-71, 2024; Article no.AJFAR.111059
Keywords: Overfishing; typology; characteristics; study method.
1. INTRODUCTION
Food and economic dependence on fishery
resources existed since the dawn of time as a
source of food, employment and income
[1,2,3,4,5]. For these reasons, human
settlements are often established in areas where
fish catches are relatively good [6].
Fishing provides more than 3.2 billion people
with almost 20% of their average animal protein
intake. According to FAO (2022), global capture
fisheries should recover and grow by 6%
compared to 2020, reaching 96 million tonnes in
2030 [7].
UNEP [8] estimated that 47% of global fish
stocks are fully exploited, while 18% are
overexploited, leaving no opportunity for
replenishment. The remaining stock could also
come under pressure from the growing
population of the world. According to Somma [9],
47 to 57% of global fish stocks are fully exploited,
15 to 18% overexploited or depleted, and 9 to
10% in recovery. Inland fishing statistics remain
unknown, due to the unavailability of data and
the fact that the FAO does not have a monitoring
system comparable to that used in the marine
environment. However, some authors, such as
Rurangwa et al. [10], have estimated that inland
fishing has already far exceeded its production
capacity, given the small size of the fish caught
and the small volume of catches, reflecting the
overexploitation of rivers and lakes. This
overexploitation of fishery resources is
expressed through overfishing, which refers to
excessive fishing by humans of certain fish or
shellfish [11].
Overfishing takes the form of increased catching
capacity, leading to a reduction in the number of
catches, a drop in the average size and age of
catches, a reduction in the average weight of
catches and a decline in the stock of individuals
able to reproduce. It has become a disruptive
factor for stocks and resource replenishment,
increasing the vulnerability and loss of
productivity of aquatic environments and
leading to the decline of certain local economies
[11,12] Thus, overfishing manifests in several
ways that remain barely perceptible and
understandable. Therefore, it is important to do
this literature review to provide a better
understanding of the phenomenon of
overfishing.
62
2. METHODOLOGY
The search engines used for this bibliographic
synthesis are: Google, Google Scholar, Scopus,
https://link.springer.com, www.science.gov,
www.bioline.org.br, www.pdfdrive.com,
www.Base-search.net, www.fao.org. The words
or groups of words introduced in these different
search engines were fishing, sustainable fishing,
overfishing, fisheries, fish stocks, fishery
resources, sustainable management of fishery
resources.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Typology of Overfishing
Three major considerations can be taken into
account to make a typology of the forms of
overfishing. These are (i)- the development
phenomenon in fish (growth and maturation), (ii)-
the ecosystem and (iii)- the level of exploitation
of fishery resources in relation to the fishermen.
With regard to the phenomenon of development
in fish, it seems important to emphasize that the
development of an organism is based on growth
and maturation (differentiation). Growth is the
increase in size of the organism. It is a
quantitative data that can be accessed by
measurement, which enables us to appreciate
the increase in weight, length or size of an organ
or organism over a given period. Maturation
means that, at certain periods of development, a
tissue or organ changes and/or acquires its
function. It is therefore a qualitative data of factor.
This is an important phenomenon that can affect
the genital organs during puberty, for example.
The two processes are actually interrelated with
some form of growth being necessary for
differentiation to take place. These are two
categories of phenomena: quantitative and
qualitative. Excessive exploitation of fish during
the growth phase corresponds to growth
overfishing. Excessive exploitation of mature fish
corresponds to recruitment overfishing [13].
Fish generally grow very fast when they are
young and then their growth slows down.
Theoretically, the best time to catch them is when
their growth rate is exactly the same as their
probability of dying of natural causes. Several
authors [14,15,16] have argued that when small
fish that are still growing fast are caught, growth
overfishing occurs and the growth potential of
 Clovis and Simon; Asian J. Fish. Aqu. Res., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 61-71, 2024; Article no.AJFAR.111059
each small fish caught is wasted. According to
Troadec [17], premature exploitation of young
age classes of fish by the use of too small mesh
size, for example, reduces the productivity of the
stock and the overall exploitation rate.
Recruitment overfishing occurs when adult or
mature fish are caught in large numbers,
impairing their potential reproductive rate. The
number of newly spawned fish that survive at
