Professional Documents
Culture Documents
HYDROBIONICS IN SHIPBUILDING
Electronic edition
Autors:
Tymoshenko V. F.
The textbook is devoted to the study of the basics of hydrobionics, that is, the
science of the principles of construction, structure and functions of locomotion
of large and fast-moving hydrobionts with the aim of improving the propulsive
and maneuverable qualities of technical means of movement in water and to
create new promising systems.
The tutorial can be useful for students in specialty 135 ”Shipbuilding” and
may be useful for graduate students.
3
However, as N.E. Zhukovsky noticed in due time, it isn’t necessary to copy
(yes it and is impossible!) bionts which were created also were improved by
the nature during many millions of years. It is necessary to comprehend the
main mechanisms and laws creatively optimal solutions of the nature and to use
them for perfecting existing and creations of in essence new technical systems.
Therefore new objects of technique can look outwardly and designly absolutely
differently, than natural prototypes. For example, the wing of the plane which is
rigidly fastened to the fuselage is considerable differs by the form and structure
from the waving folding pen-type wing of a bird though the principle of creation
of a body force at them is identical.
4
direct connection of a hydrobionics and hydrodynamics of tools movements in
water. Moreover, in a theoretical hydromechanics in this regard there was a
recent trend – biohydrodynamics, engaged in an analytical and pilot study of
non-stationary swimming of hydrobionts. Besides, hydrobionics as the complex
scientific direction affects on biology as participation of biologists in hydrobionic
researches acquaints them with the quantitative assessment of these or those
qualities of hydrobionts, wide use of control and measuring equipments, to
application of a mathematical apparatus and theory of model operation.
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application of an incentive bait. Besides training is carried out in sea artificial
oceanariums for rather short term.
Classical example of studying of swimming of dolphins immediately in the sea
are underwater filmings of group of researchers under the leadership of Jacques
Yves Cousteau. Filmings were carried out from the underwater observation
camera supplied with windows and located in a forward section of the vessel and
also by means of aquanauts. Such filmings give larger and reliable information.
Systematic researches of swimming of dolphins were conducted by the staff of
institute of a hydromechanics of AS of Ukraine in rectilinear the coastal channel
of rectangular section with a monorail and carts. Average longwise the channel
a side part is glazed, and on other wall and the bottom of the channel the
abacus is put. It allows to investigate elements of a kinematics of swimming of
sea animals in the vertical and horizontal planes by means of land movie and
still photography.
The greatest distribution at a research of shallow fishes was gained by the
return method with use of selfcontained hydrodynamic pipes in which water
circulates and the hydrobiont floats towards to a stream. At equality of flow
rates and a hydrobiont the last will be in the particular place of the glazed
section of the pipe. It is represented very convenient as simplifies the procedure
measurements, visual observations and filmings. A shortcoming are inadequate
natural conditions (limitation of space, higher degree of turbulence, etc.). It, in
turn, leads to the fact that when using the return method the boundary layer
at a hydrobiont can be turbulent whereas when swimming in vivo at equal
numbers Reynolds of Re it is laminar on all length of a hydrobiont or part of
its length.
6
Rather not successful in evolutionary sense was a swimming of hydrobionts
by means of a large number of cilia which is observed among the simplest
coelenterates and comb jellies.
Jet propulsion is effective only at rather large numbers of Re, and driving
by means of cilia – at rather small values of these numbers. The wavy way of
swimming in this sense is the universal.
In relation to technical means of driving in water studying of hydrobionic
features of fast-floating fishes, dolphins and squids is of the greatest interest.
7
More detailed data on functional and morphological properties and hydro-
dynamic aspects of driving of hydrobionts and possibility of their use are given
in tab.2.
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9
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cetacea have the damping integument of the complex structure which existence
allows to reduce considerably the water resistance to driving. So, at dolphins
skin consists of several more or less expressed layers between which the con-
necting membranes which are an integument framework are located. Thickness
skin at dolphins 10 times more than at the largest bony akulovy fishes.
Fig. 2.1 Ordinary short-beaked common dolphin: a – the back view; b – a side view
Let’s note features of the structure of the header of cetacea. The neck at them
very short and practically doesn’t differentiate the head and trunk. The ordi-
nary short-beaked common dolphin and a pro-dolphin whom fall into the most
high-speed marine animal have the lengthiest narrow rostrum 4) and strongly
allocated beak. Sea pigs and large white whales are deprived of the speaker
of a rostrum, a beak at them is absent. Presence at dolphins of the extended
rostrum of a beak is explained by generally biological reasons (piece capture)
and definitely affects its hydrodynamic drag force.
The toothed whale cachalot with very large head – one of the most low-speed
cetacea – dives for large squids on depth up to 1500 m.
Dolphins of almost all high-speed types are good jumpers (fig. 2.2). They
jump out of water on several meters. So, for example long pro-dolphin, jumping
out of water, rotates in air does up to two and a half turns around the long
axis.
Jump out as well low-speed humpback whales. The sea pig and a white whale
don’t jump out of water. Theoretical and pilot studies demonstrate that for
permanently moving in real liquid solid bodies don’t exist the universal optimum
form of the surface corresponding to the minimum resistance of driving. Each
range of numbers of Re and the nature of driving are answered by the optimum
form. In this regard we will consider feature of developed in the course of the
long evolution of a shape of a body of cetacea, it is nonstationary floating at Re≈
107...108. Quantitative information on some well studied types of cetacea more
detailed information on characteristics of the Black Sea dolphins is provided in
tab. 1.1, and table.1.2.
In tab. 1.1 maximal Lm and zoological by L length of cetacea measured from
a nose tip to a fork of a tail fin are given; H – the maximum height; xmax –
4)
Rostrum – the forefront of a brain skull.
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Fig. 2.2 The largest high-speed orca dolphin jumps out of water
the relative distance of the largest section from a body nose; l/L – the relative
range of a tail fin and h/L – the relative height of a back fin.
In tab. 1.2: LK – housing length without rostrum and a tail fin; LD – the
total length of a body of a dolphin.
Analyzing data of measurement, it is possible to note the following features
of a body of cetacea for which makes Reynolds numbers Re= υL/ν = 10 7 . . . 108.
At all dolphins and whales body contours in the vertical diametrical plane have
the asymmetrical form with a little curved centerline and the symmetric – in
the horizontal plane. The form of frames continuously changes from bow to a
tail; the cylindrical insert is absent. High-speed dolphins have the frames, the
close to an ellipse; ellipticity degree B/H =0.84...0.91. The greatest deviations
of a form of frames from an ellipse are observed on bow and tail kilevaty sites.
