DEPARTMENT EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE

National University of Shipbuilding

named by admiral Makarov

Timoshenko V.F., Sokolik M.G.

HYDROBIONICS IN SHIPBUILDING

Recommended by the NUoS Methodical Council

Electronic edition

of the combined use on DVD-ROM

Mykolaev ♦ NUoS ♦ 2019

UDK 007.573.6:629.5
T 41

Autors:

V. F. Tymoshenko, Ph. D, acc. prof;

M. G. Sokolik, Ph. D, acc. prof

Reviewer V. A. Nekrasov, Dr. Sc, professor.

Tymoshenko V. F.

T 41 Hydrobionics in shipbuilding: Textbook / V. F. Tymoshenko,

M. G. Sokolik.– Mykolaev: NUoS, 2019. – 86 p.

The textbook is devoted to the study of the basics of hydrobionics, that is, the
science of the principles of construction, structure and functions of locomotion
of large and fast-moving hydrobionts with the aim of improving the propulsive
and maneuverable qualities of technical means of movement in water and to
create new promising systems.
The tutorial can be useful for students in specialty 135 ”Shipbuilding” and
may be useful for graduate students.

c Tymoshenko V. F., Sokolik M. G., 2019

c National University of Shipbuilding

named by admiral Makarov, 2019
1. Introduction
1.1. Bionics and its contents
The term ”bionics” comes from the Greek word ”bion” – an element or a
cell of life. It is considered to be that a bionics it was issued as the scientific
direction and received the first definition on a national symposium on a bionics
in the USA in September, 1960 in the following look: ”A bionics – art to apply
knowledge of biological processes and methods to the solution of engineering
tasks”.
On this symposium the official emblem of a bionics was accepted: the scalpel
and the soldering iron connected by a sign of integration. The scalpel is a
symbol of biology and medicine, the soldering iron – techniques, and integral
– a symbol of mathematics and the sign of join three sciences. The biologist
determines qualitative consistent patterns of functioning of alive organisms,
the mathematician generalizes them analytically, the engineer builds a physical
analog for the subsequent its use in technique. Origin of a bionics it is necessary
to consider as natural result of operation of the objective law of an advancement
of science and tendency to integration of knowledge.
On this symposium, besides, the motto ”Alive organisms – a key to new
technique” was accepted. It is explained by that, that biological systems differ
in high rates therefore the person always tried many instruments of production
to make similar by the principle of action on bodies of animals.
So, for example, northern mole vole1) which is a biological analog for differ-
ent digging cars has high (10 times more) specific duty in tons per hour referred
to the mass of a biont in tons. For digging cars it makes 2...5 1/h while for a
northern mole vole it is equal to 50...100. Comparative analysis of hydroaero-
dynamic characteristics (specific, carried to the mass of a biont, power and the
relative, carried to biont length, speed) the biological and technical systems
of driving in water and air points that biological systems possess more perfect
indicators.
So, for dolphins the specific power makes 0.81 kW·s/t at the relative speed
of 2...8 s−1 , and for submarines it is equal to 22 kW·s/t at the relative speed of
0.06...0.20 s−1. For insects and birds these indexes are equal according to 15,8
kW·s/t and 60...170 s−1 while for jets they make 81 kW·s/t and 4...9 s−1 .
The hydrodynamic perfection of biological systems always drew an attention
of many researchers. In this regard Leonardo da Vinci2) intuition yes surprises
with, O. Liliyental, N.E. Zhukovsky, etc. which fixedly studied flight of birds
with was the reason for that the purpose of creation of aircraft it is heavier
than air. Fairly also statement of the english researcher D. Gray that the
nature designed a dolphin much better, than the person, the submarine or the
torpedo.
1)
Northern mole vole a genus of rodents of family of voles, up to 13 cm long, a tail short, cutters are allocated
from a mouth and are directed forward and therefore are well adapted for digging.
2)
Leonardo da Vinci created the aircraft, having used in quality biological analog bat. However wings which
were an analog of wings of a bat couldn’t lift the person. The low specific power of the person.

3
 However, as N.E. Zhukovsky noticed in due time, it isn’t necessary to copy
(yes it and is impossible!) bionts which were created also were improved by
the nature during many millions of years. It is necessary to comprehend the
main mechanisms and laws creatively optimal solutions of the nature and to use
them for perfecting existing and creations of in essence new technical systems.
Therefore new objects of technique can look outwardly and designly absolutely
differently, than natural prototypes. For example, the wing of the plane which is
rigidly fastened to the fuselage is considerable differs by the form and structure
from the waving folding pen-type wing of a bird though the principle of creation
of a body force at them is identical.

1.2. A subject of a hydrobionics and its place in a cycle of sciences

about technical means of driving in water
Hydrobionics – one of the directions in a bionics which studies hydrobionts
(cetacea, fishes and squids). The circle of the questions which are falling into
to a hydrobionics includes:
– biological hydrodynamics which is engaged in development of theoretical
bases of swimming of hydrobionts on the basis of the analysis of results the
pilot study and the modern achievements in a theoretical hydromechanics and
on their basis creation of technical models;
– research of hydroacoustic abilities of the hydrobionts which are shown in
communication of animals among themselves and in use sound locations at
orientation among underwater objects. In this case object of studying is the
device of the locational device of a hydrobiont;
– studying of navigation abilities of the hydrobionts which are shown at
migration on long distances;
– research of ability of hydrobionts to deep-water immersions and the phys-
iological features providing this ability.
Problem of a course ”Hydrobionics in shipbuilding” is mainly studying of the
principles of the device, structure and functions of bodies lokomotion 3) for the
purpose of perfecting of propulsive qualities and maneuverability of technical
means of driving in to water and also creations of new technical systems and
means of development of the World Ocean. In it for the subsequent model
operation analyze swimming of rather large and fast-floating hydrobionts –
fishes, dolphins and squids. In this course, besides, will be the short review of
results of studying of colloquial and sound locational abilities of marine animals
is given.
The hydrobionics as the self-contained scientific direction was issued in the
early seventies the XX century. Application of drop-shaped forms of a case of
submarines and devices, special elastic coverings, introduction of polymers to
a boundary layer and also water-jet propulsions unit and propulsions unit like
”the waving wing” and others is based on use of features of the structure of a
body hydrobionts and principles of their driving. Made mention emphasizes a
3)
Lokomotion – movement.

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direct connection of a hydrobionics and hydrodynamics of tools movements in
water. Moreover, in a theoretical hydromechanics in this regard there was a
recent trend – biohydrodynamics, engaged in an analytical and pilot study of
non-stationary swimming of hydrobionts. Besides, hydrobionics as the complex
scientific direction affects on biology as participation of biologists in hydrobionic
researches acquaints them with the quantitative assessment of these or those
qualities of hydrobionts, wide use of control and measuring equipments, to
application of a mathematical apparatus and theory of model operation.

1.3. Hydrobionics methods

In a hydrobionics theoretical and experimental methods are used. The theo-
retical method is based on the modern achievements of mathematics and theo-
retical hydromechanics (non-stationary driving of solid bodies and bodies from
deformable surface in true and thick liquid, the theory of a boundary layer, the
theory covered, numerical methods, etc.). On their base in a hydrobionics bases
of the hydraulic theory of swimming of high-speed fishes, cetacea are developed
and squids and also the theory of a boundary layer and viscous resistance of
hydrobionts is created. All this makes maintenance of biohydrodynamics of
one of sections of a hydrobionics. Fundamental contribution to development
of theoretical methods hydrobionics was brought by the group of scientists of
institute of a hydromechanics of AS of Ukraine headed by professor L.F. Kozlov.
The pilot studies necessary both for a comprehension of the mechanism of
swimming, and for receiving initial the quantitative data for calculation of hy-
drodynamic characteristics of hydrobionts for the purpose of development of the
theory of their driving and the subsequent model operation, include direct and
return methods. The hydrobiont has to be in both cases in the conditions, the
most close to natural and to adapt to these conditions. It is necessary to provide
at the same time adequate natural following factors of the environment: sweet
or ocean water, content in them of salts and the dissolved air, corresponding
water temperature and also sufficient volume of an actuation medium, initial
turbulence, appropriate irradiating, etc.
To direct methods natural researches in the conditions of the sea or the
bay treat with use of network obstacles, and also semi-natural experiments
in expressly equipped oceanariums, pools and aquariums. In these conditions
hydrobionts can float in the modes peculiar to them. Researchers make visual
observations, surface and underwater filming, study the regular non-stationary
swimming and short-term transition phenomenons with application telemetric
equipment. Advantage – natural swimming, and a shortcoming – is absent
directional character experiment as the researcher is almost deprived of an
opportunity to operate an experiment object. This shortcoming it is partially
possible to eliminate with a preliminary training of water animals. So, for
example, for training of an animal on speed swimmings the additional cart
with a bait moving on a monorail which is exposed over level is provided the
free surface in the special channel. Also larger achievements in training of
dolphins for realization are known for them the actions caused by trainers with

5
application of an incentive bait. Besides training is carried out in sea artificial
oceanariums for rather short term.
Classical example of studying of swimming of dolphins immediately in the sea
are underwater filmings of group of researchers under the leadership of Jacques
Yves Cousteau. Filmings were carried out from the underwater observation
camera supplied with windows and located in a forward section of the vessel and
also by means of aquanauts. Such filmings give larger and reliable information.
Systematic researches of swimming of dolphins were conducted by the staff of
institute of a hydromechanics of AS of Ukraine in rectilinear the coastal channel
of rectangular section with a monorail and carts. Average longwise the channel
a side part is glazed, and on other wall and the bottom of the channel the
abacus is put. It allows to investigate elements of a kinematics of swimming of
sea animals in the vertical and horizontal planes by means of land movie and
still photography.
The greatest distribution at a research of shallow fishes was gained by the
return method with use of selfcontained hydrodynamic pipes in which water
circulates and the hydrobiont floats towards to a stream. At equality of flow
rates and a hydrobiont the last will be in the particular place of the glazed
section of the pipe. It is represented very convenient as simplifies the procedure
measurements, visual observations and filmings. A shortcoming are inadequate
natural conditions (limitation of space, higher degree of turbulence, etc.). It, in
turn, leads to the fact that when using the return method the boundary layer
at a hydrobiont can be turbulent whereas when swimming in vivo at equal
numbers Reynolds of Re it is laminar on all length of a hydrobiont or part of
its length.

1.4. Hydrobionic and biological features of swimming of hydro-

bionts
For the progressive time of evolution of animals in an aqueous medium (about
1 billion years) the specific changes increasing ability to survive and make pos-
terity, inevitably led to emergence of perfect ways of swimming at rather low
cost of energy. It explains the fact that in the developed relationship of a preda-
tor and the victim one of the major factors causing survival is ability to rather
fast swimming and also overcoming long distances. Of course, except ability to
fast swimming there are also other factors providing survival. As one of such
education at some water animals of an armor can serve. In the latter case the
mobility of a hydrobiont, naturally, decreases, but the ability to survival all
becomes quite high.
In the nature there are about twenty devices for swimming in an aqueous
medium. Among monocelled simplest organisms there is a class which represen-
tatives move thanks to an undulation of a flagella. The wavy way of swimming
gained distribution also at the mobile water animals and fishes.
Contrast to a wavy way of swimming in water is jet propulsion due to ejection
of a stream. So hydras and jellyfishes and also cephalopod mollusks, for example
squids swim. This way of swimming doesn’t occur among vertebrata.

6
 Rather not successful in evolutionary sense was a swimming of hydrobionts
by means of a large number of cilia which is observed among the simplest
coelenterates and comb jellies.
Jet propulsion is effective only at rather large numbers of Re, and driving
by means of cilia – at rather small values of these numbers. The wavy way of
swimming in this sense is the universal.
In relation to technical means of driving in water studying of hydrobionic
features of fast-floating fishes, dolphins and squids is of the greatest interest.

Ways of swimming of representatives of a class of freshwater and marine

animals and fishes are defined by rather larger lengthening and flexibility of
their body. Distinguish:
– acneform way of swimming of hydrobionts with the long, flexible and thin
bodies (eels or snakes). This way of swimming is a classical example wave
driving when all body of a hydrobiont participates in creation of a propellent;
– the scombroidae way of swimming representing modification of a wavy way.
The hydrodynamic analysis of this way shows, that and at large numbers of Re
the advance of waves along all body is optional to effective swimming of fish of
an oblong form. Along all bow part amplitude of a propulsive wave very small
also increases in the direction to a fodder edge which comes to an end with a
tail fin;
– ostraciidae way of swimming of fishes with rather large and rigid bodies
with very short tail fin which fluctuates almost symmetrically concerning the
tail basis;
– dolphins and whales completely adapted to a sea way of life, and, in differ-
ence, say, from seals and walruses, back extremities at them are absent and the
propellent is created by means of the vertical movements of a flexible semi-lunar
tail fin;
– at squids the propellent is reached due to reaction of an ejectable stream.
Comparison among themselves of some systems of functions of hydrobionts
on their relative weight in organisms is given in tab.1. Rather larger mass of
muscles of engines which for various hydrobionts fluctuates within 25...67 % of
hydrobiont lump attracts attention.

7
 More detailed data on functional and morphological properties and hydro-
dynamic aspects of driving of hydrobionts and possibility of their use are given
in tab.2.

2. Functional and morphological properties and kine-

matics of non-stationary swimming of cetacea and
high-speed fishes
In this chapter the geometrical shape of a body and fins of large hydrobionts,
mainly cetacea are studied (whales and dolphins) and high-speed fishes, feature
of the structure of their integument, principles of the organization and func-
tioning which are of great practical interest in applied questions of shipbuilding
and an ocean engineering and also kinematics of non-stationary swimming of
hydrobionts. This section in a bionics received the name of morphology of ani-
mals – exercises about a form and the structure of animals in their evolutionary
development.

2.1. Features of a shape of a body of effectively floating cetacea

Cetacea are the largest and high-speed mammals of a high level of develop-
ment studied in a hydrobionics. They meet in all seas and oceans, carry out
all life in water, but breathe air for what they periodically emerge on a water
surface. They can also plunge on larger depths (dolphins – up to 300 m, whales
– up to 1500 m). Due to noted functional features (driving in the wide range
of depths) a shape of a body and fins of cetacea differs from high-speed fishes
who move in the narrow range of depths.
For a increasing of fat and manifolding cetacea make long migrations which
extent reaches several thousand kilometers. Considering also high maximum
speed (for a sei whale υmax ≈15 m/s) and the mass of cetacea (dolphins – to
1000 kg and whales – up to 100000 kg), it should be noted their high biopower
opportunities.
Now domestic and foreign scientists most in details studied features of mor-
phology of trade species of dolphins (an afalina, a short-beaked common, a sea
pig, a white whale) and whales (a cachalot, a financial shaft, blue whale fig.
2.1).
The appearance of cetacea demonstrates that they are well adapted for the
fissile swimming in an aqueous medium. The body of their streamline shape
extended of elliptic section is also narrowed in a lengthwise direction from a
breast to a tail. The neck very short and practically doesn’t differentiate the
head and a trunk. The tail stalk is oblate from sides and often has from above
and from below obviously expressed keel that hydrodynamic is expedient at
the waving movements in the vertical plane of a stalk with horizontally located
waving fin.
Skin of a body and fins of cetacea smooth, on it isn’t present hair and mucous
selections; only at low-speed skin acquires parasites also becomes rough. All

8
9
10
cetacea have the damping integument of the complex structure which existence
allows to reduce considerably the water resistance to driving. So, at dolphins
skin consists of several more or less expressed layers between which the con-
necting membranes which are an integument framework are located. Thickness
skin at dolphins 10 times more than at the largest bony akulovy fishes.

Fig. 2.1 Ordinary short-beaked common dolphin: a – the back view; b – a side view

Let’s note features of the structure of the header of cetacea. The neck at them
very short and practically doesn’t differentiate the head and trunk. The ordi-
nary short-beaked common dolphin and a pro-dolphin whom fall into the most
high-speed marine animal have the lengthiest narrow rostrum 4) and strongly
allocated beak. Sea pigs and large white whales are deprived of the speaker
of a rostrum, a beak at them is absent. Presence at dolphins of the extended
rostrum of a beak is explained by generally biological reasons (piece capture)
and definitely affects its hydrodynamic drag force.
The toothed whale cachalot with very large head – one of the most low-speed
cetacea – dives for large squids on depth up to 1500 m.
Dolphins of almost all high-speed types are good jumpers (fig. 2.2). They
jump out of water on several meters. So, for example long pro-dolphin, jumping
out of water, rotates in air does up to two and a half turns around the long
axis.
Jump out as well low-speed humpback whales. The sea pig and a white whale
don’t jump out of water. Theoretical and pilot studies demonstrate that for
permanently moving in real liquid solid bodies don’t exist the universal optimum
form of the surface corresponding to the minimum resistance of driving. Each
range of numbers of Re and the nature of driving are answered by the optimum
form. In this regard we will consider feature of developed in the course of the
long evolution of a shape of a body of cetacea, it is nonstationary floating at Re≈
107...108. Quantitative information on some well studied types of cetacea more
detailed information on characteristics of the Black Sea dolphins is provided in
tab. 1.1, and table.1.2.
In tab. 1.1 maximal Lm and zoological by L length of cetacea measured from
a nose tip to a fork of a tail fin are given; H – the maximum height; xmax –
4)
Rostrum – the forefront of a brain skull.

11
 Fig. 2.2 The largest high-speed orca dolphin jumps out of water

the relative distance of the largest section from a body nose; l/L – the relative
range of a tail fin and h/L – the relative height of a back fin.
In tab. 1.2: LK – housing length without rostrum and a tail fin; LD – the
total length of a body of a dolphin.
Analyzing data of measurement, it is possible to note the following features
of a body of cetacea for which makes Reynolds numbers Re= υL/ν = 10 7 . . . 108.
At all dolphins and whales body contours in the vertical diametrical plane have
the asymmetrical form with a little curved centerline and the symmetric – in
the horizontal plane. The form of frames continuously changes from bow to a
tail; the cylindrical insert is absent. High-speed dolphins have the frames, the
close to an ellipse; ellipticity degree B/H =0.84...0.91. The greatest deviations
of a form of frames from an ellipse are observed on bow and tail kilevaty sites.
The relative distance of the largest section from a body nose n max =0.40 at
the specific elongation of L/B =5.0. High-speed dolphins have the laminarizing
form of a body. The generalized coefficient forms of the Black Sea dolphins
η = W 2/3/Ω =0.15 – is slightly higher, than for bodies of a torpedo-shaped
form that hydrodynamic is expedient for achievement greatest possible volume
at rather small hydrodynamic drag force.
All fins of cetacea: waving horizontally located tail, the fixed back and the
mobile steam rooms chest single-blade fins – represent continuous elastic wings
with a curvilinear outline of front and back edges (fig. 2.3).
The tail fin located at the end of a stalk plays a role of the waving propulsion
unit and has the deltoid form with average dredging on a trailing edge which
divides it into two blades – left-hand and right. Chest mobile fins – a oar shaped
look are also depth wheels.
The vertical back fin playing a stabilizer role when swimming in the hori-
zontal plane is available for the majority cetacea. It is absent at a high-speed
northern whale dolphin, a big sea pig and a large white whale. It is possi-
ble to believe that the lack of a back fin, for example, at a whale dolphin is

12
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14
 Fig. 2.3 Shapes of a body and fins of a dolphin

compensated by keel which is well expressed top and bottom on a tail stalk.
The hydrodynamic analysis of a transverse section of fins of cetacea allows
to draw a conclusion that section profiles coincide with the JOUK and NASA
profiles, known in an aerodynamics. So, for example, the profile of section
of a sea pig coincides with profile of NASA which has the maximum relative
thickness 19.6 %, remote from a leading edge apart 35 % chord length.
The relative sizes at fins of cetacea are of great importance. So, relative
range of a tail fin l = l/L makes l = 0.24...0.27 and decreases with body height
of number of Re = υL/ν. The exception is made by high-speed killer whales
and low-speed whales – gray and a cachalot at which the relative range much
higher and reaches 0.26...0.29 that explains larger maneuverability of deeply
diving killer whales and cachalots. It is important to note that at all dolphins
and whales a range tail fin exceeds the greatest width of a body, i.e. the tail
fin supports body dimensions.
The analysis of design datas of profiles of fins of cetacea showed that they
even when swimming near the free surface not cavitate as angles of attack them
at high speeds don’t exceed 3...4 degr. It is quite clear that in these conditions
a cavitation doesn’t arise. Otherwise it would cause pain at animals.