least the first year to become part of the
spawning group is known as the recruit. Once
there are no longer enough spawning fish to
generate sufficient recruitment, we speak of
recruitment overfishing. In addition, when the
parental stock is severely depleted, the average
recruitment and productivity of the stock may
weaken; this reduction in average recruitment
through overexploitation of the parental stock is
then referred to as reproductive overfishing.
Thus, recruitment overfishing and reproductive
overfishing are equivalent.
Ecosystem overfishing occurs when the decline
of a once abundant fish stock is not offset by an
increase in stocks of other species. This
presupposes that this form of overfishing occurs
in a multi-species stock, and strikes a blow
against the normal functioning of the food web
within the ecosystem.
Economic overfishing occurs when increased
fishing effort leads to profit levels below the
maximum desired. According to Pauly [13], of the
various types of overfishing, economic
overfishing appears to be the most interesting to
fishery managers and planners. Its appearance,
coinciding with falling economic profits, makes it
possible to draw up fishery management plans.
By combination of overfishing, according to
Hilborn and Hilborn [14], there is a so-called yield
overfishing whose two components are:
recruitment overfishing and growth overfishing.
Therefore, FAO [18] estimated that overfishing
results from a combination of growth overfishing
and recruitment overfishing, and most often
occurs in conjunction with ecosystem overfishing
and economic overfishing.
Overfishing has a negative impact on fish
resources and their environment. According to
Berkowitz [19], overfishing is the intensification of
fishing activity that leads to a decline in the
number of individuals caught until they
disappear, a drop in their average weight and a
reduction in the ability of individuals to
63
reproduce. This definition seems to include
growth, recruitment and ecosystem overfishing,
the sum of which could lead to economic
overfishing. In any case, the unsustainable
exploitation of fishery resources today is
encouraged by the fact that oceans, rivers and
water bodies belong to no one, and so their
exploitation is non-exclusive or free to all [20]. In
contrast to marine areas under the sovereignty
(territorial sea) or jurisdiction of the coastal state
(exclusive economic zone), the freedom of fish in
international waters is legally enshrined [21].
Although four types of overfishing affect fishery
resources in specific ways, [22] believes that
growth overfishing is one of the main causes of
declining yields in many fisheries. This
overfishing affects very small fish that have not
yet reached sexual maturity. Indeed, the fight
against overexploitation of fishery resources
presupposes that fish are caught at a relatively
larger size, i.e. the size (length) of first capture
Lc50 must be greater than the size (length) of first
sexual maturity L50 [23,24,25,26,27]. Selectivity,
which aims to select only what we want to catch
in order to spare small fish or unwanted species,
remains one of the means of sustainable
management of fish in the sea, rivers and bodies
of water. Although this selectivity can be
intraspecific (size selection within the same
species) or interspecific (separation between
species), it must also be improved by closing
areas, for example, during a season when
juvenile or spawning fish are abundant: "spatio-
temporal" selectivity [28].
3.2 Manifestations and Consequences of
Overfishing
Fishing is a threat, not only to resources but also
to the ecosystem [29]. Fishing has a direct
impact on specifically targeted populations, on
long-lived species with low reproductive rates
[30]. It also has repercussions on community
structure, trophic interactions, benthic fauna and
habitat [31,32,33]. Nowadays, improved fishing
techniques, larger and more powerful vessels,
the manufacture of increasingly resistant nets
(synthetic fibers) of larger size, the use of GPS to
locate shoals of fish, and the emergence of
better conditions for preserving and processing
fish products have all contributed to overfishing.
Aside from these technology-related aspects, the
increase in the population of world, open access,
overcapacity, bycatch and the rise in purchasing
power in emerging countries have all contributed
significantly to the rise in overfishing [8,34,35].
The consequences of overfishing are numerous
 Clovis and Simon; Asian J. Fish. Aqu. Res., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 61-71, 2024; Article no.AJFAR.111059
and can be broken down according to the type of
overfishing.
3.3 Growth Overfishing
Growth overfishing occurs when juveniles, which
make up the bulk of the stock and are destined to
become spawners, are caught before they have
a chance to grow [36]. Fishing this age class of
fish leads to a reduction in size and premature
maturation [27]. Worldwide, 72% of the global