The relative distance of the largest section from a body nose n max =0.40 at
the specific elongation of L/B =5.0. High-speed dolphins have the laminarizing
form of a body. The generalized coefficient forms of the Black Sea dolphins
η = W 2/3/Ω =0.15 – is slightly higher, than for bodies of a torpedo-shaped
form that hydrodynamic is expedient for achievement greatest possible volume
at rather small hydrodynamic drag force.
All fins of cetacea: waving horizontally located tail, the fixed back and the
mobile steam rooms chest single-blade fins – represent continuous elastic wings
with a curvilinear outline of front and back edges (fig. 2.3).
The tail fin located at the end of a stalk plays a role of the waving propulsion
unit and has the deltoid form with average dredging on a trailing edge which
divides it into two blades – left-hand and right. Chest mobile fins – a oar shaped
look are also depth wheels.
The vertical back fin playing a stabilizer role when swimming in the hori-
zontal plane is available for the majority cetacea. It is absent at a high-speed
northern whale dolphin, a big sea pig and a large white whale. It is possi-
ble to believe that the lack of a back fin, for example, at a whale dolphin is
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13
14
Fig. 2.3 Shapes of a body and fins of a dolphin
compensated by keel which is well expressed top and bottom on a tail stalk.
The hydrodynamic analysis of a transverse section of fins of cetacea allows
to draw a conclusion that section profiles coincide with the JOUK and NASA
profiles, known in an aerodynamics. So, for example, the profile of section
of a sea pig coincides with profile of NASA which has the maximum relative
thickness 19.6 %, remote from a leading edge apart 35 % chord length.
The relative sizes at fins of cetacea are of great importance. So, relative
range of a tail fin l = l/L makes l = 0.24...0.27 and decreases with body height
of number of Re = υL/ν. The exception is made by high-speed killer whales
and low-speed whales – gray and a cachalot at which the relative range much
higher and reaches 0.26...0.29 that explains larger maneuverability of deeply
diving killer whales and cachalots. It is important to note that at all dolphins
and whales a range tail fin exceeds the greatest width of a body, i.e. the tail
fin supports body dimensions.
The analysis of design datas of profiles of fins of cetacea showed that they
even when swimming near the free surface not cavitate as angles of attack them
at high speeds don’t exceed 3...4 degr. It is quite clear that in these conditions
a cavitation doesn’t arise. Otherwise it would cause pain at animals.
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lance bearers, marlins and sailing vessels) with the maximum relative speed of
υmax /L > 10. The biological principle of construction and functioning of these
fishes can be used for perfecting existing and creations of new technical means
of driving in water. From this point of view the following signs are the most
interesting high-speed fishes.
Well-streamlined and symmetric with respect to the vertical cen-
tral plane (CP) body with oval frames, transforming from the verti-
cal oval behind the head of the fish to the horizontal – in the area
of the tail stem. Characteristic features are: smooth body shape, which in
both horizontal and vertical planes meet laminarized profile; the largest cross-
section is spaced from the tip of the nose at a distance of x max /L > 0.35;
relative dimensions for high-speed fish are within the following limits: L/H =
3.5...7.0; B/H = 0.56...0.77. In this regard, for example, tuna with short thick
body and inflexible vertebral column, adapted to high-frequency and low am-
plitude oscillating body. While the wahoo, belonging to the group of bony fish,
has a long thin body, adapted to the flexural low-frequency and with great am-
plitude of oscillation of the body. Similar differences for the cartilaginous-white
shark and mako shark.
In high-speed fish are well streamlined all protruding parts: the eyes have
fairings; fins are relatively small, and some of the them, for example the dorsal
and lateral for tuna, go into special grooves in the body of marine organisms;
gills lids surface are smooth and the water release when moving is synchronized
with the vibrations of the tail fin.
The presence of elements of mechanical and biological control of the bound-
ary layer formed on the surface of the hydrobiont. Tuna fish, which have a
relatively short body, have a separation of the boundary layer when they move.
The presence of ”corset” of the coarser skin and scales on the smooth surface
of the body before its widest part changes like a Prandtl ring flow mode and
thereby shifts the point of the boundary layer downstream, thereby reducing
the resistance to movement marine organisms. Isolation of mucous matter in
the boundary layer, for example, swordfish also leads to a significant reduce
resistance.
Vertical tail fin – double-bladed variable sweep with large elongation λ = 8
(for cetacean λ = 6), hard, without muscle, protrudes beyond the surface of the
body and makes high-frequency oscillations.
In addition to high – speed tuna and shark fish, it is necessary to highlight
a group of large marine predatory xyphoid fish, which distinguished by their
exposed front of the head bone astromomy. These are high-speed swordfish,
spearmen, marlin and sailboats.
The greatest short-term speed of swimming (up to 30...35 m/s) has a sword-
fish (fig. 2.4). It has a total length of up to 3 m, of which 1/3 is a wedge-shaped
flattened sword. The maximum speed of the fastest swordfish was first defined
by A. N. Krylov on the strength of her blow to the side of the vessel. Known
fact, when the swordfish struck the copper-coated side cladding, oak cladding
and the frame, with a thickness of 30 cm, who was stuck with her broken sword.
Experimental studies conducted in the wind tunnel and cavitation in the
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pipes and towing tank basins plastic models of swordfish with a length of 1 m at
different speeds and depths of immersion, allowed to detect the advantage of the
body shape of swordfish compared to other high-speed fish. With regard to the
resistance of solids, it can be concluded that the body with contours swordfish
have advantages over bodies of rotation of traditional contours-noticeably lower
friction resistance in submerged state and relatively little wave resistance when
moving near a free surface. In this sense, the swordfish be regarded as extremely
high-speed marine organisms.
In addition to the shape of the body necessary prerequisites for the phenom-
enal speed of the swordfish are:
– the presence of a powerful motor-motor complex. Muscles be 67 % of the
total body mass that is considered to be biologically limiting. Even in compar-
ison with the high-speed orca dolphin and shark mako, the energy intensity of
the swordfish is twice as high. And in the vast most fish muscles are 30...45 %;
– the presence of a powerful secretory apparatus that allows to produce and
secrete into the boundary layer a mucous substance that can significantly reduce
the friction resistance;
– the tail fin is a highly efficient waving motor, which due to the large
elongation and large amplitude of the transverse swings has a high efficiency;
– sharply released swordfish rostrum plays a role in reducing resistance,
mainly due to the stabilization of the direct course with powerful strokes of
the tail fin and some reduction in friction resistance.