2.2. Features of a shape of a body and fins at high-speed fishes

Shape of a body and fins of fishes are developed in the course of evolutionary
adaptation to conditions of swimming in an aqueous medium during several
million years. At many species of fish a non-stationary propulsion unit is not
only the vertical waving fin, but and an elastic body with cyclic change of its
form. Moreover, the main propulsion unit of acneform fishes is their body on
which, since the head, the propulsive wave creating a moving force.
Among big variety of species of fish in a hydrobionics high-speed fishes are of
the greatest interest (tuna and shark, and also group of ksifioidny: a swordfish,

15
lance bearers, marlins and sailing vessels) with the maximum relative speed of
υmax /L > 10. The biological principle of construction and functioning of these
fishes can be used for perfecting existing and creations of new technical means
of driving in water. From this point of view the following signs are the most
interesting high-speed fishes.
Well-streamlined and symmetric with respect to the vertical cen-
tral plane (CP) body with oval frames, transforming from the verti-
cal oval behind the head of the fish to the horizontal – in the area
of the tail stem. Characteristic features are: smooth body shape, which in
both horizontal and vertical planes meet laminarized profile; the largest cross-
section is spaced from the tip of the nose at a distance of x max /L > 0.35;
relative dimensions for high-speed fish are within the following limits: L/H =
3.5...7.0; B/H = 0.56...0.77. In this regard, for example, tuna with short thick
body and inflexible vertebral column, adapted to high-frequency and low am-
plitude oscillating body. While the wahoo, belonging to the group of bony fish,
has a long thin body, adapted to the flexural low-frequency and with great am-
plitude of oscillation of the body. Similar differences for the cartilaginous-white
shark and mako shark.
In high-speed fish are well streamlined all protruding parts: the eyes have
fairings; fins are relatively small, and some of the them, for example the dorsal
and lateral for tuna, go into special grooves in the body of marine organisms;
gills lids surface are smooth and the water release when moving is synchronized
with the vibrations of the tail fin.
The presence of elements of mechanical and biological control of the bound-
ary layer formed on the surface of the hydrobiont. Tuna fish, which have a
relatively short body, have a separation of the boundary layer when they move.
The presence of ”corset” of the coarser skin and scales on the smooth surface
of the body before its widest part changes like a Prandtl ring flow mode and
thereby shifts the point of the boundary layer downstream, thereby reducing
the resistance to movement marine organisms. Isolation of mucous matter in
the boundary layer, for example, swordfish also leads to a significant reduce
resistance.
Vertical tail fin – double-bladed variable sweep with large elongation λ = 8
(for cetacean λ = 6), hard, without muscle, protrudes beyond the surface of the
body and makes high-frequency oscillations.
In addition to high – speed tuna and shark fish, it is necessary to highlight
a group of large marine predatory xyphoid fish, which distinguished by their
exposed front of the head bone astromomy. These are high-speed swordfish,
spearmen, marlin and sailboats.
The greatest short-term speed of swimming (up to 30...35 m/s) has a sword-
fish (fig. 2.4). It has a total length of up to 3 m, of which 1/3 is a wedge-shaped
flattened sword. The maximum speed of the fastest swordfish was first defined
by A. N. Krylov on the strength of her blow to the side of the vessel. Known
fact, when the swordfish struck the copper-coated side cladding, oak cladding
and the frame, with a thickness of 30 cm, who was stuck with her broken sword.
Experimental studies conducted in the wind tunnel and cavitation in the

16
pipes and towing tank basins plastic models of swordfish with a length of 1 m at
different speeds and depths of immersion, allowed to detect the advantage of the
body shape of swordfish compared to other high-speed fish. With regard to the
resistance of solids, it can be concluded that the body with contours swordfish
have advantages over bodies of rotation of traditional contours-noticeably lower
friction resistance in submerged state and relatively little wave resistance when
moving near a free surface. In this sense, the swordfish be regarded as extremely
high-speed marine organisms.

Fig. 2.4 Body shape and fins swordfish

In addition to the shape of the body necessary prerequisites for the phenom-
enal speed of the swordfish are:
– the presence of a powerful motor-motor complex. Muscles be 67 % of the
total body mass that is considered to be biologically limiting. Even in compar-
ison with the high-speed orca dolphin and shark mako, the energy intensity of
the swordfish is twice as high. And in the vast most fish muscles are 30...45 %;
– the presence of a powerful secretory apparatus that allows to produce and
secrete into the boundary layer a mucous substance that can significantly reduce
the friction resistance;
– the tail fin is a highly efficient waving motor, which due to the large
elongation and large amplitude of the transverse swings has a high efficiency;
– sharply released swordfish rostrum plays a role in reducing resistance,
mainly due to the stabilization of the direct course with powerful strokes of
the tail fin and some reduction in friction resistance.
In conclusion, a brief review of the hydrodynamically effective morphological
qualities we give a comparative assessment of the research data of some species
of high-speed fish (table.1.3).
As follows from table.1.3, morphological data on waving fin propellers of
high-speed dolphins and fish are in good agreement. For example, with the in-
creasing number of Re on the body length of marine organisms by two orders of
magnitude elongation of fin propulsion increases almost 3 times. The stiffness

17
and frequency of the waving fins also have a noticeable effect on the elongation.
So, for pelamida, wahoo and tuna, has high frequency and the rigid fin, elon-
gation more than the dolphins, having malozatratnye and flexible enough tail
fins.
And finally, the flapping of the caudal fin propulsion in cetaceans and speed
of the fish is endowed with the following advantages:
– quickly and smoothly turn on and off, telling the body acceleration and
deceleration;
– work well when overloaded; the ability to use as well as organs of motion
control.
Compared with the engines used in technology, they have disadvantages:
– unsuitable for reverse;
– must necessarily be combined with wave propulsion of the body.
However, it is noted in hydrobionical sense, the shortcomings of fin propul-
sion is technically surmountable.

2.3. General characteristics and kinematics analysis of unsteady

navigation of hydrobionts
Swimming of aquatic animals and fish is always unsteady, often periodic
and close to harmonic. Non-stationary principle movement, representing the
basis of the economy of movement of hydrobionts, explained, on the one hand,
biological processes regulation of parameters of living tissues (cycles of energy
exchange, acts of breathing and blood circulation), and on the other – mechan-
ical principles, associated with the oscillatory movements of the body and fins
of hydrobionts. This principle of movement is undoubtedly practical interest in
the creation of various technical means of movement in the water.
In non-stationary swimming of hydrobionts it is necessary to distinguish
regular swimming and transients. Regular means quite a long voyage with
relatively moderate characteristics of unsteadiness. It includes, for example,
rectilinear motion. Transients-acceleration and rapid braking, diving, jumping
out of the water, etc. – have relatively large values of motion characteristics.

18
 The most reliable way to obtain information about the mechanism of hydro-
bionts navigation is direct and reverse experiments. During the experiment, the
hydrobiont must be in conditions close to natural, and quickly adapt to these
conditions. To do this, it is necessary to provide adequate natural habitat for
the following factors: water salinity, ambient temperature, turbulence, light,
etc.
For a long time of evolution of animals in the aquatic environment (about 1
billion years) the predominant consolidation received species changes, increasing
the ability of hydrobionts to survive and produce abundant offspring. This, in
turn, led to the appearance of perfect methods of swimming at a relatively low
cost of energy, which undoubtedly deserves to be studied from both scientific
and practical points of view.
In nature, there are quite a number of ways to swim in the aquatic environ-
ment. Among them, the most common in mobile of aquatic organisms received
an undulating way. Less common and less successful in the evolutionary sense
was observed among the simplest coelenterates and crests way to swim with a
large number of cilia. The opposite of undulating is jet propelled by the ejec-
tion of jets. So swim hydra and jellyfish, as well as cephalopods, such as squid.
Some cephalopods also have fins, which are used for maneuvering at low speeds.
Among vertebrates jet swimming does not occur.
Jet propulsion is effective only for sufficiently large Reynolds numbers, and
the motion by the cilia – for small values of this number. The wave-like method
of swimming is the most universal and acceptable in a wide range of Reynolds
numbers.
There are three most common forms of wave motion of large hydrobionts:
acne, when the wave motion involved the whole body; the scombroid, when
the wave motion involves the stern of the body and the caudal fin; and finally,
the fin, when wave movements are carried out mainly by the tail fin, while the
whole body of the hydrobiont in the wave motion is not participates. Along
with this, there is also a ray-like method of movement, when the traveling wave
of deformation runs only along the elongated dorsal and lateral fins. The body
of the hydrobiont in the latter case does not make wave movements.
Eel-like way of swimming eels, lungfish fish and snakes. And purely acne-
like way fish use when swimming only at high speed. Analysis scombroidei
method of navigation shows that the effective swimming fish with elongated
large Reynolds numbers do not necessarily propagate the propulsive wave along
the entire body. In this case, along the bow stern of the body the propulsive
wave is small provided that it increases aft as it approaches the caudal fin.
The analysis of hydrodynamic features of hydrobionts navigation allows to
draw the following conclusions. Because the scombroid fish and cetaceans float
at large Reynolds numbers reaching 108, they are the most interesting objects
of study. Acne-like fish are too elongated and mobile, so the parameters of
their movement are not very high. Squid swimming is very specific. With all
the variety of scombroid fish, there are some general trends regarding the shape
of the body. So, have slowly floating fish body body is more flat. High-speed
fish and cetaceans have forms approaching the body of rotation. The relative

19
elongation of the first and second is five, which corresponds to its optimal value.
Note the symmetry of the horizontal projection of all slowly floating fish and
cetaceans. Asymmetry of the body, if any, it is only in the vertical plane. Such
details of external bodies of stabilization and control of hydrobionts swimming
are also important, as a retractable folding fins.
The following parameters are used to characterize the kinematics of regular
unsteady navigation of hydrobionts: L, B and H – length, width and height
of the hydrobiont body; A – the oscillation range of the fin mover; A/L – the
relative scale fin propulsion; T – cycle duration (period); t – duration of the
regular regime of swimming; n – oscillation frequency of the fin mover; ω = 2πn
– cyclic frequency; υ0 – average swimming speed; υ0/L – medium relative speed;
c is the phase velocity of the locomotor wave; c/υ0 is the relative phase velocity;
λ – the length of the locomotive wave; m = L/λ – the number of locomotor
waves within the length of the hydrobiont; Re= υ0 L/ν is the Reynolds number;
ShA = A/(T υ0) – the Strouhal number scope of fin propulsion.

2.4. Generalized dependences of kinematic characteristics of hydro-

bionts navigation
High-speed aquatic animals, moving with the help of flexural-vibrational
body movements, attract the attention of researchers from various fields.
In the process of evolution and natural selection, these hydrobionts have
developed and fixed various adaptations of locomotor organs, contributing to
the greatest efficiency of their propulsion system. Kinematic characteristics of
movement of different points of the body hydrobionts vary significantly depend-
ing on the lifestyle, shape and size of the body, environmental conditions, and
others factors’. Experimental data on the kinematic characteristics of swim-
ming of various fish and cetaceans can be used when creating a different kind
of means of movement in the water.
The correlation of the parameters and criteria characterizing non-stationary
regular swimming of aquatic life, forms a system of one – and two-parameter
dependencies. To obtain such dependencies, only one path is possible, which
consists in processing and systematization of experimental data on the aquatic
animals in hydrodynamic tunnels in aquariums, and also when swimming under
natural conditions.
The dimensional space-time characteristics include:
– dimensional-velocity υ0 = υ0(L). Analysis of the experimental data shows
that the average speed the translational motion of this type of hydrobiont (Φ =
idem) is directly proportional to the body length L at the condition of equality
of the oscillation frequency of the engine n = idem, i.e.

υ0 = k1 L when Φ = idem, n = idem, (2.1)

where k1 = k1 (Φ, n), Φ is a family of dimensionless geometric parameters of
the body;
– frequency-velocity υ0 = υ0(n). Analysis of the experimental data shows

20
that the average speed of the hydrobiont of this species (Φ = idem) is directly
proportional to the oscillation frequency n at the same body length L = idem,
i.e.

υ0 = k2(n − n0) when Φ = idem, L = idem, (2.2)

where k2 = k2(Φ, L); where υ0 = 0 corresponds to n0 = 1...4;
– size-amplitude a = A(L). This characteristic, according to the experiment,
is linear in the region n > n0 for the considered type of hydrobiont Φ = idem,
i.e.
A = k3 L for Φ = idem and n > n0 ,
where k3 = k3(Φ) for n ≥ 4...5 Hz. So, for sargan k3 = 0.14; lufar 0.26;
bottlenose dolphin 0.20.
Relative space-time characteristics include:
– relative frequency-velocity υ0/L = υ0/L(n) . It is generalized to the di-
mensional characteristics (2.1) and (2.2) and will also be linear, i.e.
υ0 /L = k4 (n − n0 ) at Φ = idem,
where k4 = k4 (Φ) and n0 = n0(Φ). So, for tuna and sargan k4 = 0.48...0.50
and n0 = 0.32; for bottlenose dolphin k4 = 0.95 and n0 = 0.25; for pelamids
k4 = 0.79 and n0 = 1.50;
– relative amplitude-frequency a = A(n). This characteristic is unstable and
has the form
A/L = const at Φ = idem and n > n0 .
Along with the dimensional and relative characteristics listed above, the
dimensionless characteristics of the locomotive waves formed on the hydrobiont
body during their motion are introduced:
– number of propulsive waves

m = k5 Rep when Φ = idem, (2.3)

where k5 = k5(Φ);
– relative velocity of the propulsive wave

c/υ0 = k6q when Φ = idem, (2.4)

where k6 = k6(Φ);
– universal criterion dependence

ShA = k7 Res when Φ = idem, (2.5)

where k7 = k7(Φ);
– relative amplitude-frequency a = A(n). This characteristic is unstable and
has the form
A/L = const at Φ = idem and n > n0 .
Comparing the wave characteristics (2.3)-(2.5), note the following common
feature: p = q = s = −0.08 and thus a weak dependence on the number Re.
Analysis of the experimental data allows us to establish the following limits
of the wave characteristics:

21
 m = 1.10...2.50; c/υ0 = 1.40...2.60; ShA = 0.20...0.45.
Finally, one of the most important kinematic characteristics of fish and
cetaceans swimming is the maximum speed of υmax , knowledge of which is
necessary to assess the energy capabilities of hydrobionts swimming and their
modeling, as well as the development of rational methods, tools and tools.
The following empirical formula is obtained from the measurements of the
short-term impulse speed of navigation in the sea of some species of cetaceans:

υmax = k8L0.185, (2.6)

where k8 = 12.0 – for white sided dolphin and sei whale; 11.4 – for bottlenose
dolphins, killer whales and blue whale; 10.0 – for whales and fin whales; 8.2 –
for porpoises; 5.5 – white whale, gray whale and sperm whale.
According to (2.6) the absolute maximum speed of cetaceans is weakly de-
pendent on the length of the hydrobiont body.

3. The water resistance to the movement of aquatic or-

ganisms
3.1. General characteristics of water resistance to the movement of
hydrobionts. Bioenergetic evaluation of resistance. The effect
of D.Gray
Relatively low hydrodynamic resistance allows fast-swimming sea animals
and fish at low cost energy to reach high speeds. Especially close attention of
researchers is attracted by the study of hydrodynamic phenomena, accompany-
ing the flow around the body of cetaceans, and mainly dolphins, and causing a
high speed of their movement (up to 22 knots) at a relatively low cost of en-
ergy. Even more impressive is the dolphin’s ability to move at speed for a long
time combat ships (30...40 knots) by the use of the energy of waves developing
on the free surface of the water by a moving ship. The dolphin also has the
ability to move silently in the water without leaving a trace, which is the envy
of specialists associated with the creation of silent means of movement in the
water.
Should be allocated among high-speed cetaceans and fishes group of preda-
tory marine xiphioides (swordfish, spearmen, marlins and sailboats), developing
high speed. In this group stands out swordfish, capable of developing short-
term speed up to 60...70 knots mainly due to limit muscle mass (67 % of the
total body weight of fish), hydrodynamically perfect shape the body and tail
fin, as well as mucus discharge into the boundary layer.
The first researches connected with studying of features of a structure and
a form of a body of fast-swimming sea animals, have been begun in U.S. after
world war II. Their main purpose was to find ways to improve the basic char-
acteristics of underwater boat – increasing the speed and reducing the hydro-
dynamic noise. Of the many species of marine animals most attention foreign
scientists are attracted to cetaceans, especially dolphins, which in addition to

22
high-speed qualities have a number of amazing psychophysical features, such as
the ability to listen, make sounds of different nature, remember those or other
phenomena, and also trusting location to people and easily, with which incur
training and breeding. Hydrodynamic studies of cetaceans concerned the shape
of the body in terms of the possibility of using its features in the design sub-
marine. The practical result of these studies was the shape of the body of the
experimental UV ”Albacore”, lowered on water in 1953. In the future, a similar
form was used in the design of both foreign and domestic nuclear submarines.
A systematic study of the peculiarities of the swimming of dolphins was
initiated in 1960 when the military Department of the United States was the
funding of the scientific program, the purpose of which was to train dolphins to
use them as assistants in the development of the ocean, as well as determining
the maximum speed of their navigation. The first observations of the trained
dolphins have confirmed the existing opinion that they are able to move at high
speeds for a long time time’s. In this regard, the task was set to study the
mechanism of movement of their bodies and physiological characteristics that
provide high-speed quality at a relatively low cost of energy.
It should be noted that for the first time the discrepancy between the mus-
cular power of cetaceans and the achieved speeds was found in 1963, the famous
English zoologist professor D.Gray. Comparing the power expended on the mo-
tion of solids, similar to the body of a dolphin, D.Gray came to the conclusion
that at a speed of 20 knots dolphin should expend power, which is almost 10
times the power of his muscles. This discrepancy was later called the ”Gray
paradox” or ”Gray effect”.
One possible explanation for this paradox is the assumption that dolphins
that move at speeds corresponding to the turbulent flow regime, have the ability
to laminarize the boundary layer and that this ability should be sought in
special properties of the skin, as well as in the muscular and vascular systems
of dolphins.
Bioenergy costs of animals and including hydrobionts can now be estimated
with a sufficient degree of accuracy on metabolism (metabolism), which is asso-
ciated with all life processes. This takes into account the reacting components
and their caloric content, primarily oxygen consumption. Considering the hy-
drobiont in swimming as a living machine, the average power the total exchange
of N can be called physiologically available power, which is chemically released
from the substrate the body through metabolism. While the hydrodynamic
power Ne = Rυ0 spent on movement the constant velocity υ0 (where R is the
average resistance force) is related to the active exchange power N a by the
following relation:

Ne = ηid ηm Na , (3.1)

ηid – ideal hydrodynamic efficiency; ηm ≈ 0.2 – muscle efficiency, which takes

into account transformation of biochemical energy of hydrobiont into mechan-
ical energy of muscles NM .