fishery resources were being exploited faster
than they could reproduce; and industrial fishing
has contributed enormously to a rapid decline in
fish populations [8]. Fishing for juvenile
freshwater pearl mussels in Russia's Baltic Sea
basin has led to a collapse in their stock,
although the condition of their habitats appears
to be quite good [37]. According to Berkowitz
[19], one of the consequences of growth
overfishing is a drop in the number of individuals
fished to extinction, a drop in their average size
and age, and a drop in their average weight. This
overfishing also occurs on the high seas, where
large quantities of juvenile shrimp are either
discarded or kept on board for reasons of non-
target species.
3.4 Recruitment Overfishing
In a population, any individual that has reached
the given size to enter the fishery or the
exploitable fish stock. This fish become
vulnerable to fishing gear. Thus, in fishery,
recruitment overfishing occurs when adult fish
are caught in large numbers, impairing their
reproduction [13]. When recruitment overfishing
persists in an ecosystem, it leads to the
disappearance of large individuals and super-
reproducers [19].
Indeed, super-reproducers are fish that have
reached a length of more than 10% of the
optimal size and play a vital role in the long-term
survival of a population [38]. As a result of
overfishing, 72% of the global fishery resources
are exploited faster than they can reproduce [8].
Fish reproduction depends on the presence of
spawning grounds, and one of the consequences
of overfishing for reproduction is the destruction
(reduction) of fish nests through the use of
fishing gear, which causes turbulence and
disrupts fish reproduction [39].
3.5 Ecosystem Overfishing
Ecosystem overfishing occurs when the decline
of a once abundant fish stock is not offset by an
64
increase in stocks of other species [13]. The
stock represents the exploitable part of the
population of a species in a given area. This
stock does not include eggs, larvae or juveniles
that have not reached a sufficient size to be
caught. Ecosystem overfishing arises from the
collapse of a stock that is not compensated by
another stock (population of another species).
The first stock collapse with worldwide
repercussions was linked to the anchovy,
Engraulis ringens [40]. However, the systematic
harvesting of large predators such as tuna and
cod, as well as the fishing of crustaceans and
molluscs, has led to devastating changes [41].
The direct impact of this action in the oceans, for
example, is that the collapse of populations of
small fish living closer to the surface, such as
sardines or anchovies, can reduce pressure on
jellyfish while increasing their food sources.
Ecosystem overfishing is also responsible for the
disruption of food webs and thus the biomass of
the various species in these webs [42,43]. The
epipelagic zone being the upper aquatic zone
where primary productivity takes place, as it is
exposed to sufficient light for photosynthesis to
take place, overfishing manifests itself up to 1600
m on the slopes of continental shelves inducing a
decrease in fish stocks in the epipelagic zone
[19]. These consequences are also felt at the
level of benthic communities living on the
seabed, whose stocks are declining. The
consequences of ecosystem overfishing have
affected several fish stocks in the Shire River in
Malawi. Overfishing led to the decline of the
chambo stock (Oreochromis lodole). This was
replaced by the kumbuzi stock, a small fish which
accounted for the bulk of catches after the
collapse of the chambo stock. Later, the kumbuzi
stock also declined [39].
3.6 Economic Overfishing
Economic overfishing occurs when fishing effort
exceeds that required to maximize the economic
rent of a fishery [13]. This overfishing leads to a
reduction in revenues for both vessels and
fishermen. Thus, the economic consequences of
overfishing in terms of growth, recruitment and
ecosystem are mainly related to the economic
profit of fishermen and fishing industry
manufacturers. Indeed, overcapacity linked to the
presence of too many vessels in certain fishing
zones generates this form of overfishing, which
contributes to the degradation of resources. It
promotes unsustainable fishing, creates a conflict
between short- and long-term benefits, and
reduces the potential for vital food production for
 Clovis and Simon; Asian J. Fish. Aqu. Res., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 61-71, 2024; Article no.AJFAR.111059
a large number of developing countries [8]. As a
result, the world would recover just under $50
million a year by reducing fishing effort and
allowing depleted marine resources to be rebuilt
to provide sustainably higher catches for a
rapidly growing population in the future [44].
There is also a new form of overfishing known as
Malthusian overfishing according to Pauly et al.
[45], which describes the overpopulation of
tropical coastal fisheries by poor fishermen who
make great efforts to maintain their incomes and