In conclusion, a brief review of the hydrodynamically effective morphological
qualities we give a comparative assessment of the research data of some species
of high-speed fish (table.1.3).
As follows from table.1.3, morphological data on waving fin propellers of
high-speed dolphins and fish are in good agreement. For example, with the in-
creasing number of Re on the body length of marine organisms by two orders of
magnitude elongation of fin propulsion increases almost 3 times. The stiffness
17
and frequency of the waving fins also have a noticeable effect on the elongation.
So, for pelamida, wahoo and tuna, has high frequency and the rigid fin, elon-
gation more than the dolphins, having malozatratnye and flexible enough tail
fins.
And finally, the flapping of the caudal fin propulsion in cetaceans and speed
of the fish is endowed with the following advantages:
– quickly and smoothly turn on and off, telling the body acceleration and
deceleration;
– work well when overloaded; the ability to use as well as organs of motion
control.
Compared with the engines used in technology, they have disadvantages:
– unsuitable for reverse;
– must necessarily be combined with wave propulsion of the body.
However, it is noted in hydrobionical sense, the shortcomings of fin propul-
sion is technically surmountable.
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The most reliable way to obtain information about the mechanism of hydro-
bionts navigation is direct and reverse experiments. During the experiment, the
hydrobiont must be in conditions close to natural, and quickly adapt to these
conditions. To do this, it is necessary to provide adequate natural habitat for
the following factors: water salinity, ambient temperature, turbulence, light,
etc.
For a long time of evolution of animals in the aquatic environment (about 1
billion years) the predominant consolidation received species changes, increasing
the ability of hydrobionts to survive and produce abundant offspring. This, in
turn, led to the appearance of perfect methods of swimming at a relatively low
cost of energy, which undoubtedly deserves to be studied from both scientific
and practical points of view.
In nature, there are quite a number of ways to swim in the aquatic environ-
ment. Among them, the most common in mobile of aquatic organisms received
an undulating way. Less common and less successful in the evolutionary sense
was observed among the simplest coelenterates and crests way to swim with a
large number of cilia. The opposite of undulating is jet propelled by the ejec-
tion of jets. So swim hydra and jellyfish, as well as cephalopods, such as squid.
Some cephalopods also have fins, which are used for maneuvering at low speeds.
Among vertebrates jet swimming does not occur.
Jet propulsion is effective only for sufficiently large Reynolds numbers, and
the motion by the cilia – for small values of this number. The wave-like method
of swimming is the most universal and acceptable in a wide range of Reynolds
numbers.
There are three most common forms of wave motion of large hydrobionts:
acne, when the wave motion involved the whole body; the scombroid, when
the wave motion involves the stern of the body and the caudal fin; and finally,
the fin, when wave movements are carried out mainly by the tail fin, while the
whole body of the hydrobiont in the wave motion is not participates. Along
with this, there is also a ray-like method of movement, when the traveling wave
of deformation runs only along the elongated dorsal and lateral fins. The body
of the hydrobiont in the latter case does not make wave movements.
Eel-like way of swimming eels, lungfish fish and snakes. And purely acne-
like way fish use when swimming only at high speed. Analysis scombroidei
method of navigation shows that the effective swimming fish with elongated
large Reynolds numbers do not necessarily propagate the propulsive wave along
the entire body. In this case, along the bow stern of the body the propulsive
wave is small provided that it increases aft as it approaches the caudal fin.
The analysis of hydrodynamic features of hydrobionts navigation allows to
draw the following conclusions. Because the scombroid fish and cetaceans float
at large Reynolds numbers reaching 108, they are the most interesting objects
of study. Acne-like fish are too elongated and mobile, so the parameters of
their movement are not very high. Squid swimming is very specific. With all
the variety of scombroid fish, there are some general trends regarding the shape
of the body. So, have slowly floating fish body body is more flat. High-speed
fish and cetaceans have forms approaching the body of rotation. The relative
19
elongation of the first and second is five, which corresponds to its optimal value.
Note the symmetry of the horizontal projection of all slowly floating fish and
cetaceans. Asymmetry of the body, if any, it is only in the vertical plane. Such
details of external bodies of stabilization and control of hydrobionts swimming
are also important, as a retractable folding fins.
The following parameters are used to characterize the kinematics of regular
unsteady navigation of hydrobionts: L, B and H – length, width and height
of the hydrobiont body; A – the oscillation range of the fin mover; A/L – the
relative scale fin propulsion; T – cycle duration (period); t – duration of the
regular regime of swimming; n – oscillation frequency of the fin mover; ω = 2πn
– cyclic frequency; υ0 – average swimming speed; υ0/L – medium relative speed;
c is the phase velocity of the locomotor wave; c/υ0 is the relative phase velocity;
λ – the length of the locomotive wave; m = L/λ – the number of locomotor
waves within the length of the hydrobiont; Re= υ0 L/ν is the Reynolds number;
ShA = A/(T υ0) – the Strouhal number scope of fin propulsion.
20
that the average speed of the hydrobiont of this species (Φ = idem) is directly
proportional to the oscillation frequency n at the same body length L = idem,
i.e.
21
m = 1.10...2.50; c/υ0 = 1.40...2.60; ShA = 0.20...0.45.
Finally, one of the most important kinematic characteristics of fish and
cetaceans swimming is the maximum speed of υmax , knowledge of which is
necessary to assess the energy capabilities of hydrobionts swimming and their
modeling, as well as the development of rational methods, tools and tools.
The following empirical formula is obtained from the measurements of the
short-term impulse speed of navigation in the sea of some species of cetaceans:
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high-speed qualities have a number of amazing psychophysical features, such as
the ability to listen, make sounds of different nature, remember those or other
phenomena, and also trusting location to people and easily, with which incur
training and breeding. Hydrodynamic studies of cetaceans concerned the shape
of the body in terms of the possibility of using its features in the design sub-
marine. The practical result of these studies was the shape of the body of the
experimental UV ”Albacore”, lowered on water in 1953. In the future, a similar
form was used in the design of both foreign and domestic nuclear submarines.
A systematic study of the peculiarities of the swimming of dolphins was
initiated in 1960 when the military Department of the United States was the
funding of the scientific program, the purpose of which was to train dolphins to
use them as assistants in the development of the ocean, as well as determining
the maximum speed of their navigation. The first observations of the trained
dolphins have confirmed the existing opinion that they are able to move at high
speeds for a long time time’s. In this regard, the task was set to study the
mechanism of movement of their bodies and physiological characteristics that
provide high-speed quality at a relatively low cost of energy.