23
Fig. 3.1 Dependence of the power of the main and active exchange on the weight of the biont

In turn, according to the principle discovered in 1915 by Brody

N = kN0, (3.2)

where N0 is the average power of the main exchange spent on the activity of
the hydrobiont at rest; k – coefficient of multiplicity, determined by the nature
of the work performed by the animal, its activity and duration.
In this case, the active power of Na mammal can exceed the basic exchange
in k = 1,6; 4,8 and 25 times (fig. 3.1), in this connection

Na = N − N0 = (k − 1)N0. (3.3)

As can be seen from fig. 3.1, the main exchange in bottlenose dolphins
corresponds to that in humans (line 1). However, in the excited the condition
of dolphins (bottlenose dolphins and porpoise) their basic exchange exceeds the
0
norm more than twice (line 1 ).
Another, no less effective way to estimate the bioenergy costs of the hydro-
biont, is to determine their based on the processing of high – speed aquatic
animals-dolphins, fish and squid-jumping motion pictures.
For example, according to the results of processing of jumping films, the
maximum the power output of a dolphin L = 2.0 m and m = 80 kg, which
amounted to Ne = 3 the whale at a speed of out of the water υ0 = 9 m/s.

24
3.2. Water resistance to the movement of hydrobionts. Physical
causes and phenomena accompanying the emergence of resis-
tance
The body of marine organisms in the general case performs spatial motion
in an infinite viscous fluid. Regardless of the nature of the movement due to
the interaction of the surface of the body of hydrobionts with the surrounding
liquid at each point of the surface hydrodynamic reaction occurs in the form of
surface forces, the intensity of which

pn = −n0p + τ0 τ, (3.4)

where n0 , τ0 are the orts of the outer normal and tangent in an arbitrary
point A(x, y) of the surface of marine organisms; p, τ are the normal and shear
stress surface forces of hydrodynamic reaction.
The main vector of hydrodynamic forces acting on the surface of the hydro-
biont body will be
Z Z Z
R = pn dS = − pn0dS + ττ0 dS (3.5)
S S S
R R
where Rp = S pn0 dS – the main vector of the pressure forces; R F = S ττ0 dS
– the main vector of friction forces.
Projection Rx = R of the main vector of hydrodynamic forces in the direction
of the longitudinal movement is called the force of resistance to longitudinal
movement of the hydrobiont.
Consider the features of resistance to movement of hydrobionts, which, as
for solid bodies, according to the d’Alembert–Euler paradox arises due to the
viscosity forces of the liquid unsteadiness and movement of marine organisms.
To clarify the physical causes and phenomena that accompany the emergence
of resistance, we consider the uniform translational motion of a rigid body
having a shape marine organisms (fig. 3.2). In this case, a thin boundary is
formed on the surface of the body the layer in which the action of viscosity
forces is manifested and which is the cause of viscous resistance to motion and
its accompanying phenomena.
At all points on the surface of the body relative flow velocity is zero (New-
tonian adhesion hypothesis). As a result, shear stresses occur viscosity τ, the
projection of the main vector which is the direction of longitudinal motion is
power the friction resistance
Z
RF = τ cos(τ0 , x)dS.
S
The presence of a boundary layer leads, in addition, to the redistribution of
pressure along the the surface of the body compared to the ideal liquid (fig.
3.3).
Since in an ideal fluid the projection of the main vector of pressure forces on

25
 Fig. 3.2 The distribution of characteristics of the boundary layer along the body surface of
marine organisms

Fig. 3.3 The distribution of excess pressure ∆p the length of the body:
––––––— ideal liquid; - - - - - - – viscous liquid

the direction of motion the body is zero (the d’alembert–Euler paradox), then
by lowering the pressure in the stern the extremity, due to the influence of the
boundary layer, there is a pressure resistance, referred to as form resistance,
Z
Rp = − p cos(n0, x)dS.
S
Thus, the resistance to movement will be

R = R F + Rp
and can be calculated by the following formula:

26
 %υ20
R=C S, (3.6)
2
where % is the density of water; υ0 is the speed of marine organisms; the S
– wetted surface.
Incoming to (3.6) resistance coefficient C = C(Re, Φ) for solid, having the
shape of the surface of the hydrobiont body and moving at a constant speed in
a boundless viscous fluid, is a function of the number Re = υ0 L/ν and the shape
of the surface bodies (Φ is a family of dimensionless geometric parameters of
the body shape).

Fig. 3.4 The dependence of the resistance coefficient C = C(Re) for a well-streamlined solid

The ratio between the resistance components RF and Rp depends mainly on

the shape of the surface of the body. So, for high-speed hydrobionts having
elongated well the streamlined shape of the surface of the body, the main and
determining the overall resistance is the frictional resistance of R F . In turn, the
friction resistance depends on the flow regime viscous liquid in the boundary
layer – laminar (layered) or turbulent (turbulent flow), accompanied by the
transition of liquid particles from layer to layer.
A characteristic kind of dependence of C = C(Re, Φ) in logarithmic coordi-
nates for well the streamlined solids are shown in fig. 3.4.
Analysis of the diagram (Fig 3.4) allows to distinguish the following three
modes of solid flow:
– first, when Re ≤ Redcr ( Redcr is the lower critical value of Re, when which
there is a transition of the turbulent flow regime in the laminar). In this range
a stable laminar flow regime characterized by a relative low coefficient of resis-
tance compared to the turbulent regime;
– second, Redcr ≤ Re ≤ Reucr . An unstable flow regime is observed in this
range of Re numbers, when a laminar region occurs in the bow extremity, the
length of which decreases with increasing the number of Re;
– third, when Re ≥ Reucr (Reucr is the upper critical value of Re, when which
there is a transition of the laminar flow regime in turbulent). In this range
throughout the surface of the solid there is a turbulent flow regime characterized
by relatively large in comparison with the laminar resistance coefficient.

27
 For high-speed fish and cetaceans, the Reynolds numbers are Re = 10 6...108,
that for solid the bodies correspond to the turbulent flow regime and, accord-
ingly, relatively large the values of the coefficient of resistance. However, the
bioenergetic calculations show that resistance of hydrobionts is much lower and
one of the main reasons is laminarization boundary layer from actively swim-
ming aquatic organisms associated with increased the length of the laminar
region and a significant (several times) decrease in the resistance coefficient.
Analysis hydrological features of functional-morphological characteristics
and kinematics movement of cetaceans and high-speed fish can be considered
as possible the following ways to the laminarization of the boundary layer of
aquatic organisms:
– the presence of a laminarized body shape;
– damping of turbulent pulsation in the boundary layer due to elastic-
damping properties of the skin of aquatic organisms;
– isolation of biological mucus into the boundary layer of hydrobiont;
– the unsteady nature of the movement of marine organisms.

3.3. Laminarized body shape of high-speed cetaceans and high-

speed fish
Natural in the process of evolution development of the laminarized body
shape of hydrobionts and artificial in the process of creating laminarized profiles
of wings and means of movement the water is associated with the instability of
the laminar boundary layer formed on the surface these bodies when moving
in a viscous liquid. Laminar boundary layer is considered to be stable, if local
perturbations of the velocity and pressure field arising in it over time fade after
the termination of the impact of the reasons that caused these disturbances.
Otherwise there is a loss of stability of the laminar flow regime and its transition
to turbulent.
From the theory of stability of the laminar flow regime it is known that,
along with the nature and magnitude of local perturbations, determining the
shape of the velocity diagram in a direction perpendicular to the flow, which,
in turn, depends on the features of the geometry of the surface of the body in
the longitudinal direction. A practically important result of this theory is the
conclusion that laminar flows having a inflection point on the velocity diagram
are unstable. The existence of inflection points on the velocity plot is directly
related to the longitudinal pressure gradient when flowing around the body (fig.
3.5).
In the laminar boundary layer in the region of negative velocity gradient
d(∆p)
dx
< 0 (pressure drop region) from the spout to the widest part of the body,
the velocity profiles have no inflection points. This is due to the fact that in this
area there is a ”acceleration” of the flow and therefore liquid particles moving
in the boundary layer have a large kinetic energy in the longitudinal direction
and, accordingly, greater stability with respect to to various kinds of transverse
perturbations. In the area of positive pressure gradient d(∆p) dx > 0 from the

28
 Fig. 3.5 Distribution pattern of excess hydrodynamic pressure ∆p along the body surface

widest part of the body to the aft point of the velocity diagram it becomes
less complete with the possible formation of the inflection point (see fig. 3.5),
and also due to the additional loss of energy near the body surface caused by
the influence of viscosity forces. Therefore, the liquid particles have low kinetic
energy in the longitudinal direction and correspondingly weak stability with
respect to transverse perturbations.
It follows that the position of the minimum pressure point (the widest one)
is in the flow around the body part) has a determining effect on the position
of the transition point of the laminar to turbulent flow regime in the boundary
layer. In a rough approximation, we can assume that the transition point the
locations are much lower downstream than the minimum pressure point.
This serves as the physical basis for the creation of a laminarized body shape.
Such bodies have the most the wide part depending on the relative velocity
characterized by the number Re = υL/ν and corresponding to the transient
flow regime Redcr ≤ Re ≤ Reucr , is on a particular distance from the spout
of the body. This allows the boundary layer to be formed as the body wraps
around the flow of viscous liquid is maintained laminar at a much greater length
than that of the conventional bodies, which leads to a significant reduction in
the viscosity resistance at mixed flow mode. So, for some wing profiles, this
reduction reaches a twofold value.
Studies of American and German scientists have led to the conclusion that
the closest to the laminarized forms are bodies of trout, tuna, shark, dolphin,
whale and others having a laminar area, the length of which depends on the
number Re (fig. 3.6) and is determined by the position along the length of the
hydrobiont maximum thicknesses.
With increasing Re, the relative distance xmax from the spout to the widest

29
Fig. 3.6 Comparison of profiles of different aquatic animals by the location of the cross section
of the maximum thickness:
a – barracuda; b – shark; c – dogfish (shark); d – mr. pike; e – shark-alligator

parts of the body of the hydrobiont increases. In this case, there is a transfor-
mation of the shape of the nose: for relatively small numbers, the nose has a full
elliptical shape, with an increase in the re profile the nose becomes more pointed
parabolic shape. For example, for trout (Re = 1.2 · 106) with a sufficiently com-
plete elliptic nose shape xmax /L = 0.30, while for tuna (Re = 3.8 · 107) with
pointed parabolic shape of the nose xmax /L = 0.50. Dolphins (Re = 2 · 107),
which are of the greatest interest as a biological analogue at creating technical
means of movement in water, have a pointed nose and xmax /L = 0.40.
Very effective modern means of studying the flow pattern of a moving body
it is a method of visualization using microscopic luminescent unicellular algae.
This phenomenon was known to the ancient Greeks who watched the flock of
dolphins frolicking in the glowing sea.
Later it was found that the luminescence of algae occurs in viscous flows,
if the viscous stresses in the flow exceed 0.1 Pa. On a model of a dolphin
swimming at a speed of 2 m/s, it was confirmed that within the boundary
layer viscous stresses exceed the specified value is compared to it on the outer
boundary. This is why beyond the boundary layer algae do not glow and the
dolphin can be seen clearly defined band boundary layer. These observations
also revealed that the dolphin’s head washed by the flowing streams of laminar
flow. The latter, in turn, confirms the presence of a laminar area in the flow
around the body of a dolphin.

30
 Fig. 3.7 The dependence of the resistance coefficient C laminarized bodies of rotation of
elliptic shape from relative thickness d/l:
a, b, c – bodies of rotation of the same volume and relative thickness d/l = 10; 25 and 40 %,
respectively. Number Re = 107

Studies of German and American scientists in the field of hydroponics has

created a the group is well streamlined and the so-called laminarizing profiles
that got made in USA name – NACA profiles. For example, the series of profiles
NACA 63 is close to the form trout body, NACA 66 series is developed as a
result of studying the shape of the dolphin body, a series NACA 67 – study of
tuna body shape. The diversity of profiles within the same series is achieved
by varying the maximum thickness of the profile. For example, two profiles
NACA 66 (NACA 66-018 and NACA 66-033) have a relative thickness of 18
and 33 % respectively.
Are of practical interest the experimental data concerning the length of lam-
inar section of the boundary layer along the profiles of the listed series. Accord-
ing to Hertel, the second digit in the profile number characterizes the length of
the laminar section of the boundary layer. For example, on the NACA profile
63, the length of the laminar section is 30 % of the length profile, as the profile
NACA 67 – 70 %. Along with dolphins the object of study in the United States
were sharks are south australian mako, white shark and thresher shark. In this
regard, the results of comparing shark profiles with the profiles of the NACA
series are interesting. Thus, the profile of the white shark was almost identical
to the profile of NACA 65. The profiles of mako sharks and thresher (sea fox)
are very close to the profile of NACA 67, as well as to the profile of tuna.
Extensive studies carried out to assess the resistance of different shapes of
bodies have resulted in the conclusion is that each shape is favorable only for
a certain range Reynolds numbers, which corresponds to the fastest swimming
mode of the animal possessing the reporting form.
Particular attention was drawn to the fact that the relative thickness of
natural profiles changes within 17...24 %, i.e. all of them are relatively thick.
Special tests of bodies of rotation having the same volume and different relative

31
thickness. It turned out (fig. 3.7) that the resistance of the body of rotation
reaches the minimum value at a relative thickness of 22 %.
This conclusion allowed the German designers to move to a completely new
and more useful the volume of the fuselage of the aircraft, such as HE 176 (the
first jet engine created in the 60s of the last century).

3.4. Application of the results hydrological research body shape of

aquatic organisms in the technique
Results hydrological studies the body forms of aquatic life found practical use
in the creation of various technical means of movement in the water (underwater
boats and vehicles, torpedoes, sonar, etc.), as well as in aviation.
So, in the development of submarines in the United States, as well as in the
domestic shipbuilding used laminated form, close to the form of fast-floating
animals, in in particular, dolphins belonging to the group of cetaceans. These
are nuclear submarines. ”Albacore”, ”Sturgeon”, etc. (USA), where technical
profiles of NACA were used with displacement the most damning thickness in
the stern. Is not a complete proof of this can serve photo ”Albacore” (fig. 3.8)
in the afloat position when above the surface water rises only part of the body,
really similar to the shape of the body of cetaceans.

Fig. 3.8 Nuclear submarine ”Albacore” in the surface position

More specific results are obtained by matching the shape of the NACA pro-
files created from hydrological research, with the outer contours of some deep-
sea submersibles (UV). For fig. 3.9 a comparison of the coordinates of the
profile of the deep-water apparatus ”Deep Quest” is given (fig. 3.10), designed
and built by the aviation company ”Lockheed”, and the profile NACA 63A-
25 (created by the results of bionic studies of the dolphin body). Comparison
shows good agreement of these profiles.
The shape of the model the ”Dolphin 1” (fig. 3.11) corresponds exactly to
the profile of NACA 66-033 (fig. 3.12).
In connection with the design and construction of high-speed deep-sea ve-
hicles, as well as the need to develop underwater weapons( such as torpedoes)
with high speeds and the radius of action, the company ”North American Avi-
ation” were tested in a large series models including ”Dolphin” (see fig. 3.11),

32
 Fig. 3.9 Ordinates of the profile UV ”Deep Quest”

Fig. 3.10 General view of UV ”Deep Quest”

Fig. 3.11 General view of UV ”Dolphin”

it was found that with increasing relative speed improvement of the form of
such devices is achieved by using the profiles of NACA with by shifting the
maximum thickness to the stern. For example, for a body of rotation in a range
of numbers Re = (2...3)107 the NACA 66-033 profile is optimal and its use leads
to reducing resistance by 60 %. What’s more, the application of NACA profile
for high-speed torpedoes (the model ”Dolphin”) to achieve a 2-fold decrease of
the resistance of the compared with the traditional torpedo shape (fig. 3.13).

33
 Fig. 3.12 Ordinates of the profile UV ”Dolphin”

When testing the model ”Dolphin” due to the relative increase in the length
of the laminar region (up to 70 % of the length) was achieved low noise flow,
which is an important quality in the creation of silent underwater weapons.
The original solution was used by J. Picard in the development of deep-sea
apparatus ”Benjamin Franklin” (fig. 3.14), whose purpose is drift and very slow
movement in the waters of the Gulf stream. As a bionic analogue was taken blue
spotted fish (fig. 3.15), whose slow translational motion it is provided by the
pectoral fins, which is close to the properties that found the embodiment in the
deep-water device ”Benjamin Franklin”. The use of new forms of ”shark” and
”dolphin” in modern aircraft with the maximum thickness shifted to the stern
edge (25 % of the profile length) it allows along with a decrease in resistance
to achieve an increase in the useful volumes of software compared with the
traditional form of aircraft (fig. 3.16).

Fig. 3.13 Comparison of hydrodynamic characteristics of torpedo – and drop-shaped UVs

There have been cases of use as an analogue of a well-streamlined body

shape swordfish, for example, when creating the fuselage of the A-15 glider
(Antonov O. K.).

3.5. Properties of the skin of cetaceans actively regulate flow resis-

tance
The idea of studying the structure of the skin of dolphins for technical pur-
poses belongs to M. Kramer and inextricably linked to his research in the field

34
 Fig. 3.14 General view of the UV ”Benjamin Franklin”

Fig. 3.15 Blue spotted fish

of Aerohydrodynamics of missiles and torpedoes (M. Kramer together with V.

Brown took part in works on creation of the rocket in Germany V-2).These
studies, which began in Germany in 1938, continued after graduation World
War II in the United States, where he emigrated in 1944.
For the first time M. Kramer saw dolphins when he crossed the Atlantic
ocean. He wrote: ”When I saw them floating, I realized that they would help
me to solve the problem of resistance friction of bodies moving in a liquid
medium that I have been working on for fifteen years.” The scientist suggested
that there must be something peculiar in the structure of the skin of the dol-
phin, due to what the flow around their bodies occurs in the most favorable
conditions. Initial the results of the study of the structure of the skin of the
dolphin he published in 1957 and in 1960-62, more detail. Simultaneously, he
patented several modifications of elastic coatings moving bodies in the liquid,
which led to a decrease in friction resistance by 60...70 %. The invention of
M. Kramer contributed to the further development of interest in the study the
unique properties of dolphin skin and the creation of different variants of elastic
damping coatings of technical means of movement in water.

35
 Fig. 3.16 Characteristics of the shapes of the fuselages of modern aircraft

Studies of these properties, conducted both abroad and in our country, the
main thus, the Institute of hydromechanics of the Academy of Sciences of
Ukraine, allowed to establish one of the properties of the skin cetaceans-actively
regulate the hydrodynamic resistance of swimming by management of local in-
teraction of the skin with the flowing water flow. Such the interaction leads
to the corresponding local changes in the elastic-damping properties skin, and
this, in turn, causes a change in the structure and characteristics of the flow,
expressed in the laminarization of the flow.
The skin of dolphins is quite complex structure, much thicker than the skin
of large bony and shark fish and consists of several more or less pronounced
layers, between which located connecting membranes, which are the frame of
the skin. Stands out soft the outer surface layer (derma-skin) is 1.5 mm thick,
which covers the entire surface the body, including the head and fins, and the
inner durable layer of 6 mm thickness, consisting of fibrous tissue (fig. 3.17).
The greatest interest from the point of view of hydroponics is hydrophobic
exterior5) the layer, which consists of an outer elastic (rubber-like) layer of the
epidermis 0.5 mm thick, under which is a cellular layer. In the recesses (cells)
of the latter are dermal papillae.
Papillary layer in cetaceans hypertrophic developed, which ultimately deter-
mines the unique elastic-damping property of the skin. The dermis of cetaceans
can be compared with a brush penetrating layer of epidermis. Two-meter dol-
phins contain 30 · 106 papillae (15...20 on mm2) height up to 1 mm and a diam-
eter of 0.1 mm. Each dermal papilla is saturated with arteriovenous capillaries
and contains a variety of nerve endings that allows depending on the external
hydrodynamic the perturbations appropriately regulate the blood filling of the
5)
Hydrophobic, is not wetted by water.