sources of animal protein. This form of
overfishing remains widespread in the
developing countries of Southeast Asia, where it
is entrenched in many of the artisanal fisheries
region [46,47]. Indeed, neo-Malthusians believe
and argue that population growth, poverty,
famine, environmental degradation and lack of
alternative livelihoods are major factors in the
overexploitation of fishery resources in Southeast
Asia [45,48]. For Pauly [49], it is by trying to
maintain their incomes that small-scale
fishermen in developing countries cause massive
destruction of fishery resources, thereby inducing
Malthusian overexploitation. We therefore
conclude that the way in which man exploits
fishery resources for economic survival is at the
root of economic and Malthusian overfishing.
Yield-related overfishing has repercussions on
juvenile and adult fish, affecting the renewal
potential of fish stocks in aquatic ecosystems.
All analyses show that fishing activities have a
direct impact on the resources they exploit, but
also an indirect impact on other species, habitats
and the way ecosystems function [50]. Beyond
the different types of overfishing, it is inevitable
that overfishing manifests itself almost today at
all trophic compartments at the level of pelagic
species [51]; deep-sea species [52,53]; low
trophic levels [54] up to top predators [55,56,57].
Unfortunately, there isn't enough time for
biodiversity to renew itself, and this increases its
vulnerability, all of which is corroborated by the
fact that knowledge of trophic flows within pelagic
ecosystems is still too patchy to be able to draw
any final, edifying conclusions [58].
3.7 Some Methods for Studying
Overfishing
Overfishing occurs when the capacity to extract
resources from rivers, lakes, seas and oceans
exceeds the capacity to renew them. It implies a
level of excessive capture of individuals from a
population without taking into account the time it
65
needs to renew itself. As a result, overfishing
hampers population growth, reduces the number
of spawners and transforms many mature, high-
biomass ecosystems into unstable, low-biomass
ones.
Diagnosing the state of the stock then enables us
to evaluate the intensification of fishing activity
on a fish stock. According to Bouvet [59], the
stock represents the exploitable part of a fish
population made up of adults from several
cohorts, where the youngest are the recruits who
have just reproduced. This stock evolves as a
function of the number of recruits entering it,
natural mortality and harvesting by fishing.
Reproductive age and life expectancy also
influence stock size. In fisheries science,
therefore, the assessment of fishing pressure on
aquatic resources must take into account a
number of biological indicators based on a living
component of the ecosystem, whose fluctuations
will be studied in order to account for the state of
the environment and ecological impacts [60].
Several authors [61,62,63] have suggested that
these biological indicators must be: 1) easily
measurable; 2) abundant, easy to sample and
identify; 3) sensitive to the forcing imposed on
the system; 4) respond to the forcing in a
predictable and specific way; 5) vary little; 6)
generate an understandable and interpretable
response; 7) give a representative picture of the
environmental condition; and 8) be affordable to
monitor and assess.
For all these reasons, Rochet and Trenkel [62]
have identified three indicators that can be
classified according to their level in the hierarchy
of biological organization. Population indicators
include intrinsic growth rate, total mortality
coefficient (Z), exploitation rate (F/Z) and mean
catch size. They also suggest assemblage or
settlement indicators that trace the
characteristics of populations that could be
impacted by fishing, through diversity, dominance
and specific composition. Community indicators
focus on interaction networks between
populations or individuals (total biomass, trophic
composition, food web). With this explanatory
phase in mind, we describe in detail the method
used to study overfishing. The choice of
indicators to be assessed: indicators must be
linked to the study of population dynamics, and
must evolve or diminish as a function of fishing
activity. Indicators must be predictable, sensitive
to reference points, measurable (total weight,
length classes, abundance indices, etc.) and
exclusive to fishing. They must not be influenced
 Clovis and Simon; Asian J. Fish. Aqu. Res., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 61-71, 2024; Article no.AJFAR.111059
by other factors extrinsic to the fishing activity. In
this way, in the study of overfishing for growth,
recruitment, ecosystem and economic reasons,
the estimation of mortality remains essential to
diagnose the state of a population, since it
represents the rate of individuals lost in relation
to a population [64].
To assess overfishing for growth, we will look at
the sizes of first capture and first sexual maturity