It should be noted that for the first time the discrepancy between the mus-
cular power of cetaceans and the achieved speeds was found in 1963, the famous
English zoologist professor D.Gray. Comparing the power expended on the mo-
tion of solids, similar to the body of a dolphin, D.Gray came to the conclusion
that at a speed of 20 knots dolphin should expend power, which is almost 10
times the power of his muscles. This discrepancy was later called the ”Gray
paradox” or ”Gray effect”.
One possible explanation for this paradox is the assumption that dolphins
that move at speeds corresponding to the turbulent flow regime, have the ability
to laminarize the boundary layer and that this ability should be sought in
special properties of the skin, as well as in the muscular and vascular systems
of dolphins.
Bioenergy costs of animals and including hydrobionts can now be estimated
with a sufficient degree of accuracy on metabolism (metabolism), which is asso-
ciated with all life processes. This takes into account the reacting components
and their caloric content, primarily oxygen consumption. Considering the hy-
drobiont in swimming as a living machine, the average power the total exchange
of N can be called physiologically available power, which is chemically released
from the substrate the body through metabolism. While the hydrodynamic
power Ne = Rυ0 spent on movement the constant velocity υ0 (where R is the
average resistance force) is related to the active exchange power N a by the
following relation:
Ne = ηid ηm Na , (3.1)
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Fig. 3.1 Dependence of the power of the main and active exchange on the weight of the biont
N = kN0, (3.2)
where N0 is the average power of the main exchange spent on the activity of
the hydrobiont at rest; k – coefficient of multiplicity, determined by the nature
of the work performed by the animal, its activity and duration.
In this case, the active power of Na mammal can exceed the basic exchange
in k = 1,6; 4,8 and 25 times (fig. 3.1), in this connection
Na = N − N0 = (k − 1)N0. (3.3)
As can be seen from fig. 3.1, the main exchange in bottlenose dolphins
corresponds to that in humans (line 1). However, in the excited the condition
of dolphins (bottlenose dolphins and porpoise) their basic exchange exceeds the
0
norm more than twice (line 1 ).
Another, no less effective way to estimate the bioenergy costs of the hydro-
biont, is to determine their based on the processing of high – speed aquatic
animals-dolphins, fish and squid-jumping motion pictures.
For example, according to the results of processing of jumping films, the
maximum the power output of a dolphin L = 2.0 m and m = 80 kg, which
amounted to Ne = 3 the whale at a speed of out of the water υ0 = 9 m/s.
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3.2. Water resistance to the movement of hydrobionts. Physical
causes and phenomena accompanying the emergence of resis-
tance
The body of marine organisms in the general case performs spatial motion
in an infinite viscous fluid. Regardless of the nature of the movement due to
the interaction of the surface of the body of hydrobionts with the surrounding
liquid at each point of the surface hydrodynamic reaction occurs in the form of
surface forces, the intensity of which
pn = −n0p + τ0 τ, (3.4)
where n0 , τ0 are the orts of the outer normal and tangent in an arbitrary
point A(x, y) of the surface of marine organisms; p, τ are the normal and shear
stress surface forces of hydrodynamic reaction.
The main vector of hydrodynamic forces acting on the surface of the hydro-
biont body will be
Z Z Z
R = pn dS = − pn0dS + ττ0 dS (3.5)
S S S
R R
where Rp = S pn0 dS – the main vector of the pressure forces; R F = S ττ0 dS
– the main vector of friction forces.
Projection Rx = R of the main vector of hydrodynamic forces in the direction
of the longitudinal movement is called the force of resistance to longitudinal
movement of the hydrobiont.
Consider the features of resistance to movement of hydrobionts, which, as
for solid bodies, according to the d’Alembert–Euler paradox arises due to the
viscosity forces of the liquid unsteadiness and movement of marine organisms.
To clarify the physical causes and phenomena that accompany the emergence
of resistance, we consider the uniform translational motion of a rigid body
having a shape marine organisms (fig. 3.2). In this case, a thin boundary is
formed on the surface of the body the layer in which the action of viscosity
forces is manifested and which is the cause of viscous resistance to motion and
its accompanying phenomena.
At all points on the surface of the body relative flow velocity is zero (New-
tonian adhesion hypothesis). As a result, shear stresses occur viscosity τ, the
projection of the main vector which is the direction of longitudinal motion is
power the friction resistance
Z
RF = τ cos(τ0 , x)dS.
S
The presence of a boundary layer leads, in addition, to the redistribution of
pressure along the the surface of the body compared to the ideal liquid (fig.
3.3).
Since in an ideal fluid the projection of the main vector of pressure forces on
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Fig. 3.2 The distribution of characteristics of the boundary layer along the body surface of
marine organisms
Fig. 3.3 The distribution of excess pressure ∆p the length of the body:
––––––— ideal liquid; - - - - - - – viscous liquid
the direction of motion the body is zero (the d’alembert–Euler paradox), then
by lowering the pressure in the stern the extremity, due to the influence of the
boundary layer, there is a pressure resistance, referred to as form resistance,
Z
Rp = − p cos(n0, x)dS.
S
Thus, the resistance to movement will be
R = R F + Rp
and can be calculated by the following formula:
26
%υ20
R=C S, (3.6)
2
where % is the density of water; υ0 is the speed of marine organisms; the S
– wetted surface.
Incoming to (3.6) resistance coefficient C = C(Re, Φ) for solid, having the
shape of the surface of the hydrobiont body and moving at a constant speed in
a boundless viscous fluid, is a function of the number Re = υ0 L/ν and the shape
of the surface bodies (Φ is a family of dimensionless geometric parameters of
the body shape).
Fig. 3.4 The dependence of the resistance coefficient C = C(Re) for a well-streamlined solid
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For high-speed fish and cetaceans, the Reynolds numbers are Re = 10 6...108,
that for solid the bodies correspond to the turbulent flow regime and, accord-
ingly, relatively large the values of the coefficient of resistance. However, the
bioenergetic calculations show that resistance of hydrobionts is much lower and
one of the main reasons is laminarization boundary layer from actively swim-
ming aquatic organisms associated with increased the length of the laminar
region and a significant (several times) decrease in the resistance coefficient.
Analysis hydrological features of functional-morphological characteristics
and kinematics movement of cetaceans and high-speed fish can be considered
as possible the following ways to the laminarization of the boundary layer of
aquatic organisms:
– the presence of a laminarized body shape;
– damping of turbulent pulsation in the boundary layer due to elastic-
damping properties of the skin of aquatic organisms;
– isolation of biological mucus into the boundary layer of hydrobiont;
– the unsteady nature of the movement of marine organisms.