36
 Fig. 3.17 Typical structure of the skin of cetaceans:
a – dermal papillae; b – longitudinal epidermal septum;
c – papillary layer of the dermis; d – subcutaneous fat

papillae and thus, change the locally elastic-damping property of the skin.
The subcutaneous layer of the dermis contains a large number of blood vessels
and nerve trunks, branches which are suitable for dermal papillae. An impor-
tant feature of the papillary layer is that papillae located orderly on thicker
longitudinal walls of the cylinders. In other words, the dermal papillae are
arranged in longitudinal rows oriented along the current lines.
Analysis of structural and histological features of the skin of cetaceans leads
to the conclusion on its hydrodynamic function. Since the tops of the dermal
papillae are at a distance of only 0.5 mm from the outer surface, then they are
able to perceive hydrodynamic pulsations, occur in the boundary layer, and re-
spond appropriately to them. Due to the large density of papillae (15...20 pieces
per mm2) the density of the nerve endings of the dolphin is even higher than
that of man’s. This, in turn, determines the high sensitivity of the dolphin’s
skin to the external hydrodynamic disturbances.
The mechanism of action of the skin M. Kramer explained as follows (fig.
3.18). At occurrence of hydrodynamic pulsation in the boundary layer of a
thin elastic layer of the epidermis 1 transmits virtually unchanged pressure
pulsation to the dermal papillae 2 filled liquid and with a porous material and
has elasticity at the expense of arteriovenous blood capillaries’. Due to this, the
energy of hydrodynamic disturbances is absorbed and spent on overcoming the
forces of viscosity of the liquid in the dermal papilla and the rest of the layers
of the skin. At the same time under the influence of elastic forces restores the
shape of the outer surface of the skin of the dolphin. In the end, the boundary
layer formed during the flow is laminarized dolphin’s body flow of viscous liquid.

37
 Fig. 3.18 The mechanism of action of the skin of the dolphin

One of the external manifestations of hydrodynamic function the skin is its pore
when the dolphin’s speed increases.
Of particular interest is the fact that dolphins and whales have a vascu-
lar system partitioned. Blood supply, and therefore the regulation of elastic
damping characteristics of cetaceans are carried out locally by sections on each
skin area. Since the non-stationary swimming bending vibrations occur in the
vertical plane, it can be assumed that the system of autoregulation of elastic-
damping properties of the skin is activated sequentially, in sections, with phase
shift. Thus, in each section it is possible to alternate the phases of the greatest
activity and relative rest.
And finally, there are also opinions that exteroreceptors 6) devices with ana-
lyzer functions record hydrodynamic processes in the boundary the layer before
the moment when there are noticeable pulsations. Exteroreceptor can log in
more complex control systems that provide the reduction of certain muscles
acting on certain areas of the skin. Thus, in addition to passive boundary layer
management, associated with changes in the elastic-damping properties of the
skin, it is reasonable to take into account the influence of receptors that provide
feedback and respond to changes in characteristics boundary layer. In this case,
it is suggested that the active control of the flow around the body the dolphin
can exercise with the help of muscle forces that cause deformation of the skin
in the form of stationary or running large enough folds. It was also suggested
that the folds arise in critical conditions (increase speed of movement, a sharp
change in direction motion during fast swimming), i.e. in those moments when
we should expect a sharp increase resistance to movement.
Research conducted by the Institute of hydromechanics of the Academy of
Sciences of Ukraine on live dolphins in natural conditions and rigid models of
6)
Exteroreceptor (exteroreceptor) – sensitive education.

38
the dolphin body in the pool at a speed of υ0 = 0.5...4.5 m/s, it is possible
to conclude that there is a significant difference in the characteristics of the
boundary layer of the floating bottlenose dolphin and its model, which boils
down to the following:
– the degree of pulsation εv of the longitudinal component of the speed of
a living dolphin is almost constant along its body, whereas for its model at a
distance of x = 0.8L from the spout there is a splash, which clearly indicates
the local elastic-damping effect of dolphin skin7) ;
– the value of εv for live bottlenose dolphins several times smaller than for
models (7 vs 35 %);
– for actively swimming bottlenose dolphins εv decreases with increasing
speed, indicating strengthening of the regulating influence of the dolphin skin
on the characteristics of the boundary layer.
Let’s focus on one more feature of the structure of the skin of the dolphin,
consisting in the fact that the dermal papillae are arranged in an orderly manner
on the denser longitudinal epidermal partitions-rollers, which are oriented along
the current lines. As a result, on the surface of the dolphin’s body occurs
secondary flow with the formation of longitudinal (oriented along the current
lines) vortices. Last, in turn, it helps to improve the stability of the laminar
flow regime in the boundary layer, formed on the surface of the dolphin’s body
when it moves.

3.6. Artificial elastic damping coatings to reduce hydrodynamic fric-

tion resistance
In domestic and foreign literature established a common point of view that
artificial damping coatings for stabilization of laminar flow regime in the bound-
ary layer were first proposed by M. Kramer in the 60s of the last century after
studying the structure of the skin dolphins’. It is known, however, that the re-
duction of friction resistance M. Kramer was engaged in back in 1938. Moreover,
artificial damping coatings for sonar stations warships were used in Germany
in the 50s. Thus, we can assume, that the study of dolphins was the basis for
further development of work in this direction.
The first version of the cover M. Kramer8) , named ”bar coating” consisted
of a thick rubber diaphragm supported by a variety of rubber posts and two
thin elastic shells on the upper and lower sides of the diaphragm. Bottom shell
serving as the base for columns, glued to the surface of the model. The space
between the columns was filled silicone damping liquid (fig. 3.19).
The principle of operation of the column and other variants of elastic-
damping coatings proposed subsequently, M. Kramer and other foreign and
domestic researchers, is following. When the viscous fluid flow in the bound-
ary layer is layered (laminar), the outer the coating shell is not deformed. In
the turbulent regime there are ripples as longitudinal, and transverse velocities,
7)
Absence the surge of εv in the aft extremity of the dolphin’s body, according to some authors, is also
explained the flapping of the caudal fin.
8)
US patent. – Stated. in 1960; Publ. in 1964

39
 Fig. 3.19 Bar of elastic-damping coating:
1 – upper and lower elastic shells; 2 – diaphragm and columns; 3 – skin of the model or vessel

causing deformation of the outer shell and the associated overflow of fluid be-
tween the columns. The resulting frictional forces dampen part of the energy
pulsations. In this case, the outer shell under the action of the elastic forces
of the columns restores the initial shape, resulting in laminarization of the flow
and the associated reducing friction resistance.
M. Kramer’s experiments included the test of a model representing a cylin-
drical body with artificial columnar coating (fig. 3.20). The model, made of
nylon, represented a pointed circular cylinder with a diameter of 6.3 cm and a
length of 2.44 m. the front conical part of the model, with the exception of a
section 15 cm long (unshaded area), it was used for the study of different coat-
ing options. Several variants of M. Kramer’s column covering were tested with
different stiffness, N/cm3 (156, 443 and 222), and the viscosity of the damping
fluid, cSt9) (200, 1200 and 300), – variants 4, 5 and 6 respectively.

Fig. 3.20 Sketch of the model with artificial turf, tested by M. Kramer

As follows from the analysis of the test results (fig. 3.21), after reaching
the critical numbers Recr = 3 · 106 resistance coefficient C(Re) models with
elastic-damping coating (curves 4,5 and 6) first increases to the maximum value,
remaining in magnitude less than for the uncoated model (curve 3) and then
decreases. Optimal the elastic-damping coating turned out to be option 6.
Extrapolation of dependence 6 (see fig. 3.21, dotted line) for the coating (222
N/cm3 and 300 cSt) gives reason to believe that the laminar the boundary layer
can be saved up to Recr = 2, 6 · 107 compared to Recr = 3 · 106 for the model
without coating, and thereby significantly reduce the friction resistance.
9) 1 1
cSt-centiStocks = 100 cSt = 100 (m2 /s – unit of measurement of kinematic viscosity.

40
 Fig. 3.21 The dependence of the resistance coefficient on the Re number for a model with
different coatings

Subsequent experiments have shown that the column coatings have a number
of disadvantages. Their effectiveness turned out to be significant pressure-
dependent damping fluid: positive (1 atm) excess pressure coating was similar to
the body with a hard surface and did not give effect; negative (1 atm) reduction
of resistance reached the maximum value. It was the negative influence of the
possibility of overflowing on the operation of the elastic-damping coating is
established damping fluid under the influence of external perturbations and the
associated formation of undulation, which leads to an increase in resistance. In
addition, the columnar coating loses its effectiveness over time.
The above disadvantages were eliminated in the new version of the coating
with ribbed supports. M. Kramer, creating this coating, sought primarily to
eliminate the possibility of waves on the surface of the coating. The ribbed
coating consists of a diaphragm supported by a plurality of edges oriented in
the direction of flow (fig. 3.22).

Fig. 3.22 Ribbed damping coating

Comparison of the efficiency of optimal variants of column and ribbed coat-

41
Fig. 3.23 Dependence of the resistance coefficient for the optimal variants of Kramer coatings

ings, which for the bar coating corresponded to the stiffness of 220 N/cm 3 and
viscosity of 300 cSt, for ribbed-respectively 500 N/cm3 and 7500 St are given
for fig. 3.23. As follows from the analysis of these curves, the efficiency of
the optimal variants column and ribbed coatings immediately after manufac-
ture (curves 2 and 5) approximately equal. After a year of storage, the column
covers are almost completely lose their damping properties (curve 3), while the
ribbed ones are deprived of it fault (curve 4).
M. Kramer proposed several more structures of elastic-damping coating with
different complexity of manufacturing. However, a common feature of these
coatings was the presence of elastic upper diaphragm, which is supported by
elastic elements, and cavities under this diaphragm, which is filled with a liquid
with a relatively high viscosity.
Promising results of experimental studies by M. Kramer in the 60s of the
past centuries aroused interest among many specialists and served as an impetus
for the development of various structural variants of elastic-damping coatings.
One of these options is the design of a three-layer coating consisting of a base,
a porous filler (spongy rubber, polyurethane foam), impregnated with viscous
liquid, and the upper elastic diaphragm. Changing the degree of porosity of the
filler, the viscosity of the liquid and the pressure inside the filler, it is possible
to vary the elastic-damping characteristics of the coating. Tests carried out in
1972 at the Institute of hydromechanics of Ukraine Academy of Sciences, found
that the increase of the degree of turbulence with increasing speed for bodies
with a three-layer coating is much less, than for hard surface. Moreover, in
these experiments it was found that the three-layer coating not only increases
the lower Recr , but also increases the length transition region.
And in conclusion, we note that effective artificial elastic-damping coatings
should to be designed and calculated every time taking into account their pur-
pose and working conditions: speed, depth of immersion, initial flow turbulence,
etc. Other in words, these coatings are passive and suitable for certain condi-
tions. Follows keep in mind that artificial turf – only a rough approximation to
wildlife. If the hydrodynamic resistance of a dolphin is several times less than
that of a solid body, then it is apparently the result of the complex influence of
body shape, unsteadiness motion, active action of the living shell and its abil-

42
ity to change the elastic-damping properties depending on external conditions,
hydrophobic coating, etc.
As it was established earlier, the flow laminarization occurs during the flow
around the dolphin’s body also due to the occurrence of secondary flow, ac-
companied by the formation of longitudinal vortices, the occurrence of which,
in turn, is due to the presence of longitudinal dermal partitions’. The techni-
cal analogue of this method of laminarization is micro finning the surface of
a body moving in a liquid that consists in a device on that surface micro-fins
oriented along the flow and located at a small distance from each other. The
cross section of these edges can represent, for example, an isosceles triangle. As
studies have shown that the finning of a flat plate under certain conditions led
to friction resistance reduction by 8...9 %.

3.7. The use of elastic-damping coating in shipbuilding

In literature it was reported about attempts of application of coating M.
Kramer on large vessels. So, the Japanese designer G. Sato in 1969 at design of
the underwater transport vessel provided for the use of elastic damping coatings
to reduce resistance. Offered also use elastic-damping coatings to increase the
speed of one of the ships, designed in 1961 in Germany. The possibility of using
coatings to improve the speed of the ships and submarines, the total resistance of
which was supposed to be reduced 40...50 %. However, the practical distribution
of coverage M. Kramer not received.
At present, certain opinions are expressed in the Russian literature regard-
ing prospects for the use of artificial elastic-damping coatings applied to the
body ships, which in general are as follows. It is believed that the practical
implementation of the proposed M. Kramer ideas hinder the strength of the
ability of coatings that, especially for high-speed vessels, do not have sufficient
durability due to aging and the stability of the mechanical characteristics. In
addition, the effect of fouling is unclear coatings on its effectiveness. In this
regard, it is considered practically impossible to use these coatings only on tor-
pedoes and boats, as well as protruding parts, such as fairings sonar, in order
to reduce their resistance and, mainly, to reduce hydrodynamic noise, as well
as improving their acoustic characteristics.
Sufficiently effective was the use of elastic damping coatings M. Kramer in
systems pipelines’. In this case, the coatings are applied to the inner surface of
the pipeline, which leads to a significant reduction (up to 35 %) of pipe resis-
tance. Moreover, the coatings perform the role of anticorrosive protection and
are extremely effective absorber arising in water sounds. It is noted that one of
the us companies for the operation of natural gas has provided all transcontinen-
tal gas pipeline internal rubber covering, while receiving significant economic
effect by reducing pipe resistance and improving corrosion protection.
The use of micro fins of the inner surface of the pipes allows to reduce
the resistance at 6...7 %. In this case, the maximum gain is achieved with a
dimensionless
p step of the finning S ∗ = Sυ∗/ν ≤ 30 (where S is the finning step;
υ∗ = τ0 /% is the dynamic velocity). Ribbing the surfaces of the rectangular

43
wing at Mach number M < 0.6 leads to a decrease in the turbulent friction at
8...9 %. In these modes, it is advisable to apply the fins on both the suction
∗
and and pressurizing surfaces with optimum dimensionless fin step S opt = 20 –
∗
injection and 0.8Sopt – on the suction surfaces of the wing.

3.8. Hydrological regularities of the structure of the covers of high-

speed fish
River, sea and ocean fish have three types of cover – skin, scaly and mucous.
Skin of non-fast fish Re ≤ 105, as for all vertebrates, consists of three main
layers: outer thin layer (epidermis); skin itself (corium) – thick the middle layer,
consisting of bundles of fibers; a bottom layer (subcutis) – the layer of loose
connective tissue containing numerous fat cells. The main purpose – protection
bodies from mechanical and other damage.
In high-speed fish the nature of the structure of the skin divergent, where,
along with the overall structure are local features associated with heterogeneity
and the presence of additional layers. So, for example, in high-speed sharks
numerous layers of corium fibers are parallel to the surface of the body in the
form of petty nets. Moreover, the direction of the fibers in adjacent layers is
orthogonal and is C the longitudinal axis of the body angle 45◦ (tail angle is
reduced to 35...40◦). Diagonal the arrangement on the right and left spirals
of fibers strengthens skin of sharks and is optimum in conditions of flexural-
vibrational movements of the body of a floating fish, which served, by the way,
technical analogous to when creating materials reinforced with cords of polymer
products.
Analysis of the skin structure of bony and cartilaginous fish allows us to
conclude that with an increase in the number of Re from 2 · 10 5 to 5 · 107
the epidermis of the skin becomes multi-layered (pelamide 2...3, tuna 4...5,
swordfish 8...10, grey shark and mako 10...12). At the same time developing also
a multi-layer secreting epithelium10) , which is able to allocate a large amount
of mucus in the boundary layer.
Scaly cover have the vast majority of fish. Scales together with the skin is
external the skeleton of a fish, fulfilling in addition to hydrodynamic protective
role. Depending on the size of the fish, the speed of swimming, as well as the
lifestyle of the scales in different fish varies by location on the surface, occurrence
in the skin, size, structure and shape.
Despite the great diversity of the scaly integument, a characteristic the gen-
eral trend is decrease in the relative height of tubercles k/L (k – height of scale
tubercles; L – length of fish) with increasing the number of Re. So, for Re =
105 it is k/L = 10−3, for Re = 107 it is k/L = 10−6. The presence of scales on
the skin of fish makes it rough, but from the usual rough surface solids flake
cover differs as follows:
– the correct chess arrangement of uniform and one-dimensional scales, which
leads to their ordered action in the boundary layer;
10)
Secreting epithelium is the glandular tissue of an animal that produces mucus.

44
 – the guiding action of the projections (keels) of scales oriented along the
main direction of flow, around the body of the fish;
– the permissible height of the projections of the scales in terms of its impact
on the characteristics of the boundary layer;
– the presence of the mucous membrane of the scales and epidermis, which
in high-speed fish is a biopolymer lubricant.
The above hydrodynamic qualities of the scales allow us to consider it a
means of retaining mucus on the surface of the body and a means of their
joint influence on the characteristics of the boundary layer and, therefore, the
resistance to movement of fish.
And finally, for high-speed fish, for example, a high-speed shark-mako, the
ratio l/b = 1 and λ/d = 2, 66 (l is the length of the scales; b width; λ is
the distance between the keels of the scales; d be the height of the bumps of
the scales). In this case (when λ/d < 2, 66), as follows from the boundary
layer theory, the cell vortices formed by roughness do not yet extend to the
entire depth of the boundary layer. Therefore, the value λ/d = 2, 66 is critical,
exceeding which leads to a violation stability of the boundary layer and the
propagation of cell vortices throughout its thickness.
Fish mucus cover. Along with the protective properties, when the mucous
membrane protects the skin of fish from pollution, it also performs a hydrody-
namic role, as a means of reducing resistance the movement of fish. Allocated
special (secretory) cells, which are located in the epidermis, the slime falls in the
region of the boundary layer. In this case, it plays the role of a high molecular
weight supplement, the presence of which in the boundary layer leads to a sig-
nificant decrease in the friction resistance of the fish for by reducing turbulent
pulsations – this is first – and second-by reducing the resistance of the rough
edges covered by a biopolymer mucus.
The thickness of the mucus layer of the fish is in the range of 0.20...0.60
mkm and unevenly distributed over the surface her body. So, over the Gill slits,
where the ejected jet of water when breathing fish, as well as in the tail section,
performing flexural-oscillatory movements, possible strong perturbations the
flowing stream and even the separation of the boundary layer. Therefore, in
these places the fish can form fields with increased secretory activity, in which
are concentrated a large the number (n) of secretory cells of large diameter (d)
(peaks in the graph fig. 3.24).
Especially powerful development of the secretory apparatus noted in high-
speed swordfish. Throughout even the naked eye can see the pores on the
surface of the body and head of the specimen 2.6 m long in the amount of 0.8
pieces/mm2 and a diameter of 0.07...0.20 mm. Even with a little mechanical
pressure is secreted mucous substance. Pores lead to internal channels with a
diameter 0.5...1.0 mm, which are located at a depth of 1 mm parallel to the skin
surface of swordfish. The presence of a developed secretory apparatus, along
with a large muscle mass (up to 67 % of total mass) allows swordfish to reach
speeds in excess of 30 m/s.
The effectiveness of fish mucus to reduce hydrodynamic resistance is proven
experiments as well as studies performed using other means. Of particular

45
 Fig. 3.24 The distribution of the length of mucus-forming cells:
a – pelamida; b – pike;
− ◦ − ◦ − – the transverse size of the cells d, mkm; − • − • − – n, pieces/mm 2

interest are comparative experimental studies on the drag reduction in the tur-
bulent regime of flow of an aqueous solution of mucus freshwater and sea fish
with a hydrometer. The stainless steel tube of the rheometer had an internal
the diameter of 0.58 mm, and the flow rate of the mucus solution in it reached
13.7 m/s. The largest effect of reducing the friction resistance (up to 66 %)
showed solutions of 11 high-speed barracudas length 0.66...0.79 m (fig. 3.25).
At the same time, a clearly expressed optimum in concentration was noted C
aqueous solution of barracuda mucus, which was approximately 5 %.