of individuals in the population. The size of first
sexual maturity (Lm50) is the size at which 50% of
individuals of both sexes of a species become
mature [23, 24,25,26,27]. The size of first capture
(Lc50) represents the total length at which 50% of
fish are caught by fishing [23,24,25,26,27]. When
Lc50<Lm50, the vast majority of a stock of
juveniles are caught, and growth overfishing
occurs.
Assessment of recruitment (spawning)
overfishing will be based on biological indicators
such as the size of first sexual maturity (Lm50)
and the optimum size (Lopt), which represents the
size at which the maximum number of fish should
be caught to obtain a very high yield. Its formula
3 relates to the extinction of a fish stock is
is: Lopt = L Froese [65], where L∞
3+M
K
and K are parameters of the von Bertalanffy
growth function and M is the instantaneous
natural mortality rate.
The percentage of sexually mature fish
determined by the formula: L90-100% = Lm50 x 1.14.
Where 1.14 = standard value of the ratio Lm50 /
L90-100% [38].
When Lm50 < Lopt and the % of sexually mature
fish in the catch is below the target reference
point (100%) the fishery is experiencing
recruitment overfishing [65].
The assessment of ecosystem (stock)
overfishing will take into account biological
indicators including:
- percentage of super-spawners in the
catch. These are fish that have reached a
length of more than 10% of the optimal
size and play a vital role in the long-term
survival of a population [38,65];
- fishing yield expressed in kg/ha/year;
- population biomass (B), which corresponds
to the total mass (kg) of the available
stock, the total weight of existing living
matter;
66
- fishing mortality (F) according to the
formula F = Z-M;
- Biomass at Maximum Sustained Yield
BRMS;
- fishing mortality at Maximum Sustained
Yield FRMS and exploitation rate E =
F
=
M+F
F
[13]
𝑍
Eventually, the yield curve takes the shape of a
dome and is a function of the fishing exploitation
rate (Fig. 1), which is defined by the population
biomass (B) and fishing mortality (F). The
maximum value of the yield curve (RMS) gives a
reference point that determines the critical values
of biomass (BRMS ) and fishing mortality (FRMS )
for a given population. The equilibrium biomass
of a population decreases as fishing mortality
increases (Fig. 1). Once a critical threshold is
exceeded (FRMS, BRMS), increased exploitation
leads to the extinction of the population (F EXT), of
the stock. This also assumes that the % of super-
reproducers in the catch (individuals whose size
is greater than the optimal size by at least 10%
will be below 20%; this would indicate an
endangered stock, and an overexploitation that
ecosystem overfishing [65].
The assessment of economic overfishing will
take into account biological indicators such as:
- Catch per unit effort (CPUE), which
represents the ratio between catch (kg)
and fishing time;
- Economic Profit (EP) = RT- CT where RT
= Total Revenue and CT = Total Cost.
All this will require knowledge of the costs of
preparing fishing trips and the selling prices of
fish according to different catch sizes.
The relationship between fishing effort and catch
level is illustrated by the effort yield curve. In this
logic, we assume a linear relationship between
effort and cost. The economic rent from fishing is
maximized at that level of effort where the
difference between total revenue and total cost is
greatest, i.e. at effort level Ex in Fig. 2. For this
reason, the greatest economic rent is
accumulated at A1, or what is considered
maximum economic yield (MEY). When effort
exceeds this point, economic overfishing is
claimed. In other words, the catch per unit effort
is increasing and is not proportional to the
economic rent, i.e. the difference between gross
revenues and fishing costs [48]. This situation,
 Clovis and Simon; Asian J. Fish. Aqu. Res., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 61-71, 2024; Article no.AJFAR.111059

favored by the fishing of small-sized individuals overexploited fishery is characterized by low

at low selling prices, puts fishermen at an catch rates, low economic returns and
economic disadvantage, making it difficult for over-allocation of resources to industrialists
them to survive on fishing alone. An [66,67].

Yield

Fishing mortality (F)

Fig. 1. Resulting equilibrium relationship between yield and fishing mortality [64]

Fig. 2. Long-term yield curve and fishing effort curve [68]

67
 Clovis and Simon; Asian J. Fish. Aqu. Res., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 61-71, 2024; Article no.AJFAR.111059

Every instance of overfishing has repercussions COMPETING INTERESTS

on fishery resources, and in turn on people in
general, and on fishermen in particular. A number Authors have declared that no competing
of direct and indirect techniques can be used to interests exist.
regulate fishing effort. These include techniques
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