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Fig. 3.5 Distribution pattern of excess hydrodynamic pressure ∆p along the body surface
widest part of the body to the aft point of the velocity diagram it becomes
less complete with the possible formation of the inflection point (see fig. 3.5),
and also due to the additional loss of energy near the body surface caused by
the influence of viscosity forces. Therefore, the liquid particles have low kinetic
energy in the longitudinal direction and correspondingly weak stability with
respect to transverse perturbations.
It follows that the position of the minimum pressure point (the widest one)
is in the flow around the body part) has a determining effect on the position
of the transition point of the laminar to turbulent flow regime in the boundary
layer. In a rough approximation, we can assume that the transition point the
locations are much lower downstream than the minimum pressure point.
This serves as the physical basis for the creation of a laminarized body shape.
Such bodies have the most the wide part depending on the relative velocity
characterized by the number Re = υL/ν and corresponding to the transient
flow regime Redcr ≤ Re ≤ Reucr , is on a particular distance from the spout
of the body. This allows the boundary layer to be formed as the body wraps
around the flow of viscous liquid is maintained laminar at a much greater length
than that of the conventional bodies, which leads to a significant reduction in
the viscosity resistance at mixed flow mode. So, for some wing profiles, this
reduction reaches a twofold value.
Studies of American and German scientists have led to the conclusion that
the closest to the laminarized forms are bodies of trout, tuna, shark, dolphin,
whale and others having a laminar area, the length of which depends on the
number Re (fig. 3.6) and is determined by the position along the length of the
hydrobiont maximum thicknesses.
With increasing Re, the relative distance xmax from the spout to the widest
29
Fig. 3.6 Comparison of profiles of different aquatic animals by the location of the cross section
of the maximum thickness:
a – barracuda; b – shark; c – dogfish (shark); d – mr. pike; e – shark-alligator
parts of the body of the hydrobiont increases. In this case, there is a transfor-
mation of the shape of the nose: for relatively small numbers, the nose has a full
elliptical shape, with an increase in the re profile the nose becomes more pointed
parabolic shape. For example, for trout (Re = 1.2 · 106) with a sufficiently com-
plete elliptic nose shape xmax /L = 0.30, while for tuna (Re = 3.8 · 107) with
pointed parabolic shape of the nose xmax /L = 0.50. Dolphins (Re = 2 · 107),
which are of the greatest interest as a biological analogue at creating technical
means of movement in water, have a pointed nose and xmax /L = 0.40.
Very effective modern means of studying the flow pattern of a moving body
it is a method of visualization using microscopic luminescent unicellular algae.
This phenomenon was known to the ancient Greeks who watched the flock of
dolphins frolicking in the glowing sea.
Later it was found that the luminescence of algae occurs in viscous flows,
if the viscous stresses in the flow exceed 0.1 Pa. On a model of a dolphin
swimming at a speed of 2 m/s, it was confirmed that within the boundary
layer viscous stresses exceed the specified value is compared to it on the outer
boundary. This is why beyond the boundary layer algae do not glow and the
dolphin can be seen clearly defined band boundary layer. These observations
also revealed that the dolphin’s head washed by the flowing streams of laminar
flow. The latter, in turn, confirms the presence of a laminar area in the flow
around the body of a dolphin.
30
Fig. 3.7 The dependence of the resistance coefficient C laminarized bodies of rotation of
elliptic shape from relative thickness d/l:
a, b, c – bodies of rotation of the same volume and relative thickness d/l = 10; 25 and 40 %,
respectively. Number Re = 107
31
thickness. It turned out (fig. 3.7) that the resistance of the body of rotation
reaches the minimum value at a relative thickness of 22 %.
This conclusion allowed the German designers to move to a completely new
and more useful the volume of the fuselage of the aircraft, such as HE 176 (the
first jet engine created in the 60s of the last century).
More specific results are obtained by matching the shape of the NACA pro-
files created from hydrological research, with the outer contours of some deep-
sea submersibles (UV). For fig. 3.9 a comparison of the coordinates of the
profile of the deep-water apparatus ”Deep Quest” is given (fig. 3.10), designed
and built by the aviation company ”Lockheed”, and the profile NACA 63A-
25 (created by the results of bionic studies of the dolphin body). Comparison
shows good agreement of these profiles.
The shape of the model the ”Dolphin 1” (fig. 3.11) corresponds exactly to
the profile of NACA 66-033 (fig. 3.12).
In connection with the design and construction of high-speed deep-sea ve-
hicles, as well as the need to develop underwater weapons( such as torpedoes)
with high speeds and the radius of action, the company ”North American Avi-
ation” were tested in a large series models including ”Dolphin” (see fig. 3.11),
32
Fig. 3.9 Ordinates of the profile UV ”Deep Quest”
it was found that with increasing relative speed improvement of the form of
such devices is achieved by using the profiles of NACA with by shifting the
maximum thickness to the stern. For example, for a body of rotation in a range
of numbers Re = (2...3)107 the NACA 66-033 profile is optimal and its use leads
to reducing resistance by 60 %. What’s more, the application of NACA profile
for high-speed torpedoes (the model ”Dolphin”) to achieve a 2-fold decrease of
the resistance of the compared with the traditional torpedo shape (fig. 3.13).
33
Fig. 3.12 Ordinates of the profile UV ”Dolphin”
When testing the model ”Dolphin” due to the relative increase in the length
of the laminar region (up to 70 % of the length) was achieved low noise flow,
which is an important quality in the creation of silent underwater weapons.
The original solution was used by J. Picard in the development of deep-sea
apparatus ”Benjamin Franklin” (fig. 3.14), whose purpose is drift and very slow
movement in the waters of the Gulf stream. As a bionic analogue was taken blue
spotted fish (fig. 3.15), whose slow translational motion it is provided by the
pectoral fins, which is close to the properties that found the embodiment in the
deep-water device ”Benjamin Franklin”. The use of new forms of ”shark” and
”dolphin” in modern aircraft with the maximum thickness shifted to the stern
edge (25 % of the profile length) it allows along with a decrease in resistance
to achieve an increase in the useful volumes of software compared with the
traditional form of aircraft (fig. 3.16).