Fig. 3.25 Reducing the friction resistance of sea water dissolved in the mucus of marine fish
(on the horizontal axis-the concentration of mucus in the solution, %; on the vertical
axis-decrease resistance in comparison with pure water, %):
1 – pacific barracuda; 2 – halibut; 3 – pacific mackerel;
4 – california tuna; 5 – mollusks; 6 – seaweed

We also note the results of comparative experiments with water suspensions

46
of epidermal cells high-speed bottlenose dolphin and not high-speed species-
porpoise, the concentration of which changed within 0.002...1.0 %. However,
in all cases, the hydrodynamic resistance suspensions practically did not differ
from that for pure water. Thus experimentally the qualitative difference be-
tween the mechanisms of hydrodynamic resistance reduction is confirmed the
skin of most high-speed fish (due to the release of mucus) and dolphins (due to
elastic-damping properties of the skin).
And finally, there are a large number of polymers, a small additive which
gives significant reduction of hydrodynamic resistance. This so-called ectby-
pointer – high molecular weight substances secreted by soil, marine and fresh-
water bacteria. The maximum drag reduction (52.6 %) at the flow through the
pipes of the soil biopolymer solution was achieved at concentrations of C = 0.5
%. A feature of these polymers is their ability to save its activity for a long
time.

3.9. Artificial control of the boundary layer by introducing polymer

additives
The phenomenal effect of a sharp decrease in resistance in fish due to the
release of mucus in the boundary layer has found its use in the creation of
various technical means and, in particular, in shipbuilding.
There are cases in navigation, when the speed of ships unexpectedly in-
creased, and then decreased to their normal values. It was noted that the
increase in speed it was observed during swimming in places of plankton accu-
mulation. Similar phenomena are recorded when testing models of vessels in
outdoor pools and associated with”water bloom”. On based on the experiments
and observations it was suggested that, apparently, in these cases of marine and
freshwater microorganisms and algae secrete high molecular weight compounds
(polysaccharides), which act on the resistance to the movement of the vessel
like released in the boundary layer of fish mucus.
Amazing properties of polymers were also found in the study of solution flows
polymers by pipes. For example, the property of the solution guar (polymer
of plant origin) discovered by accident. In Texas, one of the oil wells was
mistakenly opened the wrong crane. This was the reason for the receipt of
a huge amount of guar in crude crude crude oil, which it was fed through the
main pipeline to the oil storage facility. To the surprise of those present, instead
clogging of the pipeline transfer pumps worked with a reduced load.
The first in 1948 scientific report at the International Congress on the influ-
ence of high-molecular additives resistance to the movement of the liquid was
made by an English researcher. The author received a twofold decrease in the
resistance in the turbulent flow. Here in after the effect of a sharp decrease in
resistance due to polymer additives was named the effect Toms. However, it
took many more years before systematic research was started in 1961. studies
(USA, England, Canada, etc.) the possibility of reducing resistance by adding
in the liquid polymers, among which the most effective were guar and polyethy-
lene oxides (oxides), having a number of specific properties: highly soluble in

47
water, have a high molecular weight, etc. Since that time, the influence of
polymer additives has been widely studied:
– resistance to the movement of bodies of different shapes;
– on the characteristics of the turbulent boundary layer and the flow through
the pipes;
– the effect of polymer additives on hydrodynamic noise generated by the
boundary layer.
Influence of polymer additives on the resistance to the motion
of bodies of different shapes. Initial the most complete are the studies
carried out in the United States on installations with rotating disks. Rotation
of the disk (457 mm in diameter) was carried out in a tank with a capacity of
3785 liters. The rotation speed and the shaft torque was measured at various
concentrations C, %, of a solution of polymers.
For fig. 3.26 the results of measurements of the efficiency of the guar polymer
obtained from grown in the USA, Pakistan and India plants. This shows the
relationship of the relative the values of the moment of forces of resistance to
rotation of the disc M = M/M0 , % (M – point in aqueous solution polymer;
M0 is the moment resistance in the water) on the concentration C, %, of guar
solution.
The maximum effect of resistance reduction (by 70 %) was achieved at water
concentration. guar solution C = 0.05 %. Even more effective was the aqueous
solution of polyethylene oxide (polyox) – a synthetic polymer that gives a re-
duction in resistance to the same 70 %, but at a much lower concentration of
C = 0.01 % (fig. 3.27).
Analysis of the results of experiments on rotating disks allowed us to ob-
tain the following conclusions regarding the mechanism of influence of polymer
additives:
– the introduction of polymer additives does not affect the amount of resis-
tance in laminar flow flows and manifests itself only when the critical number
Recr is reached;
– in the turbulent regime with an increase in the concentration of the polymer
solution to a certain the optimum resistance value is reduced;
– finally, the introduction of the polymer has almost no effect on the value
of Recr .
This allows us to give the following explanation of the mechanism of influence
of polymer additives. Since the concentration of aqueous polymer solutions is
negligible (a fraction of a percent), the viscosity coefficient, as well as other
physical characteristics of polymer solutions, does not differ from those for
pure water. This explains the lack of influence of polymers in the laminar flow
regime. That’s first. And, secondly, since this effect is manifested only in the
turbulent regime, it should be assumed that it is associated with a decrease
in the intensity of turbulent fluctuations in the polymer solution and, in this
connection, with a change in the nature of the velocity diagram in the boundary
layer (it becomes less complete), which ultimately leads to laminarization of the
flow.
After specially conducted experiments in the United States, a number of very

48
 Fig. 3.26 Relative reduction of torque on the disc depending on the concentration of guar
aqueous solution:
1 – speed of rotation of the disk 20 Rev/s; 2 – 40 Rev/s

Fig. 3.27 Relative reduction of torque on the disk depending on the concentration of aqueous
solution of polyethylene oxides of different molecular weight:
1 – ∼ 2 · 105 ; 2 – ∼ 6 · 105 ; 3 – ∼ 4 · 106 ; 4 – more 5 · 106

important conclusions were made, allowing them to be used in the practical

implementation of polymer additives in order to reduce resistance:
– the effectiveness of polymer additives increases with their molecular weight
(see fig. 3.27);
– over time, there are ”aging” and loss of efficiency of polymer solutions as
a means of reducing resistance. In this period of ”aging” for different polymers
is different. So, for polyox it is more than a day, for guar it is much higher;
– the effect of water salinity has almost no effect on the efficiency of the
polymer;
– the resistance of a rough disc more in comparison with the resistance of
the smooth disc at identical concentration of the polymer solution. To reduce

49
the resistance of the rough disk to the value of the resistance of a smooth disk,
it is necessary to increase the concentration of the polymer solution by 2...3
times.
Significant changes in the characteristics of the turbulent boundary layer
due to the introduction of polymer additives contributed to the formulation of
experiments with fully immersed bodies of rotation in three directions:
– investigation of the effectiveness of soluble polymer coatings placed on the
surface of the bow tip of the body;
– injection of polymer solution into the boundary layer’s;
– the study of the action of polymer additives on the boundary layer of
the body of rotation, fixed in a stream of aqueous polymer solution of low
concentration.
Analysis of the results of model studies carried out mainly in the United
States, allowed to obtain a number of very important recommendations that
can be used to create various kinds of vehicles in the water (underwater vehicles,
torpedoes, etc.):
– tests of bodies of rotation with a poorly-and well-streamlined shape of
the bow tip with a soluble polymer coating applied to its surface showed that
for a body with a poorly-streamlined tip, the presence of a polymer coating
led to a decrease in friction resistance by 27...30 %. For a body with a well-
streamlined bow extremity and, therefore, with a large length of the laminar
region, a significant reduction in resistance due to the polymer coating of the
bow extremity was not observed.
The reason for this, apparently,was the low solubility of the polymer under
laminar flow conditions.
In addition to the above methods, it is possible to inject high-molecular
polymers into the boundary layer formed by the flow around the body of a
viscous fluid in absolute or reversible motion. In this case, there are special
slots on the surface of the body, located perpendicular to the direction of the
flowing stream, through which the injection of a solution of a high-molecular
polymer is carried out.
Experimental studies conducted in the Pacific laboratory of the canadian
Navy, allowed us to make the following conclusions about the effect of injection
of polymer additives on the resistance of bodies and the factors determining
this effect:
– body resistance decreases with increasing molecular weight of polymers;
– body resistance decreases with increasing polymer concentration. At the
same time, there is always an optimal concentration value at which this reduc-
tion reaches the maximum value;
– the main factor determining the effect of resistance reduction is the amount
of polymer solution supplied to the boundary layer;
– studies and visual observations have shown that the polymer solution is
rapidly mixed with the boundary layer. The degree of dissolution varies from
100:1 at the exit of the slit to 10000:1 at the boundary layer.
Flow of polymer solutions through pipes. Any experiments with poly-
mer additives begin with testing the ability of the polymer solution to reduce

50
resistance when moving through the pipeline, which, as you know, when driving
on a straight section consists of friction resistance. In this case, the effect of
reducing the friction resistance is convenient to investigate by measuring the
difference pressures ∆p on a straight section of a pipe of length L:

L %υ2cp
∆p = λ ,
d 2
where λ – the resistance coefficient; L, d – the length and diameter of the
pipe section; υcp – average flow rate in the pipe.
To minimize the possibility of degradation (aging) of molecules, which is
possible at low flow rates, the discharge of the polymer solution from the tanks
and its further movement in the pipes are provided with high-pressure air.
The most complete studies in 1966 were conducted in one of the laboratories
of the US Navy. It was found that in some cases the movement of the aqueous
solution of polyox the pipeline is accompanied by a decrease in resistance by 80
%, i.e. 5 times (fig. 3.28).

Fig. 3.28 The relative decrease in the resistance ∆R/R of the pipeline at different the
concentration of the solution polyox WSR-301 at Reynolds number equal to 14000

Analysis of the dependence of the pipeline resistance coefficient on the

Reynolds number (fig. 3.29), obtained as a result of the experiment, allows
us to draw the following conclusions:
– the influence of the polymer solution on the resistance of the pipeline is
manifested when the the critical number Recr . At Re < Recr , when laminar
flow regime is observed, this effect is absent;
– the introduction of a polymer additive has virtually no effect on the critical
number Recr ;
– adding a polymer to the turbulent flow (Re > Recr ) changes the l(Re)
dependence in the direction of the curve characteristic of the laminar flow.
In addition, it should be noted:

51
 Fig. 3.29 Friction coefficient λ of the pipeline at different concentrations of aqueous solution
Guara (pipeline diameter 50 mm):
1 – turbulent flow; 2 – laminar flow; + – pure water; water concentration guar solution, %: ◦
– 0.005; 5 – 0.01; 4 – 0.02 ; × – 0.04

– the greater the molecular weight of the polymer, the more effectively the
resistance decreases at a given concentration;
– the maximum reduction in resistance is observed at low polymer concen-
trations in the solution;
– as the concentration increases, the effect of reducing the resistance of the
pipeline slows down.
Specially conducted experiments with polymer solutions in seawater showed
that the salinity of the water practically does not affect the effectiveness of
polymer additives.

3.10. Testing of models of vessels and plates in polymer solutions

Almost simultaneously in 1966 in the experimental pools of the USA and
great Britain were held tow test plates and vessel models (like ”Mariner” and
destroyers) with the addition of water pools polymer polyox.
The aim of the research is to assess the effect of polyox solution of different
concentrations in turbulent flow mode. To obtain a complete turbulent flow
regime in the boundary layer plates and models of ships were equipped with wire
turbulators installed in the bow endings; models of ships also used sandpaper.
To map the model vessels and plates were tested in clean water and a polyox
solution of 0.001, 0.002 and 0.005 % concentration. The tests were carried out
in the range of numbers Re =4 · 105...7 · 106, the results are shown in fig. 3.30
– 3.31.
Analysis of plate test data (fig. 3.30, a) shows that the presence of even small
the number polyoxy causes a decrease in resistance of up to 40 %. Because

52
the plate is missing shape resistance and wave resistance, the desired effect
is achieved only by reducing friction resistance. Moreover, this effect can be
obtained after reaching of a certain velocity (corresponding to the transition of
the laminar to the turbulent flow regime in boundary layer.) It is characteristic
that the relative decrease in friction resistance increases up to a certain value
with increasing plate speed and increasing to the corresponding concentration
values of the polymer solution.
Analysis of experimental measurements of ship model resistance (see fig.
3.30 – 3.31) in clean water and polyoxy solutions with concentrations of 0.002
and 0.003 % allows to conclude that the relative the drag reduction of the
ship models is less (on average 25 %) compared to the plate. The latter is
probably explained by the presence of shape and wave resistances in the models
of ships resistance, the value of which the addition of polymers is not reflected.
The latter was confirmed special model tests, which indicate the absence of a
noticeable effect polymers on the wave resistance.

Fig. 3.30 Results of testing of plates and models of vessels in polymer solutions:
a – resistance R for the plate and its relative reduction ∆R/R in water WSR-301 polyox
solution at different flow rates Vs: 1 – pure water; concentration aqueous solution polioxy, %;
2 and 6 – 0.001; 3 and 5 – 0.002; 4 – 0.005; b – resistance models of the vessel of type
”Mariner”.

As for the plates, the influence of polymers affects after reaching a certain
speed. Then, as the speed increases, it increases, reaching the maximum value.
In the future it the effect decreases with increasing velocity because the relative
value of the wave resistance increases and, accordingly, the proportion of friction
resistance, the value of which affects the introduction of polymer additives falls.
In addition to the above model tests related to the evaluation of the impact
on the resistance polymer additives, a number of model and full-scale experi-
ments were carried out, exploring practical implementation of this method of
reducing resistance to the movement of ships. In this experience the efficiency
of one of the methods of resistance reduction based on the injection of polymer
additives into the boundary layer.
The tests were carried out in full-scale conditions on a 5.8 m long motor boat.

53
 Fig. 3.31 Resistance of the model of the destroyer: 1 – in pure water; 2 – in a solution of
polyox WSR-301 at concentrations of 0.002 and 0.003 %; 3 – relative reduction of resistance
∆R/R at a solution concentration of 0.002 %

polyox, which was added to the water under pressure through a perforated tube
with a diameter of 12 mm, fixed in the transverse direction on the boat’s stem.
The relative decrease of resistance was 10 %. The main reason for the low
efficiency of the polyox was its dispersion in the environment, therefore most
do not fall in the region of the boundary layer, and also, the low power of the
device for polymer injection, which did not provide it sufficient concentration
in the boundary layer of the motor boat.
In 1966, at the XI International conference on the experimental pool, a
report was made on the results of reducing the resistance of the watchtower
model by injecting a polymer the solution into the boundary layer. Model
(L = 5,00 m and m =216 kg) made of fiberglass, had on both sides of the
longitudinal slit, which started at distances of 5; 25; 50 and 70 % of the length
of the model from the stem and had a width of 0.13 mm, increased during the
experiments to 0.51 mm. The model was tested at two speeds – 1.64 and 3.29
m/s, that corresponded to the numbers Re = 6.39 · 106 and 1.28 · 107. At a
towing speed of 1.64 m/s, a decrease in the total resistance was obtained 15.5
% and friction resistance – 20 %; at a speed of 3.29 m/s, respectively, 14.5 and
30 % at simultaneous injection of polymer solution from two slits located at a
distance 5 and 25 % of the length of the stem.

3.11. Use of polymer additives for technical purposes

In assessing the feasibility and feasibility of using polymers to reduce resis-
tance ships and other floating objects (torpedoes, submarine, UV, etc.) should
be taken into account along with such factors such as skin roughness and aging
(degradation) of molecules, economic efficiency.

54
 Studies have shown that there is a significant difference in acceptable con-
centrations and costs per unit of time during the flow through the pipes and the
flow around the surface of the floating object. So, during the flow through the
pipes polymer additive has a continuous positive effect until the leakage fluid
from the pipe, while the flow around the body it is effective only on a certain
the site of the moistened surface in a certain period of time then is thrown out
in passing stream. Thus, in the latter case, a continuous feed of the polymer in
the boundary layer.
Calculations show that the use of polymer additives for continuous reduction
the resistance of relatively large floating objects requires continuous feed in the
boundary layer of expensive high-molecular additives that at the existing cost
polymers are not economically profitable.
Therefore, the possible feasibility was noted applications of polymer solutions
for short-term resistance reduction relative to small floating objects (torpedoes,
UV, etc.)11) . In addition to injection, soluble polymers were offered, located in
the bow tip in special matrices.
Studies have also shown that the introduction of polymer additives in the
boundary layer allows significantly reduce hydrodynamic noise, which is very
important for objects such as torpedoes.

3.12. The effect of unsteady motion on the resistance of aquatic

organisms
It was noted above that the principle of non-stationary motion is a physical
basis the efficiency of the movement of aquatic organisms. Naturally, there
is an interest in identifying the features non-stationary motion of hydrobionts
and their use to reduce the resistance of technical means of movement in water.
Next, some theoretical and experimental data will be discussed. the study of
unsteady motion of bodies and aquatic animals.
Hydrodynamics of unsteady navigation of hydrobionts caused by wave move-
ments of the body and waving movements of the fins, characterized by,first,
periodic oscillations longitudinal velocity and,secondly, periodic deformations
of the flexible body. Both of these factors, acting together, lead to a change
in the characteristics of the boundary layer. To understand hydrodynamic pro-
cesses occurring in the boundary layer are considered sequentially the influence
of nonstationarity of the longitudinal velocity and frequency of change of the
surface shape of the flexible the bodies of marine organisms on their physical
models.
In the 60s of the last century in the experimental basin of the LSI (now St.
Petersburg marine technical University) under supervision of professor A. N.
Shabalov conducted special testing of solid bodies of rotation L = 1.50 m and
the largest diameter D = 0.21 m under the free surface at a depth of H = 0.70
m, with the aim of experimental study of the influence of nonstationarity of the
11)
For large ships the most appropriate and it is economical to control the boundary layer by creating an air
”lubricant” (thin air films on the surface of the ship’s outer skin).