34
Fig. 3.14 General view of the UV ”Benjamin Franklin”
35
Fig. 3.16 Characteristics of the shapes of the fuselages of modern aircraft
Studies of these properties, conducted both abroad and in our country, the
main thus, the Institute of hydromechanics of the Academy of Sciences of
Ukraine, allowed to establish one of the properties of the skin cetaceans-actively
regulate the hydrodynamic resistance of swimming by management of local in-
teraction of the skin with the flowing water flow. Such the interaction leads
to the corresponding local changes in the elastic-damping properties skin, and
this, in turn, causes a change in the structure and characteristics of the flow,
expressed in the laminarization of the flow.
The skin of dolphins is quite complex structure, much thicker than the skin
of large bony and shark fish and consists of several more or less pronounced
layers, between which located connecting membranes, which are the frame of
the skin. Stands out soft the outer surface layer (derma-skin) is 1.5 mm thick,
which covers the entire surface the body, including the head and fins, and the
inner durable layer of 6 mm thickness, consisting of fibrous tissue (fig. 3.17).
The greatest interest from the point of view of hydroponics is hydrophobic
exterior5) the layer, which consists of an outer elastic (rubber-like) layer of the
epidermis 0.5 mm thick, under which is a cellular layer. In the recesses (cells)
of the latter are dermal papillae.
Papillary layer in cetaceans hypertrophic developed, which ultimately deter-
mines the unique elastic-damping property of the skin. The dermis of cetaceans
can be compared with a brush penetrating layer of epidermis. Two-meter dol-
phins contain 30 · 106 papillae (15...20 on mm2) height up to 1 mm and a diam-
eter of 0.1 mm. Each dermal papilla is saturated with arteriovenous capillaries
and contains a variety of nerve endings that allows depending on the external
hydrodynamic the perturbations appropriately regulate the blood filling of the
5)
Hydrophobic, is not wetted by water.
36
Fig. 3.17 Typical structure of the skin of cetaceans:
a – dermal papillae; b – longitudinal epidermal septum;
c – papillary layer of the dermis; d – subcutaneous fat
papillae and thus, change the locally elastic-damping property of the skin.
The subcutaneous layer of the dermis contains a large number of blood vessels
and nerve trunks, branches which are suitable for dermal papillae. An impor-
tant feature of the papillary layer is that papillae located orderly on thicker
longitudinal walls of the cylinders. In other words, the dermal papillae are
arranged in longitudinal rows oriented along the current lines.
Analysis of structural and histological features of the skin of cetaceans leads
to the conclusion on its hydrodynamic function. Since the tops of the dermal
papillae are at a distance of only 0.5 mm from the outer surface, then they are
able to perceive hydrodynamic pulsations, occur in the boundary layer, and re-
spond appropriately to them. Due to the large density of papillae (15...20 pieces
per mm2) the density of the nerve endings of the dolphin is even higher than
that of man’s. This, in turn, determines the high sensitivity of the dolphin’s
skin to the external hydrodynamic disturbances.
The mechanism of action of the skin M. Kramer explained as follows (fig.
3.18). At occurrence of hydrodynamic pulsation in the boundary layer of a
thin elastic layer of the epidermis 1 transmits virtually unchanged pressure
pulsation to the dermal papillae 2 filled liquid and with a porous material and
has elasticity at the expense of arteriovenous blood capillaries’. Due to this, the
energy of hydrodynamic disturbances is absorbed and spent on overcoming the
forces of viscosity of the liquid in the dermal papilla and the rest of the layers
of the skin. At the same time under the influence of elastic forces restores the
shape of the outer surface of the skin of the dolphin. In the end, the boundary
layer formed during the flow is laminarized dolphin’s body flow of viscous liquid.
37
Fig. 3.18 The mechanism of action of the skin of the dolphin
One of the external manifestations of hydrodynamic function the skin is its pore
when the dolphin’s speed increases.
Of particular interest is the fact that dolphins and whales have a vascu-
lar system partitioned. Blood supply, and therefore the regulation of elastic
damping characteristics of cetaceans are carried out locally by sections on each
skin area. Since the non-stationary swimming bending vibrations occur in the
vertical plane, it can be assumed that the system of autoregulation of elastic-
damping properties of the skin is activated sequentially, in sections, with phase
shift. Thus, in each section it is possible to alternate the phases of the greatest
activity and relative rest.
And finally, there are also opinions that exteroreceptors 6) devices with ana-
lyzer functions record hydrodynamic processes in the boundary the layer before
the moment when there are noticeable pulsations. Exteroreceptor can log in
more complex control systems that provide the reduction of certain muscles
acting on certain areas of the skin. Thus, in addition to passive boundary layer
management, associated with changes in the elastic-damping properties of the
skin, it is reasonable to take into account the influence of receptors that provide
feedback and respond to changes in characteristics boundary layer. In this case,
it is suggested that the active control of the flow around the body the dolphin
can exercise with the help of muscle forces that cause deformation of the skin
in the form of stationary or running large enough folds. It was also suggested
that the folds arise in critical conditions (increase speed of movement, a sharp
change in direction motion during fast swimming), i.e. in those moments when
we should expect a sharp increase resistance to movement.
Research conducted by the Institute of hydromechanics of the Academy of
Sciences of Ukraine on live dolphins in natural conditions and rigid models of
6)
Exteroreceptor (exteroreceptor) – sensitive education.
38
the dolphin body in the pool at a speed of υ0 = 0.5...4.5 m/s, it is possible
to conclude that there is a significant difference in the characteristics of the
boundary layer of the floating bottlenose dolphin and its model, which boils
down to the following:
– the degree of pulsation εv of the longitudinal component of the speed of
a living dolphin is almost constant along its body, whereas for its model at a
distance of x = 0.8L from the spout there is a splash, which clearly indicates
the local elastic-damping effect of dolphin skin7) ;
– the value of εv for live bottlenose dolphins several times smaller than for
models (7 vs 35 %);
– for actively swimming bottlenose dolphins εv decreases with increasing
speed, indicating strengthening of the regulating influence of the dolphin skin
on the characteristics of the boundary layer.
Let’s focus on one more feature of the structure of the skin of the dolphin,
consisting in the fact that the dermal papillae are arranged in an orderly manner
on the denser longitudinal epidermal partitions-rollers, which are oriented along
the current lines. As a result, on the surface of the dolphin’s body occurs
secondary flow with the formation of longitudinal (oriented along the current
lines) vortices. Last, in turn, it helps to improve the stability of the laminar
flow regime in the boundary layer, formed on the surface of the dolphin’s body
when it moves.
39
Fig. 3.19 Bar of elastic-damping coating:
1 – upper and lower elastic shells; 2 – diaphragm and columns; 3 – skin of the model or vessel
causing deformation of the outer shell and the associated overflow of fluid be-
tween the columns. The resulting frictional forces dampen part of the energy
pulsations. In this case, the outer shell under the action of the elastic forces
of the columns restores the initial shape, resulting in laminarization of the flow
and the associated reducing friction resistance.
M. Kramer’s experiments included the test of a model representing a cylin-
drical body with artificial columnar coating (fig. 3.20). The model, made of
nylon, represented a pointed circular cylinder with a diameter of 6.3 cm and a
length of 2.44 m. the front conical part of the model, with the exception of a
section 15 cm long (unshaded area), it was used for the study of different coat-
ing options. Several variants of M. Kramer’s column covering were tested with
different stiffness, N/cm3 (156, 443 and 222), and the viscosity of the damping
fluid, cSt9) (200, 1200 and 300), – variants 4, 5 and 6 respectively.
Fig. 3.20 Sketch of the model with artificial turf, tested by M. Kramer
As follows from the analysis of the test results (fig. 3.21), after reaching
the critical numbers Recr = 3 · 106 resistance coefficient C(Re) models with
elastic-damping coating (curves 4,5 and 6) first increases to the maximum value,
remaining in magnitude less than for the uncoated model (curve 3) and then
decreases. Optimal the elastic-damping coating turned out to be option 6.
Extrapolation of dependence 6 (see fig. 3.21, dotted line) for the coating (222
N/cm3 and 300 cSt) gives reason to believe that the laminar the boundary layer
can be saved up to Recr = 2, 6 · 107 compared to Recr = 3 · 106 for the model
without coating, and thereby significantly reduce the friction resistance.
9) 1 1
cSt-centiStocks = 100 cSt = 100 (m2 /s – unit of measurement of kinematic viscosity.
40
Fig. 3.21 The dependence of the resistance coefficient on the Re number for a model with
different coatings
Subsequent experiments have shown that the column coatings have a number
of disadvantages. Their effectiveness turned out to be significant pressure-
dependent damping fluid: positive (1 atm) excess pressure coating was similar to
the body with a hard surface and did not give effect; negative (1 atm) reduction
of resistance reached the maximum value. It was the negative influence of the
possibility of overflowing on the operation of the elastic-damping coating is
established damping fluid under the influence of external perturbations and the
associated formation of undulation, which leads to an increase in resistance. In
addition, the columnar coating loses its effectiveness over time.
The above disadvantages were eliminated in the new version of the coating
with ribbed supports. M. Kramer, creating this coating, sought primarily to
eliminate the possibility of waves on the surface of the coating. The ribbed
coating consists of a diaphragm supported by a plurality of edges oriented in
the direction of flow (fig. 3.22).
41
Fig. 3.23 Dependence of the resistance coefficient for the optimal variants of Kramer coatings
ings, which for the bar coating corresponded to the stiffness of 220 N/cm 3 and
viscosity of 300 cSt, for ribbed-respectively 500 N/cm3 and 7500 St are given
for fig. 3.23. As follows from the analysis of these curves, the efficiency of
the optimal variants column and ribbed coatings immediately after manufac-
ture (curves 2 and 5) approximately equal. After a year of storage, the column
covers are almost completely lose their damping properties (curve 3), while the
ribbed ones are deprived of it fault (curve 4).
M. Kramer proposed several more structures of elastic-damping coating with
different complexity of manufacturing. However, a common feature of these
coatings was the presence of elastic upper diaphragm, which is supported by
elastic elements, and cavities under this diaphragm, which is filled with a liquid
with a relatively high viscosity.
Promising results of experimental studies by M. Kramer in the 60s of the
past centuries aroused interest among many specialists and served as an impetus
for the development of various structural variants of elastic-damping coatings.
One of these options is the design of a three-layer coating consisting of a base,
a porous filler (spongy rubber, polyurethane foam), impregnated with viscous
liquid, and the upper elastic diaphragm. Changing the degree of porosity of the
filler, the viscosity of the liquid and the pressure inside the filler, it is possible
to vary the elastic-damping characteristics of the coating. Tests carried out in
1972 at the Institute of hydromechanics of Ukraine Academy of Sciences, found
that the increase of the degree of turbulence with increasing speed for bodies
with a three-layer coating is much less, than for hard surface. Moreover, in
these experiments it was found that the three-layer coating not only increases
the lower Recr , but also increases the length transition region.
And in conclusion, we note that effective artificial elastic-damping coatings
should to be designed and calculated every time taking into account their pur-
pose and working conditions: speed, depth of immersion, initial flow turbulence,
etc. Other in words, these coatings are passive and suitable for certain condi-
tions. Follows keep in mind that artificial turf – only a rough approximation to
wildlife. If the hydrodynamic resistance of a dolphin is several times less than
that of a solid body, then it is apparently the result of the complex influence of
body shape, unsteadiness motion, active action of the living shell and its abil-
42
ity to change the elastic-damping properties depending on external conditions,
hydrophobic coating, etc.
As it was established earlier, the flow laminarization occurs during the flow
around the dolphin’s body also due to the occurrence of secondary flow, ac-
companied by the formation of longitudinal vortices, the occurrence of which,
in turn, is due to the presence of longitudinal dermal partitions’. The techni-
cal analogue of this method of laminarization is micro finning the surface of
a body moving in a liquid that consists in a device on that surface micro-fins
oriented along the flow and located at a small distance from each other. The
cross section of these edges can represent, for example, an isosceles triangle. As
studies have shown that the finning of a flat plate under certain conditions led
to friction resistance reduction by 8...9 %.
43
wing at Mach number M < 0.6 leads to a decrease in the turbulent friction at
8...9 %. In these modes, it is advisable to apply the fins on both the suction
∗
and and pressurizing surfaces with optimum dimensionless fin step S opt = 20 –
∗
injection and 0.8Sopt – on the suction surfaces of the wing.
44
– the guiding action of the projections (keels) of scales oriented along the
main direction of flow, around the body of the fish;
– the permissible height of the projections of the scales in terms of its impact
on the characteristics of the boundary layer;
– the presence of the mucous membrane of the scales and epidermis, which
in high-speed fish is a biopolymer lubricant.
The above hydrodynamic qualities of the scales allow us to consider it a
means of retaining mucus on the surface of the body and a means of their
joint influence on the characteristics of the boundary layer and, therefore, the
resistance to movement of fish.
And finally, for high-speed fish, for example, a high-speed shark-mako, the
ratio l/b = 1 and λ/d = 2, 66 (l is the length of the scales; b width; λ is
the distance between the keels of the scales; d be the height of the bumps of
the scales). In this case (when λ/d < 2, 66), as follows from the boundary
layer theory, the cell vortices formed by roughness do not yet extend to the
entire depth of the boundary layer. Therefore, the value λ/d = 2, 66 is critical,
exceeding which leads to a violation stability of the boundary layer and the
propagation of cell vortices throughout its thickness.