55
the longitudinal velocity on the resistance. Non-stationary tests are carried out
at speeds υ(t) ≤ 3.0 m/s, which corresponds to Re=(1.0...5.0) · 10 6, with the
following laws of change longitudinal velocity:
υ(t) = at – with positive acceleration a = 0.1...0.5 m/s2;
υ(t) = υ0 − at, for a = 0.1...0.3 m/s2;
υ(t) = A| sin ωt| ;
υ(t) = υ0 ekt , where k < 0 (for braking) or k > 0 (for acceleration).
In the process of testing was determined by the change ∆C of the coefficient
of viscous resistance rod due to the unsteadiness of the longitudinal velocity:
R(t)
C + ∆C = %v 2 (t)
,
2 S
where C is the quasi-stationary value of the resistance coefficient; S is the
wetted surface of the rod.
These results were processed under the assumption that the coefficient in-
cluded in this formula additional viscosity resistance due to the unsteadiness of
the longitudinal velocity, ∆C is a function of the number Re and the dimen-
sionless acceleration
dv(t) L
N=
dt v 2 (t)
The analysis of the obtained experimental data showed that the linear and
exponential laws in the velocity range of 0 ≤ (t) ≤ 3.0 m/s gives similar results.
Positive acceleration (acceleration) leads to an increase in the viscosity resis-
tance of the solid, and those who greater than less than Re/N (fig. 3.32). On
the contrary, negative acceleration (deceleration) reduces viscous drag of the
body. At the same time, the effect of the longitudinal velocity unsteadiness on
resistance when braking more than acceleration.

Fig. 3.32 Experimental values of the coefficient of additional viscosity resistance for unsteady
motion of a solid body according to the linear law ∆Cn (Re/N ):
1 – positive acceleration (acceleration); 2 – negative acceleration (braking))

This phenomenon various effects of the expansion of the longitudinal speed

56
at the resistance is probably due to the different degree of turbulence in the
flow in the boundary the layer, which is higher during acceleration than during
braking. This, by the way, in the future it was confirmed theoretically and
experimentally.
When the sinusoidal nature of the translational motion of the trolley with
the towed body ran along the pool a few half-waves. At the same time, the
resistance also changed sinusoidal law with a phase shift of π/2 with respect
to the oscillations of the longitudinal velocity, thus, the maximum increment
of the resistance force corresponded to the maximum acceleration, and not
speed, as one would expect. The averaged curves of the resistance for half life
the oscillations of the longitudinal velocity were about 40 % lower than the
corresponding stationary curve.
On this basis, the author studies A. N. Subalbum concluded that to reduce
viscous resistance at non-stationary translational motion of a rigid body it is
advisable to use a mode in which a short section of acceleration would be
replaced by a long one braking area.
For further analysis of the phenomena occurring in the unsteady motion of a
solid body, the problem of the nonstationary problem was solved theoretically
using numerical methods turbulent boundary layer on a flat rigid plate. Based
on the results of these calculations confirmed the above fact about the increase
of friction resistance at acceleration (a > 0) and deceleration reduction (a < 0).
Unsteady calculations have shown also, that in some cases the imposition of
additional harmonic oscillations on the translational movement according to
the law υ(t) = υ0(1 + C sin ωt) can lead to a decrease in friction resistance by
compared to its stationary value when moving at a constant speed υ 0 .
A similar result was obtained by D. Weiss, who investigated the unsteady
swimming of fish with negative buoyancy (mackerel, pelamide, tuna, sharks –
white, mackerel, mako). Calculations have shown that these fish energetically
beneficial cyclic two-phase swimming with alternating passive, no energy con-
sumption, inclined sliding down by inertia at some depth and subsequent active
ascent at an angle to the horizon. At the same time saving energy can reach 50
% or more compared to the horizontal uniform motion at same distance.
Another, no less important factor affecting the non-stationary resistance is
the deformation the body surface associated with a characteristic body move-
ments of marine organisms, the flapping motion of the fins, the work of the Gill
apparatus, etc.
In this regard, it should be noted the results of experimental studies car-
ried out under the guidance of professor L. F. Kozlov at the Institute of hy-
dromechanics, Academy of Sciences of Ukraine in field conditions the bottlenose
dolphins (L = 2.50 m), using telemetry equipment that allows the capture of
instantaneous values of the longitudinal speed of the dolphin on a straight sec-
tion and the degree of turbulences. It is concluded that the degree of turbulence
in the boundary layer of the bottlenose dolphin reached high in areas of accel-
eration and decreased at sites of inhibition. Moreover, it was recorded the fall
of the turbulent pulsations in the feed with the active work of the caudal fin.
And finally, for acne-like, slow-swimming, and scombroid, fast-swimming,

57
fish on unsteady resistance to movement is influenced by the work of the Gill
apparatus performing the following two functions:
– isolation of mucus in the area located behind the Gill covers, which reduces
friction resistance;
– injection of a jet that is adjacent to the surface of the fish body behind the
Gill covers (Coanda effect) and leads to an increase in velocity in the boundary
layer, which ultimately provides a non-separable the nature of the flow around
the body of fish with a relatively small elongation.

3.13. Movement of dolphins on the bow wave of the ship

Known cases when dolphins for a long time can move effortlessly at a speed
of 30...40 knots, being located on the front slope of the waves the vessel a
short distance from the bow. Now it is established that in this case which
received the name ”riding on waves”, the dolphin for the movement uses the
energy developed by a wave. In this case, as shown by observation, he makes
no movements, neither body nor fins.
There are riding on the bow wave of the ship, riding on the wind wave and
riding on the Chipmunk, which appears when the wave approaches the shore.
When riding on the forward slope of the bow wave dolphins are always
located near the stem of the vessel. Usually observed in this case, the picture
is as follows: dolphins swim under the water surface at a depth of 0.3...0.6 m
and can dive to a depth of 1.5...2.0 m.the area of riding on the wave extends
to the right and left of the ship’s CP at a distance of 1.5 m. the tail fin of the
dolphin swimming in the ship’s CP, is in this case at a distance of 0.3...0.5 m
from the stem. Dolphins can swim each other or one above the other (up to
three pieces in depth). They can stay for hours in the riding position, leaving
for breaths every 6 minutes or jumping out of the water and returning to the
previous position. Often while riding dolphins flipped on its side. Sometimes
they go, having turned over on a back or slowly rotating round a longitudinal
axis. When they are attached to a moving ship, move to the right or left side,
then flipped accordingly on the side.
Observations and analysis of wind waves show that in this case dolphins can
ride small wind waves with the highest angle of the wave slope α = 10...18 ◦ and
wave propagation velocity C=5...6 m/s.
At the moment when the wind waves reach shallow water and turn into
buruns, dolphins, moving in the direction to the shore, abruptly switching to a
front side of a breaker.
Consider the scheme acting on the body of the dolphin and fins hydrostatic
forces and conditions the balance of the dolphin, located on the front slope of
the wave (fig. 3.33). In this case, as a result of the action of hydrostatic and
hydrodynamic forces in the bow wave on the body and the dolphin fins have a
buoyancy force a, the vector of which is perpendicular to the front the slope of
the wave, and the resistance force R when moving a dolphin with a wave speed,
which in this case is equal to the speed of the vessel. For balance of a body of a
dolphin on a forward slope of a wave it is necessary that the vertical component

58
 Fig. 3.33 Diagram of forces and velocities at the water slide the animal on the slope of the
waves

buoyancy forces balanced weight force, and its component in the direction of
motion of the dolphin (driving force) – resistance force. Since the angle of the
wave slope is small, the magnitude of the driving power is also small. But since
the drag force of the dolphin R is small, the balance of the driving force and
resistance forces are possible. Otherwise, the body with great resistance will
leave with the front slope of the wave and will remain at the stern of the ship.
The art of dolphins to move with the speed of the ship is based, thus, on
their ability use the energy of the wave by selecting the appropriate position
relative to the wave curvature body and fin positions. Prof. G. Hertel in the 70s
of the last century wrote that it is better after studying the waves, we may be
able to like dolphins to extract energy from the waves in the technical purposes.
One of the proposed in the direction of the ways is to install in the bow of a (in
the area of the bow transverse wave) systems of fixed and rotary wings. Point
these proposals and their practical implementation in relation to surface vessels
will be considered in the next Chapter, devoted to the study of marine animal
and fish propulsion systems and the creation of on the basis of their technical
counterparts for the medium movement in water.

4. Marine animals and fish propulsion system

4.1. General provisions
The obvious connection between the ability of marine animals and fish to
move at high speeds and the main principles of their movement was the cause of
a detailed survey of representatives marine and river fauna in order to establish
the characteristics of their resistance to movement, motor-propulsion complex
and preferential maneuver. Summarizing the experimental and theoretical stud-
ies, it should be noted the following features of animal hydrodynamics:

59
 – in the biological process of development of hydrobionts associated with
with the increase in size and level of organization, the maximum speed increases
significantly. The latter is due to the fact that the effective power of aquatic
animals is proportional to muscle mass, that is, the linear dimensions in a cube
are l3, and the resistance is l 2 ;
– swimming hydrobionts unsteady, often periodic, close to harmonic. This
fact is explained, on the one hand, by the biological processes occurring in them
(cycles of energy exchange, respiration, blood circulation, etc.) and, on the
other – mechanical efficiency unsteady swimming that is of undoubted practical
interest in hydrobiont;
– unification of the engine. The most common are wavelike propellers with
elastic vibrational range of different structures, which when you increase the
size hydrobionts are localized in the tail part of the body.
There are wave-like and hydro-reactive methods of animal navigation in
the aquatic environment.
Wave-like method of swimming is most common in mobile aquatic animals.
Less common are its modifications-moving due to wave-like motion flagellum,
which is typical for the simplest single-celled organisms, and moving with move-
ments of a large number of cilia observed among the simplest coelenterates and
crests.
The opposite of the wave-like method of swimming in water is the hydro-
reactive motion for the expense of ejection of water jets. So swim hydra and
jellyfish, as well as cephalopods, like squid. Most cephalopods possess fins, in
which the wavy movement when maneuvering. Among vertebrates, hydrojet
method of navigation is not found.
Hydro-reactive motion is effective at high Reynolds numbers, and movement
with cilia – at sufficiently small values of these numbers. In this sense, the wave-
like method is the most universal, since it is acceptable throughout the range
of Reynolds numbers ranging from slowly floating tapeworms and annelids to
high-speed fish and cetaceans.
For cetaceans characteristic is a wave-like way of movement, and the main
driver – horizontal tail fin, the amplitude of oscillations in the vertical plane of
which is significant exceeds the amplitude of the other parts of his body. So,
for example, the ratio of amplitudes the caudal fin a1 , CoG a2 and stern a3
dolphin a1 : a2 : a3 = 1.00 : 0.05 : 0.40. From this it follows that CoG dolphin
moves almost in a straight line, while the amplitude of the the oscillations of
the caudal fin are almost 2.5 times greater than the amplitude of the nose
oscillations. Herewith fluctuations nose dolphin occur in the opposite phase
relative to the oscillations of the caudal fin. The oscillation frequency of the
two-bladed tail fin of cetaceans is f = (0.2...2.0) s−1 .
The relatively large height of the tail of cetaceans due to the presence of
powerful muscles, providing movement of the horizontal fin in the vertical plane.
In accordance with the orientation of the tail fin, the main maneuver is carried
out in a vertical planes. Thus, dolphins are able to dive to a depth of 300
m, whales up to 1500 m. vertical tail section due to large lateral surface area
provides high maneuverability in the horizontal plane. In addition to vertical

60
strokes tail fin when maneuvering in vertical plane and horizontal transverse
vibrations of the tail part of the body, providing maneuvering in the horizontal
plane, cetaceans can make rotational oscillations of the body and tail fin with
respect to longitudinal axis.
As well as for cetaceans, for fish the undulating way of movement which is
observed is characteristic for the numbers Re ¡ 108 and thus covers the range
of fish swimming, the varieties of which are acne and scombroid. With acne,
the amplitude of the traveling wave is constant in length marine organisms
(eels, snakes, gar?ar, trout), while when it scombroidei variable length. So, for
acne-like fish the whole complex, including fins and body, is the driver, called
wave. The length of the propulsive wave is equal to or less than the length
of the hydrobiont, and its the amplitude is commensurate with the transverse
dimensions of the body, and usually increases from the spout to the tail’s. The
phase velocity of the propulsive wave exceeds the velocity of the translational
movement of marine organisms and due to this, the traction force is created,
going to overcome the resistance force of the hydrobiont. With increase in
the sizes of a hydrobiont the mover is localized in a tail part, and the body
practically does not participate in the creation of the driving force. This type
of propulsion is called a waving fin propulsion.
Many fish with the same success can move back, for example, a knife-fish.
The vibrations of its band fins are a peculiar and interesting example of vibra-
tions, not only creating a driving force, but also control the movement of fish.
To create a driving force in the direction of the movements of the fins oscillate in
the form of waves passing along the body in the direction, opposite movement.
In forward motion, the propulsive waves pass through the the side of the tail
end, when moving back – from the tail fin to the head. When standing in place
in the ready-to-move position, the propulsive waves of the tail and nose parts
pass through in opposite directions to the middle of the hydrobiont body.
By comparing the performance of two varieties (eel and scombroidei) wave
motion fish, it is possible to recognize more effective acne-like way of swimming.
Despite this, in modern hydrobionical the greatest interest is represented fin
form of high-speed swimming of fish and cetaceans. They also make a wave-
like movement of the body, but the main part of the driving force creates a
developed waving tail fin. The fin has a characteristic shape: ”sickle” in high-
speed tuna and xyphoid fish and ”semilunar” in cetaceans. Waving Crescent-
shaped fin speed fish hard and narrow, has a large elongation of λ ¿ 5...6 and
high frequency, and the semilunar fin cetacean elastic, relatively wide, with λ ≈
4 and low-frequency: f ¡ 4 s−1 .
And finally, one of the mechanisms of movement of hydrobionts – hydro jet
propulsion. Holder such an engine is, for example, a jellyfish. In this case, the
function of the engine is performed by the dome jellyfish. The water enclosed
in the space under the dome is pushed out by muscle force with frequency 1
... 10 pulses per minute. This type of propulsion is much more effective in
cephalopods (squid, octopus and cuttlefish). So, some types of squid using
water jet propulsion, can jump out of the water to a considerable height (more
than 1 m) and plan in the air.

61
 The body of the cephalopod mollusk is soft, elastic and can be significantly
deformed. It covers diamond-shaped fins, which play the role of longitudinal
keels, well stabilizing and controlling motion in space. These fins are used in
the slow movement of the squid due to formation on their surface of propulsive
waves running along the length of the mollusk. The more rapid movement the
squid floats shocks with a frequency of emission of hydrojet propulsion engine
1...2 emissions per second at normal speed and 5 emissions – by increasing the
speed of the squid.

4.2. Wave mover

Wave driver call well streamlined and progressively moving elongated flexible
a body that is deformed by the law of the transverse traveling wave, called the
propulsive and spreading from the front to the aft edge of the body. The
wavelength is equal to or less than body length, its amplitude is commensurate
with the transverse dimensions of the body, and the phase velocity is greater
the speed of the hydrobiont. It should be emphasized that the wave method
of swimming is observed at numbers Re = 0.1...108 and thus covers the entire
range of aquatic animal swimming. And the lower number Re is typical for the
navigation of microscopic organisms, and the largest – for cetaceans.
Wave mover In nature, there are several different modifications of the wave
method of swimming. Water animals in which the amplitude of the propul-
sive wave is constant along the length of marine organisms to float acne-like
method. In this way, swim eels, snakes, Sargans. A large number of hydro-
bionts (mullet, horse mackerel, trout, etc.) float in a scombroid way when
the amplitude is propulsive the waves vary in the length of the hydrobiont,
increasing from nose to tail.
The principle of operation of the wave propulsion hydro-reactive, is to create
a driving force due to the propulsive wave of water is thrown in the direction
opposite to the direction of movement of the hydrobiont.
Experimental studies of wave motion of hydrobionts, as well as theoretical
solutions with using different models of wave propulsion (thin flexible plate or
profile, elongated flexible body) allowed to detect the following features and
patterns of the wave movement of aquatic organisms and hydrodynamics of
wave propulsion:
1. The results of theoretical studies show that determining the effectiveness
of the wave mover parameters are: wave number α = 2π/λ (λ is the length
of the propulsive waves), relative (reduced) frequency of the propulsive waves
σ = ω/υ0 (ω = 2πn – circular or cyclic frequency of the propulsive wave; υ 0 –
the velocity of the flowing stream equal to the velocity of the hydrobiont), as
well as the law of amplitude change the propulsive wave in the direction of the
running wave.
2. Analysis of the results of theoretical calculations of the traction coefficient
CT = %υ2T2 Ω
0

(T – averaged value of thrust produced by the propulsion wave; the S –

62
moistened surface), shown in fig. 4.1, allows us to draw the following conclu-
sions:
– at given wave number α and the law of change of amplitude of the wave
along the chord of the propeller α(x) the value of CT the greater the relative
frequency of σ. At the same time there are the following modes of operation of
the wave mover:
– σ < α, at which the phase velocity of the wave c = λ/τ (τ – wave period)
is less than the flow rates are υ0, so CT < 0 and thus a resistance force arises;
– σ = α, where the phase velocity of the wave is c = υ0 and CT = 0 (critical
velocity);
– σ > α and thus c > υ0 . In this case, a positive pull CT ¿ 0 occurs;
– decreasing the wave number α all other things being equal [α(x) = const
and σ = const] leads to an increase in the thrust coefficient CT ;
– optimal law α(x) = α0 + α1 x + α2 x2 changes in amplitude along the hy-
drobiont body is a linear law (curve 2 in fig. 4.1).

Fig. 4.1 Curves of the coefficient of thrust of the wave propulsion:

1 – α0 = 0.0830; α1 = 0; α2 = 0; α = π;
2 – α0 = 0.0624; α1 = 0.0624; α2 = 0; α = π;
3 – α0 = 0.0230; α1 = 0.0340; α2 = 0.0340; α = π.

3. The loss of mechanical energy on the wave mover is due to the presence
of a vortex trace and therefore The efficiency of the wave mover h ¡ 1 – a value
that depends on the mode of its operation.
For waves of a deformable plate for all values σ > α ¿ 1 (c > υ0 ) efficiency
η > 0.50 and reaches η = 0.80...0.90. For the body wave mover, with increasing
thickness, its fall occurs hydrodynamic characteristics of C T and η.
4. Theoretical studies and optimization of a thin elastic wave mover have
shown that the hydrodynamic characteristics in this case depend, along with
σ and α, on the density and bending rigidity of the material from which the
wave mover is made. Moreover, it is established that optimal modes (c = 1, 2υ 0
and η = 0.80) there is a section of small length and spaced at a distance of
0.7B (B – chord of the wave mover), which is not loaded and thus thus, it does
not create traction. This allows you to make it less wide and thus reduce the

63
resistance of the wave mover. This theoretical result allows us to explain the
existence of fish and cetaceans have narrowed transitional areas from the body
to the caudal fin.
Studies have shown that for elastic wave movers there is an optimal value of
stiffness, at which the efficiency, ceteris paribus reaches its maximum value.
5. Comparison of the effectiveness of acne and scombroid methods swimming
(two types of wave motion of hydrobionts), shown in fig. 4.2, allows you to
following conclusion:

Fig. 4.2 The dependence of the hydrodynamic efficiency η from the relative velocities c/υ 0 the
propulsive waves to eel-like (1) and scombroidei (2) methods of navigation;
n is the number of propulsive waves on the length of the fish

– with a combined method of swimming and the same relative velocities c/υ 0
the efficiency of the propulsive wave is less than that of the acne-like swimming
method. At the same time the maximum the efficiency value for the acne-like
swimming method is achieved at a relative speed of c/υ0 = 1, while at the
scombroid method – at 1, 0 < c/υ0 < 1, 2;
– the value of efficiency at scombroidei the method of swimming is committed
to an appropriate value with eel a method of swimming with an increase in the
number of n propulsive waves.

4.3. Flapping fin propulsion

Unlike the wave mover, when its functions are performed by a flexible body
and fins of the hydrobiont, flapping fin propulsion high-speed hydrobionts
call wing released relatively large scale and the presence of sweep in the plan,
which makes a large translational-torsional vibrations and creates a relatively
large thrust.
The spread of the mover type ”waving wing” in the wild is due to the fact
that for the living the simplest of organisms is oscillatory motion. In some cases,
it is detected superiority and high efficiency of waving movers in comparison

64
with other movers. Observations and experiments performed in situ and at
experimental facilities, allow us to conclude about the most effective resonant
mode works fin propulsion, when n = nk , where nk is the critical oscillation
frequency of the fin corresponding to the maximum oscillation amplitude.
The practical application of the waving wing as an engine is more promising
in the aquatic environment. In aviation flapping wing as a force is not applied
due to the structural complexity, as also, the difficulties associated with ensuring
its strength under the action of large inertial forces. On the contrary, in a denser
environment (water) to create the necessary traction requires a waving wing
much smaller and performing cross-torsional vibrations with relatively small
amplitudes and frequencies. In this case, the inertial forces are much smaller
in comparison with hydrodynamic.

Fig. 4.3 Diagram of the flapping wing in the coordinate system Oξη

Moreover, the flapping fin propulsion in comparison with the wave more
promising for technical means of movement in the water.
Let us consider in more detail the scheme of the waving engine, which is a
wing end of the scale (fig. 4.3). Let the waving mover moving in the direction
of the axis ξ with speed υ0 , makes the joint harmonic transverse translational
and torsional oscillations with the same circular frequency ω = 2πn and phase
angle ϕ:

η = a cos ωt; β = cos β0(ωt + ϕ),

where a and β0 are the amplitudes of transverse – translational and torsional

oscillations, respectively.
In the considered coordinate system, positive transverse-translational dis-
placements will be considered to move along the axis η, and torsional – coun-
terclockwise.
Transverse-translational oscillations of a wing moving at a constant velocity
υ0 lead to the emergence of a time-varying angle of bevel of the stream

65
 u
γ= ,
υ0
where u = dηdt = −αω sin ωt – the speed of transverse progressive oscillations of
the wing.
Thus, taking into account the torsional vibrations β(t) instantaneous angle
of attack of the wing will be
αω sin ωt
α(t) = β + γ = β0 cos(ωt + ϕ) + (− ).
υ0
At the same time, the speed of the wing flow
q q
W = u2 + v02 = α2 ω2 sin2 ωt + v02.
Each value of the angle of attack α(t) will correspond to the instantaneous
values of the lift forces Ry and drag Rx (where Oxy is a wing-bound coordi-
nate system). Projecting these forces on the horizontal Oξ and vertical Oη
coordinate axes, we obtain instantaneous thrust T and cross-power of P :

T = Ry sin ϕ − Rx cos ϕ; P = Ry cos ϕ − Rx sin ϕ.

The corresponding choice of the law of transversal-translational and the tor-
sional vibrations of the wing can achieve a situation in which the averaged
over the period of oscillations, traction force of T is the same as the direction
of movement along the longitudinal axis of Oξ. The most optimal from this
point of view is the angle of phase shift ϕ = π/2 torsional with respect to
transverse-translational vibrations of the wing.
Results of theoretical and experimental studies of domestic and foreign
authors (TsAGI, Institute of hydromechanics of the Academy of Sciences of
Ukraine, Germany, USA, etc.) hydrodynamics of waving wings, of practical
importance:
– the most optimal, at which the maximum efficiency is achieved, is sinusoidal
the law of transverse and torsional oscillations with phase angle ϕ = π/2;
– at small velocity υ0 of the progressive movement and consequently, when
large numbers of Strouhal Sh = ωb/υ0 >> 1 (where b is the wing chord) re-
gardless of the specific law of oscillatory motion efficiency η = 0.5. In this
case, the maximum value of the thrust coefficient C max is reached when the the
transverse translational oscillations. At purely angular oscillations the value
of C max is an order of magnitude less than C max for transverse-translational
oscillations;
– at high speeds υ0 (the most interesting case from a practical point of view)
and, accordingly, small Strouhal numbers and the optimal value of the phase
angle ϕ = π/2 mean the thrust coefficient C T depends on the relative distance
of the axis of rotation of the wing (the axis of the baller) up to the middle
of the chord x0/b and the ratio of the amplitudes of transverse-translational

66
and torsional oscillations ∂e = βa0 b . In this case, the maximum efficiency of the
waving motor is achieved with pure transversely-progressive minimal – if only
torsional oscillations.
In this case, the maximum value of the thrust of the waving motor is achieved
with the following: the ratio of the amplitudes of the transverse translational
and torsional vibrations:
a p
> (π/2 + ϕ2Sh) + (π/2 + ϕ2 Sh)2 + ϕ2,
β0 b
where Sh = ωb/υ0 and ϕ = 1 + |x0 |/b.

Fig. 4.4 The shape of the wings, studied M. Y. Chopra

Chopra (England) hydrodynamic characteristics of figured wings were inves-

tigated (fig. 4.4). By comparing the results of the calculations it was found that
the curvature of the front the edges leads, all other things being equal, to an
increase in the thrust force created by the waving motor. However, too much
sweep (exceeding 30◦) leads, on the contrary, to a deterioration in efficiency
propeller’s. The wing B2, which has a moderate sweep, turned out to be the
closest to the optimal one leading and trailing edges.
Analysis of the results of experimental studies of TsAGI led to the conclu-
sion that the increase in the relative thickness of the profile, which worsens its
bearing properties, leads to an increase in thrust and efficiency of the waving
engine. Recall that the cetacean waving fins are relatively thick (in gray whale
and sperm whale they are 26...29 %); studies have shown higher efficiency of
elastic and flexible waving mover compared to hard.
In addition, the analysis of the results of experimental studies allowed to es-
tablish the quadratic law of the traction force dependence R T on the amplitude
β0 and frequency f of torsional oscillations when the translational-torsional
oscillations of flapping propulsion (fig. 4.5).
For large f ≥ 16 s−1 , a significant violation of the quadratic dependence
RT (β0) was observed. Moreover, in this case, at β0 > 10◦, the thrust decreases
with increasing amplitude β0 of torsional oscillations, which is apparently due
to the separation of the boundary layer.
One of the interesting phenomena discovered in the study of living dolphins
and whales, representing theoretical and practical interest is the property of

67
 Fig. 4.5 Hydrodynamic characteristics of waving wings

self-regulation of hydroelasticity of fins cetaceans, opened in 1968 by a team

of scientists of the Zoological Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences. It
is established that self-regulation the elasticity of the fins of cetaceans occurs
reflexively when changing the mode of motion and is due to the action of arte-
riovenous vessels, as well as the special structure of the covering tissues of the
fins. Automatic control the elasticity of the fins associated with a change in
the navigation regime occurs in all fins of cetaceans, although and with some
difference.
When the speed of swimming dolphin increases, its metabolism, and there-
fore blood circulation increases, the tail the waving fin automatically becomes
stiff and elastic. Conversely, with slowing down the elasticity of the fin falls.
This is quite consistent with the most efficient operation of the waving fin motor
with large amplitudes fluctuations.
Adjustable hydroelastic effect in the fins of cetaceans works quickly and
smoothly. About this can be judge by the analysis of transient transients in
swimming dolphin (sudden acceleration, sudden stop), which occur with large
longitudinal accelerations and impose strict requirements for the strength of
the tail fin’s. Observations show that the dolphin is at rest in a state of one
big wave of the tail fins move forward at a distance equal to 2...3 body lengths.
In contrast, fast-swimming dolphin (6...8 m/s) able to perform braking on the
length equal to Paladine of his body. At the same time, the longitudinal de-
celeration with acceleration 10 m/s2 or more borders on impact. It is obvious
that under these conditions, the elasticity of the fin should change smoothly
and accurately regulated. Autoreguljatsii elasticity hydrodynamically feasible
because of the extreme form of amplitude-customsocketfactory oscillations of
the tail fin (fig. 4.6). The figure shows the dependence of the dimension of A
is dimensionless and A/Am (Am is the maximum amplitude) of vibration am-
plitude porpoises and orca dolphin depending on the frequency of oscillation
of n points of the fork blades tail fin with regular translational motion of the
dolphin.
Pay attention to the large scale of fluctuations and pronounced peaks in
different dolphins, almost at one and the same time. the same frequency n =
1,5 Hz. Let’s call this frequency corresponding to the maximum range of the

68
tail fin, critical nk .

Fig. 4.6 Extreme amplitude-frequency characteristic of oscillations of dolphin tail fin:

a – dimensional, a(n); b – dimensionless;
a – full scale (doubled amplitude), n – oscillation frequency;
1 and 2 – porpoise length, respectively, 1.11 and 1.35 m; 3 – common dolphin length 1.53 m

As shown in fig. 4.6, the frequency response resembles a resonance character-

istic harmonic forced oscillation mechanical system. In this case, two oscillation
frequencies correspond to the same scale: one is subcritical n < n k and another
n > nk are supercritical. The first of them corresponds to a lower speed of
navigation, at which the energy small elasticity of the body of the caudal fin is
advisable, the second-a greater speed at which a large elasticity is advisable.
At n = nk , a resonance phenomenon occurs in which the frequency of the
natural oscillations of the stem and fin, which are the elastic system coincides
with the frequency of harmonic oscillations of the flexible part of the body and
the fin. The movement of the fork the caudal fin is the result of the addition
of flexural-oscillatory movements of the caudal stem relative to the center the
gravity of the dolphin’s body and the rotation of the fin relative to the end of
the stem. As for the natural oscillations of the stem and fin, it is regulated
depending on the mode of movement of the automatically operating controls
the elasticity of the dolphin body and fin.
Experiments in the sea basin, as well as research Zh. I. Cousteau in natural
conditions found that the most common dolphins swim with the tail fin oscil-
lation frequency close to the critical one: nk = 1.5...1.9 Hz, which corresponds
to the heart rate of a dolphin (80...130 beats per minute). This corresponds to

69
the well-known fact that in mechanical systems the resonant frequency is most
effective because it meets the minimum energy consumption.
Unlike technical designs for which under the conditions of mechanical
strength and fatigue of materials, as usually, do not allow resonance modes,
for dolphins, these modes are common and, moreover, appropriate. However
to use them dolphin must have a reliable and automatically operating bodies
of elasticity control the blades of the caudal fin. This phenomenon is called
adjustable hydroelastic effect.
In fish, blood pressure which is an order of magnitude less than that of
dolphins, and the tail fin plate, such regulation is impossible.

4.4. Propulsive hydrojet engine

In the process of development of cephalopods, especially squid, reached high
speeds of swimming with the help of pulsating water jet propulsion, which is a
mantle-funnel complex of organs with annular muscles. The propulsive force is
created by the periodic intake of water through a relatively large annular slit
in the the cavity of the muscular mantle and subsequent ejection of a jet with
high velocity through a narrow central funnel. Besides this, squid can move
also with the help of fins.
For fig. 4.7 shows a schematic sectional view of the body of the squid. The
size of his body is very diverse. The highest recorded the specimen reached
a length of 17 m with elongated tentacles. And 11 m long were tentacles.
However, large squid rare. More than 90 % of their species are specimens, the
length of which does not exceed 0.5 m.

Fig. 4.7 A schematic diagram of the squid in the time of emission of the jet:
1 – aft end of the squid; 2 – fin; 3 – part of the body, called the mantle;
4 – jet nozzle; 5 – squid jet; 6 – the front part of the squid, which in normal motion is behind;
7 – tentacles; 8 – squid head; 9 – hole in mantle for water intake

The body shape of the squid is most often fusiform and is divided into a
mantle with a fin and a head with a hydro-reactive nozzle and tentacles. The
aft part of the mantle, which when the squid moves under the action of a
hydro jet, is turned to the side movement, rounded, which improves the flow
conditions of his body. The form of frames-round or close to it.
The nozzle of the pulsating water jet propulsion is located behind the head
and its inlet at translational motion the squid is directed in the direction op-
posite to the movement, and the water jet is ejected at an angle of 5...10 ◦

70
to longitudinal axis bodies. The driving force in this case is created only by
pulsating water jet propulsion. Paired fins at this point are tight to the mantle.
The funnel functions as a rotary nozzle of the hydro-jet pulsating propul-
sion. By expanding its free end, squid swims in any direction. Rapid shots of
squid accompanied by strong changes in the shape of the body. So, the largest
diameter of the mantle at the time of filling is one fifth of the length of the
whole body, and when ejected, it is halved.

4.5. Technical modeling of propulsion of aquatic organisms and their

use in the establishment of marine propulsion
The principle of movement of hydrobionts with a hydrojet engine has found
its practical application in shipbuilding. If the wave and fin propulsion as a
means of transportation in the water are used only in the last 20...30 years,
mainly in experimental order, the water jet propulsion is one of the first hy-
draulic propulsion systems on ships, passed a long way of development and
improvement.
Water-jet propulsion has a long history. Patents for water cannons, the first
marine hydraulic propulsion, they were issued more than 300 years ago, when
in 1661 English inventors T. Hood and D. Keynes proposed the design a ship
with a water cannon they called an ”inflatable mech.” At their suggestion, the
jet thrust of the vessel was created by ”forcing water with furs” through the
channel located in the CP. Despite the primitiveness, the construction of the
propulsion proposed T. Hood And D. Hayes, contained the basic elements of
the modern engine.
Since the second half of XVII to the end of XIX century, when the popularity
of water cannon reached the highest level in different countries a huge number
of inventions of various variants of water jet propulsion were registered. Many
inventors in the time believed that the water cannon-the most promising engine,
and therefore predicted him a great future. However, operating experience ships
equipped with water-jet engines did not meet these expectations. It turned out
that the propeller in some cases more than effective. And so in the first half of
the XX century interest in them fell. Since the middle of the XX century the
role of water cannons in shipbuilding has increased again.
Until recently, water cannons were used on inland vessels, in shallow water,
when the work of propellers ineffective due to limited precipitation. Currently,
water jet propulsion systems are widely used in ships for various purposes.
This is explained by the fact that due to the improvement of pumps and the
flow part it was possible to increase the efficiency of water cannons and thus
significantly reduce the gap between the efficiency of water cannons and other
types propellers’. The role of water cannons was also enhanced by the expansion
of their scope of application – they began to be used not only as propellers,
but also as a means of active control (thrusters). Moreover, when speeds over
50...60 ultrasonic water jet propulsion for surface vessels is more efficient than
propeller and so it is used, for example, on hydrofoil ships (HS) instead of
cavitating propellers.

71
 For very long period (more than 300 years) of the development and im-
provement there was a large number of designs water cannons that have found
practical application on ships of the world fleet. The most common design
feature of water cannons is the presence of the guide channel and the working
body. Depending on the type of the latter and the method of fluid acceleration
guide channels are circular or rectangular cross-section.
According to the method of creating a jet of continuous action (for hydro-
bionts jet pulse) water jet propellers used on ships can be classified as motor-
driven and hydro-reactive propellers (fig. 4.8).
The working body of water jet propulsion is most often axial propeller pumps
– single – and multi-stage; less often centrifugal pumps are used. Water jet
propellers are often equipped with devices to rotate the ejected jet, performed
in the form of nozzles, and special rudders that provide reverse jet. As a working
body for hydrojet water cannons (gas water meta) takes compressed gas.

Fig. 4.8 Schemes of a water cannon with a mechanical body:

a – with the release of water; b – with the release of the jet into the atmosphere

The wave motion of the body of aquatic organisms and flapping motion of the
fins to provide forward motion with a constant speed or acceleration prompted
researchers to use this principle to create technical means movement in the
water (surface and underwater vessels, underwater vehicles, etc.). Consider an
example of an experimental and the practical application of the propulsion type
”flapping wing” and the wave propulsion.
In Germany, under the leadership of prof. G. Hertel, studies were carried out
on the characteristics of propulsion systems sea animals and on their basis the
idea of use on the vessel as a vessel is offered and experimentally realized the
mover of the elastic waving wing. For this purpose, a model with an oscillatory
drive was created (fig. 4.9).
As an engine driven by a special drive, this model was used a thin metal
sheet length 0.4 m, height 0.1 m and a thickness of 0.3 mm, which made the
transverse torsional vibrations with the amplitude of the transverse a = 70
mm and torsional vibrations β0 = 35◦ and frequency f = 3.1 s−1, the law of
oscillations-harmonic:

72
 η = a cos 2πf t; β = a cos 2β0f t.
Due to the elastic properties of the plate on its surface there was wave length
λ = 0.55 m and the average phase velocity c = 1.7 m/s. the rate of translational
motion of the model was υ0 = 0.65 m/s, and thus υ0 /c = 0.38. The achieved
value of the average stop created by the waving motor was T ≈ 3 H and the
efficiency of η0 = 0.5...0.6.

Fig. 4.9 Model TUB-TUB-1 with oscillating type engine:

1 – fin (thruster) performing vibrations; 2 – wheel drive transverse displacements; 3 – motor
for rotational movement; 4 – guides; 5 – boom stern rudder; 6 – feed wheel

Fuel economy, which plays a primary role in all sectors of the economy, is of
particular importance in the organization of water transport. Indeed, the vessel,
having a certain rate of fuel, is forced to take on Board its slowly consumed
stock, resulting in increased displacement, and part of the consumed fuel is
spent on its own transportation.
For these reasons, even a small gain in power justifies considerable initial
costs in the construction of the vessel associated with the improvement of its
propulsive qualities. Meanwhile, the vessel, intended for navigation in sea or
lake basins, spends a significant part of the operating time in the conditions of
excitement, which is one of the forms of mechanical energy, the supply of which
is practically inexhaustible. Calculations show that a continuous and useless
flow of energy flows past a ship on a wave, the value of which reaches tens of
thousands of kilowatts. Therefore, the creation of devices that allow using at
least part of this energy to improve the propulsive qualities of the vessel is of
undoubted practical interest. The most convenient from this point of view is
the wave energy going to the rocking of the vessel and accumulated by it in the
form of mechanical energy of oscillatory motion.
The simplest and very perfect hydraulic device for creating a driving force
due to the energy consumption of the pitching (side or longitudinal) is a waving
wing. For the first time in 1936, the idea and theoretical justification for the

73
use of waving wings that consume the energy of the onboard pitching, was
proposed by G. E. Pavlenko. If you imagine the wing is reinforced in the area
of the cheekbones to the underwater part of the hull, it is possible to find such
position of the wing at which the lift force will have a direction conducive to
the promotion of the ship forward. Since the transverse pitching of the vessel is
accompanied by its translational motion, it is necessary that the wing changed
its position, being located at any time at the proper angle of attack. The easiest
way to properly rotate the wing was carried out under the influence of changing
the direction of the velocity of flow of the wing (fig. 4.10).

Fig. 4.10 Diagram of the flapping wing

The outside plating of the ship near the cheekbones are set flapping wings,
performing torsional oscillations about an axis oriented at normal to the outer
skin. The axis of rotation passes in front of the center of the wing pressure;
thus, if the rotation was performed freely, that fins, like weathervanes, would
be located in the direction of flow and lift in this case does not arise. Therefore,
to create the conditions of the lifting force, it is necessary to spring the fin with
the help of any elastic element that returns the fin to the neutral position when
it is deflected in one direction or another.
The principle of its operation is as follows. Let the ship move at a speed of
υ and, in addition, makes a transverse pitching, which gives the location of the
fin transverse velocity u. In this case, the fin will flow around at a rate of W ,
magnitude, and direction which are defined by expressions
p u
W = u 2 + υ2 ; β= .
υ
Being under the action of the resulting flow, the fin will deviate from the
central position by an angle of γ < β due to the action of the elastic element and
will flow around the fluid flow at an angle of attack α = β − γ. In this case there
is the lifting force R, the horizontal component S which is the driving force,
and the vertical component T contributes to the damping of rolling motions of
the vessel.

74
 The idea of using a waving rigid wing as a ship’s propulsion, using the energy
of waves or operating from special drive, found in the last 10...20 years of its
practical application on various ships.
Thus, in the 80s of the Norwegian company ”Wave Control Co” developed
a number of projects of marine propulsion type ”waving wing”, working from
a special drive or on the energy of longitudinal motions of a ship on waves.
Obtained on ship models experimental data, as well as the results of calculations
showed that the vessel with a length of 45 m with stern thrusters in the form
of vertically arranged waving wings, working from a special drive, can reach
speeds of up to 15 knots. On according to the creators, these engines can be
very effective for small vessels and it is advisable to use them on sports, rescue
and towing vessels.
This company has also developed a project of propulsion system that uses
the energy of the longitudinal pitching of the vessel. Installation it consisted
of a horizontally located waving wing mounted on special racks in the bow
tip vessels. The longitudinal pitching fore end makes a vertical harmonic os-
cillations, thereby horizontally located wing, which is attached to the baller,
will make forward-torsional vibrations. This setup was equipped Norwegian
research trawler ”Kustfangs” length of 20.4 m.
Similar studies on the practical application of the fin thruster were conducted
in Japan by Hitachi Zosen. On a fishing vessel with a capacity of 20 reg. tons in
the bow was installed a horizontal plate 1.05x3.80m. Used active (a mechanical
drive and a computer) and passive (energy pitching on the waves and springs)
form of management the bow fin propulsion. Operation of this engine was
recommended for moderate excitement.
The project ”waving wing” as an auxiliary propulsion using the energy of
longitudinal pitching on the excitement was also carried out in Sweden on one
of the small vessels (about 40 m long). Operating experience has shown that
about 60 % the energy expended to move the vessel at a speed of 8 km was
provided by the energy of longitudinal rocking on the wave.
In the 90s, the project of the Institute of mechanics of Moscow state Uni-
versity on one of the stocks of St. Petersburg shipyard the equipment was
carried out by the bow wave propellers (BWP) of the fishing vessel (fig. 4.11).
Model tests in hydrodynamics, Moscow state University (fig. 4.12) confirmed
the improved performance of this vessel at the expense of use of energy of the
oncoming excitement.
The results of the experiment on the ship model in the scale of 1:50 (model
length 2.5 m, the area of the bow wings was 11 % of the areas of overhead
lines, spring stops limited the amplitude of angular oscillations to ± 22 ◦) it was
shown that the model could move at a speed of 0.5 m/s towards waves with a
period of τ = 1.6 s and a height of h = 0.2 m, which corresponds to the speed
of 7 ultrasonic full-scale vessel.
In connection with the development of the world ocean is relevant to increase
the propulsive qualities of man when using muscle energy for swimming with
the use of simple personal tools. Well-known conventional pair rubber fins
industrial production, with which a trained swimmer can increase the speed

75
 Fig. 4.11 Ship with wave propulsion on the slipway in St. Petersburg

Fig. 4.12 The dependence of the speed of the ship on the intensity of the oncoming waves:
1 – speed of the vessel with BWP; 2 – speed of the vessel on still water; 3 – speed of the vessel
without BWP

movement on 15...20 %, compared to swimming without fins a way to ”crawl.”

The idea of using a monofin is that when sailing method ”dolphin” swimmer
oscillates in the vertical plane of the whole body, so effectively work the largest
groups of human muscles-back and abdomen. All this along with the use of
a monofilament, the thin blade of which can significantly bend and thus fit in
the wave nature of the swimmer’s movement, it allows you to get an additional
increase in the speed of swimming. The main engine it is a monofilament
consisting of one blade and a pair of rubber galoshes fastened to the blade. The
usual form of the blade trapezoidal with wavy edge, has a length of 0.65...0.90
m and a span of 0.65...0.87 m. The athlete of high qualification can to develop
an average thrust of T ≈ 300 N, which allows to reach a speed of up to 2.75
m/s, which is biologically the limit for humans.
Above has been considered as the use of engines for technical means of move-

76
ment in the form of ”waving wing”, which is a technical analogue of fin movers
of fish and cetaceans. Stay on the wave movements of the body of aquatic
organisms to create the wave propulsion.
There are various projects of elastic coating of the hulls of surface vessels,
submarines and vehicles on the surface of which a ”running wave” is created.
For example, in the United States in 1965 was published a patent in which
the propulsion system of the vessel was proposed to use deformable in a cer-
tain way elastic coating of the body. Such coverage shall provide the vessel
with the necessary emphasis due to wave-like deformations created by a special
mechanical structure inside the hull.
Of interest is the patent issued in 1962 in the United States for a new design
of hydrodynamic propulsion for underwater vehicles. The mover contains four
elements, which are arranged symmetrically along the frames of the UV in the
form of longitudinal boules – two in CP and two in the WL plane. The boules
are made of an elastic material and are created with the help of a hydraulic
system ”running wave”, driving the submarine in motion. When turning on
the hydraulic elements located on one of the sides, UV will move in the plane
of the overhead line. In turn, the depth maneuvering is provided by elastic
bullets, located in CP. The patent States that the engine does not require a
propeller, vertical and horizontal handlebars, which improves the sealing of the
robust housing, provides high maneuverability and increases the stealth of the
submarine, as the propulsion system operates silently.
In the 60s of the American engineer Bowles was built a small catamaran,
the joints of the body which made the wave movements like a dolphin’s. As
shown by observations, the movement of this ”catamaran-dolphin” did not oc-
cur hurry up!, which provides noiseless movement. This immediately became
interested in the United States with the prospect of development UV project
with a body dismembered by three swivel joints, believing that due to the
absence of propellers, engines and gearboxes discovery UV will be hindered.

5. Marine animals – aides in the development of the

ocean
5.1. Preparation of marine animals for underwater scientific re-
search
In previous chapters, the principles of structure, structure and functions of
hydrobiont locational organs were studied in order to improve the propulsive
qualities and maneuverability of technical means of movement in water, as well
as the creation of new technical systems and means of development of the world
ocean. At the same time, since the 60s of the last century, studies have been
carried out in various countries to explore the possibility of using marine animals
for direct participation in underwater scientific work.
According to Navy programs, studies conducted in the United States have
shown the possibility of preparing marine animals (dolphins, sea lions and seals)

77
for this type of work. Thus, in the laboratories ”Sealab II and III” (USA) dol-
phin Taffy (fig. 5.1) went in harness, found and brought various items and
returned to the laboratory for the horn, which he heard at a distance of up to
30 m (man such a signal could only be heard at a distance of 1 m). Studies have
shown the ability of dolphins to deliver various items from the surface to scuba
divers, as well as to transport them along the bottom of the sea with the help of
special harnesses. These items include instruments, medicines, samples for lab-
oratory tests, etc. In the 60s of the American engineer Bowles was built a small
catamaran, the joints of the body which made the wave movements like a dol-
phin’s. As shown by observations, the movement of this ”catamaran-dolphin”
did not occur hurry up!, which provides noiseless movement. This immediately
became interested in the United States with the prospect of development UV
project with a body dismembered by three swivel joints, believing that due to
the absence of propellers, engines and gearboxes discovery UV will be hindered.

Fig. 5.1 Dolphin Taffy

In the test center of the US Navy missile control dolphins were involved in the
search launching pads missiles that fly at launch with the rocket. Dolphin by the
sound of a buzzer attached to the sunken pillow, looking for her, and followed
him a diver made the rise of the pillow. In addition, dolphins were trained to
attach cables to submerged torpedoes and rockets for their subsequent ascent
from the seabed.
In addition, in the laboratories of the ”Sealab” was studied and other features
of the use of marine animals as helpers of man in the development of the
oceans. In this regard, great importance was attached to the study of the spoken
language of dolphins, which can significantly facilitate direct communication
between them and the person.
It should also be noted the research conducted by sharks in the oceanariums

78
of various countries (USA, UK, Australia, etc.) mainly to develop measures to
protect people from their attacks. Despite the difficulties in studying sharks,
were also conducted experiments on the training of sharks and determine their
abilities to distinguish objects by shape and color.

5.2. The possibility of using marine animals in combat operations

In the foreign press in recent years, actively discussed various projects of the
use of dolphins in the military environment. For example, it is suggested that
dolphins can be trained to carry out patrol service, listening to the noise of sub-
marines and signaling their approach, to detect mines and torpedoes, maintain
communication between surface and underwater vessels, towing Aquanauts.
Kamikaze dolphins with dynamite in a harness could chase and RAM surface
ships and submarines.
However, an analysis of the physical capabilities of dolphins shows that some
of these projects are unfounded.
Due to the limitation of the maximum speed (20...22 knots) dolphins may
not be attracted to pursuit of nuclear submarines, the speed of which is more
than 30 km. Moreover, dolphins can’t take to the depth necessary to carry out
this military task. The largest depth of immersion for dolphins, about where
reported, is achieved taffy, and it was 168 m. the Time for immersion and
emersion took 2 23 min.
When assessing the reality of projects of this kind, we should not forget that
dolphins can not hold their breath for more than 6...10 min.
Equally unconvincing is the possibility of using dolphins to detect submarines
because the sonar of the dolphin action in the horizontal plane extends to a
distance of not more than 100 m. At present it is not known whether the
dolphin to monitor the situation in the sector is approximately 1000 m and
more.

5.3. Spoken and sonar abilities of dolphins

Training of marine animals to perform various tasks of industrial and military
nature would be greatly facilitated if a person could establish a conversation
with them.
The ability of marine animals to make sounds is studied in various aspects:
– organs by which marine animals make sounds;
– sounds of animals talking to each other;
– sounds sonar destination;
– possibility of sound communication of sea animals with the person.
The study of spoken and sonar abilities of marine animals is carried out
in two interrelated areas-laboratory research and field tests with the involve-
ment of specialists in various fields (physics, mathematics, linguistics, medicine,
anatomy, acoustics, electronics, trainers and specialists in experimental psychol-
ogy).

79
 Organs through which marine animals make sounds. The most well-
known among researchers of the acoustic and language abilities of dolphins is an
American scientist, a neurologist by education D. Lilly, who believes that dol-
phins possess intelligence enough to teach them to deliver to the target warhead
missiles to undermine mines like a suicide ”kamikaze” and, most importantly,
dolphins can be taught to communicate with humans.
Dolphins have two, and possibly three devices for sound reproduction, which
they can use both separately and simultaneously. The source of the sound is
the bow orifices of the windpipe. The right channel of the respiratory is slightly
larger than the left, which affects the frequency of sounds played. The dolphin
can use the left windpipe to reproduce the sound, the height of which increases
over time, and the right – for the sound, the height of which falls. When mixing
sounds, signals with frequencies equal to the sum or difference of frequencies of
the two channels occur. The signal with a difference frequency is in the range
of sounds perceived by a person, while the sound with the total frequency is out
of the range of audibility. In this regard, the sounds produced by the dolphin
lie in the frequency range from 200 Hz to 150 kHz.
Sounds of spoken communication of sea animals among themselves.
Observations show that dolphins exchange sounds with each other, which have
the character of whistles and clicks. When communicating, they always respond
in the same form in which they were sent a request, and the dolphin plays sounds
in the pauses between the whistles of another. There were also deviations
from this rule, when dolphins whistle simultaneously, and these whistles are
reproduced synchronously.
Original experiments conducted in the laboratories of the United States D.
Lilly, D. Butt and D. Bastion, it was found that in the process of communication
between a system of information transmission in dolphins is acoustic. Moreover,
the study of numerous acoustic signals emitted by animals led to the conclusion
that dolphins do talk to each other and that their communication is much more
complex than a simple exchange of signals. The results of the experiments also
showed how developed the acoustic and mental abilities of dolphins compared
to other animals, including primates.
Sonar sounds. Location signals from dolphins serve two main purposes:
orientation in the environment and recognition of objects. When swimming
even in clear water in good light dolphins produce short explosive sounds that
are heard as loud clicks. The purpose of these sounds is to obtain information
about nearby large objects. If the dolphin identifies a target of interest, the
frequency of sent pulses increases from 20 ... 80 pulses per second to several
hundred. The sound is perceived as the creaking of the opening door. Exam-
ination of the surrounding area dolphin performs, turning his head and using
two separate sources of sound.
It was also found that, making clicking sounds and turning his head from
side to side, the dolphin perceives the reflected signal. Then he sends even
more trigger signals, and with greater frequency. The dolphin determines the
distance to the object by the time interval between the sent and reflected signals.
Observations have shown that dolphins have high sonar abilities, allowing to

80
detect even a small difference in the size of objects, and, moreover, can recognize
the material from which these objects are made. In the latter case, they seem to
use information other than the intensity of the reflected signal. The threshold
of sensitivity, which is the minimum level of sound felt by a dolphin, about the
same as in humans. However, the range of perceived frequencies is wider and
is 75...150 kHz.
The possibility of audio communication of marine animals with the
person. This direction is interesting and most promising, because observations
and experiments show that the dolphin has better acoustic devices than any
other animal. Ongoing in this direction of research might help to recreate
zvukopodrazhanii device dolphin. It is also possible that dolphins will be able
to communicate with a person using a certain vocabulary, and become his
assistant in the development of the oceans.
The solution to the problem of man and dolphin requires the use of means
of compensation for inconsistencies in the frequency characteristics of their au-
ditory apparatus, apparatus for sound reproduction and environmental prop-
erties. For example, in the sounds of the human voice are ultrasonic signals
that he does not perceive, but which can hear a dolphin. To shift a person’s
speech to a region hearing of a dolphin and on the contrary created a special
electronic transmitters, called translators ”human-dolphin” and ”dolphin-man”,
the scheme of which is shown in fig. 5.2.

Fig. 5.2 Scheme of the translator ”dolphin man”:

1 – microphone; 2 – to the tape recorder; 3 – amplifier; 4 – translator ”dolphin-man”;
5 – amplifier; 6 – transmitting hydrophone; 7 – converted human speech; 8 – dolphin voice;
9 – acoustic feedback; 10 – hydrophone; 11 – power supply and amplifier;
12 – translator ”dolphin-man”; 13 – to the oscilloscope; 14 – amplifier; 15 – to the
microphone;
16 – sound amplifier; 17 – speaker; 18 – oscilloscope

81
 Translator ”dolphin-man” converts human speech into sinusoidal signals of
different frequencies, having the character of whistles, they look like dolphins.
Dolphins, in turn, are taught to understand each of these whistles. During
the experiments the researcher is in the cockpit and speaks in front of the
microphone connected to the transducer ”dolphin-man”. Words spoken with
a frequency of 200 . . . 3500 Hz, shifted towards higher frequencies. Thus, the
signal coming to the hydrophone is in the frequency band 2 . . . 35 kHz. The
converter itself consists of a pulse detector of speech frequencies, a speech to
DC converter and a whistle generator. The logic circuit turns the signal on and
off, filtering out sounds that do not correspond to human speech. Translator
”dolphin-man” transforms dolphin whistles into synthetic speech by generating
a constant a current with a voltage proportional to the frequency of dolphin
whistles. This voltage is then converted into double pulses, the time between
which changes with the expectation of providing a better understanding of the
synthesized language.
American scientists D. Lilly and D. Button was discovered amazing ability
of dolphins, rarely found in animals-to reproduce the words and associate them
with objects. This ability of dolphins was achieved in the process of learning and
consisted in the simultaneous reproduction of the ”word” through a translator
and demonstrations of the subject or action. So, one of the employees D. Button
managed to ensure that the dolphin began to connect the word with a certain
object. He accustomed the animal to the sight of this object, from time to
time repeating, for example: ”ball”, ”hat”, ”stick”. And animal quite quickly
began to associate this object with its name. Also, if the dolphin repeated the
word or reproduced it close enough, he heard another word corresponding to
the approval in the language of whistles, and received a ”prize” in the form of
fish. Vocabulary was limited, because under a large the number of words the
observer could not always understand what the dolphin ”said”.

82
6. List of references
1.Hydrobionics in shipbuilding. – Moscow: Central research Institute of
information and technical and economic research, 1970.
2.Kozlov L. F. Theoretical biohydrodynamics. – K.: Vischa school, 1983.
3.Nosov E. p. Fin propulsion and steering complex // Shipbuilding. – 1996.
– 1.
4.Pavlenko G. E., Selected papers. – K.: Naukova Dumka, 1978.
5.Pershin S. I. Fundamentals of hydroponics: Proc. benefit. – L.: Shipbuild-
ing, 1988.
6.Slizhevsky N. B. Basics of hydrobionics. – Nikolaev: NKI, 1992.
7.Chirichenko V., Konstantinov G. From the body to the wave propulsion
// Navy. – 1996. – 2.
8.Foilpropellen Kanrevolusjonere skipsfarten // Tekt.Ukeb. – 1988. – 39.
9.Isshiki H., Murakami M. Wave power utilization into ship propulsion //
Proc. of the 5th. Intern. Offshore Mech. and Arct. End. (OMAE) Symp. –
Tokyo, 1986.
10.Potze W. On Optimum Sculling Propulsion // J. Ship. Res. – 1986. –
30.
11.Potze W., Sparenberg J.A. On the efficiency of optimum finite amplitude
sculling propulsion// Intern. Shipbuild. Progr. – 1983. – 99.
12.Jakobsen E. The working principle of the foil propeller // Norw. Shipp
News. – 1983. – 39.
13.Wave power for ship propulsion // Mat. Ship. – 1983. – 54.

83
Contents
1. Introduction 3
1.1. Bionics and its contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2. A subject of a hydrobionics and its place in a cycle of sciences
about technical means of driving in water . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3. Hydrobionics methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4. Hydrobionic and biological features of swimming of hydrobionts 6

2. Functional and morphological properties and kinematics of

non-stationary swimming of cetacea and high-speed fishes 8
2.1. Features of a shape of a body of effectively floating cetacea . . 8
2.2. Features of a shape of a body and fins at high-speed fishes . . 15
2.3. General characteristics and kinematics analysis of unsteady nav-
igation of hydrobionts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4. Generalized dependences of kinematic characteristics of hydro-
bionts navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3. The water resistance to the movement of aquatic organisms 22

3.1. General characteristics of water resistance to the movement of
hydrobionts. Bioenergetic evaluation of resistance. The effect of
D.Gray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2. Water resistance to the movement of hydrobionts. Physical
causes and phenomena accompanying the emergence of resistance 25
3.3. Laminarized body shape of high-speed cetaceans and high-speed
fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4. Application of the results hydrological research body shape of
aquatic organisms in the technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.5. Properties of the skin of cetaceans actively regulate flow resistance 34
3.6. Artificial elastic damping coatings to reduce hydrodynamic fric-
tion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.7. The use of elastic-damping coating in shipbuilding . . . . . . . . 43
3.8. Hydrological regularities of the structure of the covers of high-
speed fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.9. Artificial control of the boundary layer by introducing polymer
additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.10. Testing of models of vessels and plates in polymer solutions . . . 52
3.11. Use of polymer additives for technical purposes . . . . . . . . . 54
3.12. The effect of unsteady motion on the resistance of aquatic or-
ganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.13. Movement of dolphins on the bow wave of the ship . . . . . . . 58

4. Marine animals and fish propulsion system 59

4.1. General provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2. Wave mover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3. Flapping fin propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

84
 4.4. Propulsive hydrojet engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.5. Technical modeling of propulsion of aquatic organisms and their
use in the establishment of marine propulsion . . . . . . . . . . 71

5. Marine animals – aides in the development of the ocean 77

5.1. Preparation of marine animals for underwater scientific research 77
5.2. The possibility of using marine animals in combat operations . . 79
5.3. Spoken and sonar abilities of dolphins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

6. List of references 83
86