Fish mucus cover. Along with the protective properties, when the mucous
membrane protects the skin of fish from pollution, it also performs a hydrody-
namic role, as a means of reducing resistance the movement of fish. Allocated
special (secretory) cells, which are located in the epidermis, the slime falls in the
region of the boundary layer. In this case, it plays the role of a high molecular
weight supplement, the presence of which in the boundary layer leads to a sig-
nificant decrease in the friction resistance of the fish for by reducing turbulent
pulsations – this is first – and second-by reducing the resistance of the rough
edges covered by a biopolymer mucus.
The thickness of the mucus layer of the fish is in the range of 0.20...0.60
mkm and unevenly distributed over the surface her body. So, over the Gill slits,
where the ejected jet of water when breathing fish, as well as in the tail section,
performing flexural-oscillatory movements, possible strong perturbations the
flowing stream and even the separation of the boundary layer. Therefore, in
these places the fish can form fields with increased secretory activity, in which
are concentrated a large the number (n) of secretory cells of large diameter (d)
(peaks in the graph fig. 3.24).
Especially powerful development of the secretory apparatus noted in high-
speed swordfish. Throughout even the naked eye can see the pores on the
surface of the body and head of the specimen 2.6 m long in the amount of 0.8
pieces/mm2 and a diameter of 0.07...0.20 mm. Even with a little mechanical
pressure is secreted mucous substance. Pores lead to internal channels with a
diameter 0.5...1.0 mm, which are located at a depth of 1 mm parallel to the skin
surface of swordfish. The presence of a developed secretory apparatus, along
with a large muscle mass (up to 67 % of total mass) allows swordfish to reach
speeds in excess of 30 m/s.
The effectiveness of fish mucus to reduce hydrodynamic resistance is proven
experiments as well as studies performed using other means. Of particular
45
Fig. 3.24 The distribution of the length of mucus-forming cells:
a – pelamida; b – pike;
− ◦ − ◦ − – the transverse size of the cells d, mkm; − • − • − – n, pieces/mm 2
interest are comparative experimental studies on the drag reduction in the tur-
bulent regime of flow of an aqueous solution of mucus freshwater and sea fish
with a hydrometer. The stainless steel tube of the rheometer had an internal
the diameter of 0.58 mm, and the flow rate of the mucus solution in it reached
13.7 m/s. The largest effect of reducing the friction resistance (up to 66 %)
showed solutions of 11 high-speed barracudas length 0.66...0.79 m (fig. 3.25).
At the same time, a clearly expressed optimum in concentration was noted C
aqueous solution of barracuda mucus, which was approximately 5 %.
Fig. 3.25 Reducing the friction resistance of sea water dissolved in the mucus of marine fish
(on the horizontal axis-the concentration of mucus in the solution, %; on the vertical
axis-decrease resistance in comparison with pure water, %):
1 – pacific barracuda; 2 – halibut; 3 – pacific mackerel;
4 – california tuna; 5 – mollusks; 6 – seaweed
46
of epidermal cells high-speed bottlenose dolphin and not high-speed species-
porpoise, the concentration of which changed within 0.002...1.0 %. However,
in all cases, the hydrodynamic resistance suspensions practically did not differ
from that for pure water. Thus experimentally the qualitative difference be-
tween the mechanisms of hydrodynamic resistance reduction is confirmed the
skin of most high-speed fish (due to the release of mucus) and dolphins (due to
elastic-damping properties of the skin).
And finally, there are a large number of polymers, a small additive which
gives significant reduction of hydrodynamic resistance. This so-called ectby-
pointer – high molecular weight substances secreted by soil, marine and fresh-
water bacteria. The maximum drag reduction (52.6 %) at the flow through the
pipes of the soil biopolymer solution was achieved at concentrations of C = 0.5
%. A feature of these polymers is their ability to save its activity for a long
time.
47
water, have a high molecular weight, etc. Since that time, the influence of
polymer additives has been widely studied:
– resistance to the movement of bodies of different shapes;
– on the characteristics of the turbulent boundary layer and the flow through
the pipes;
– the effect of polymer additives on hydrodynamic noise generated by the
boundary layer.
Influence of polymer additives on the resistance to the motion
of bodies of different shapes. Initial the most complete are the studies
carried out in the United States on installations with rotating disks. Rotation
of the disk (457 mm in diameter) was carried out in a tank with a capacity of
3785 liters. The rotation speed and the shaft torque was measured at various
concentrations C, %, of a solution of polymers.
For fig. 3.26 the results of measurements of the efficiency of the guar polymer
obtained from grown in the USA, Pakistan and India plants. This shows the
relationship of the relative the values of the moment of forces of resistance to
rotation of the disc M = M/M0 , % (M – point in aqueous solution polymer;
M0 is the moment resistance in the water) on the concentration C, %, of guar
solution.
The maximum effect of resistance reduction (by 70 %) was achieved at water
concentration. guar solution C = 0.05 %. Even more effective was the aqueous
solution of polyethylene oxide (polyox) – a synthetic polymer that gives a re-
duction in resistance to the same 70 %, but at a much lower concentration of
C = 0.01 % (fig. 3.27).
Analysis of the results of experiments on rotating disks allowed us to ob-
tain the following conclusions regarding the mechanism of influence of polymer
additives:
– the introduction of polymer additives does not affect the amount of resis-
tance in laminar flow flows and manifests itself only when the critical number
Recr is reached;
– in the turbulent regime with an increase in the concentration of the polymer
solution to a certain the optimum resistance value is reduced;
– finally, the introduction of the polymer has almost no effect on the value
of Recr .
This allows us to give the following explanation of the mechanism of influence
of polymer additives. Since the concentration of aqueous polymer solutions is
negligible (a fraction of a percent), the viscosity coefficient, as well as other
physical characteristics of polymer solutions, does not differ from those for
pure water. This explains the lack of influence of polymers in the laminar flow
regime. That’s first. And, secondly, since this effect is manifested only in the
turbulent regime, it should be assumed that it is associated with a decrease
in the intensity of turbulent fluctuations in the polymer solution and, in this
connection, with a change in the nature of the velocity diagram in the boundary
layer (it becomes less complete), which ultimately leads to laminarization of the
flow.
After specially conducted experiments in the United States, a number of very
48
Fig. 3.26 Relative reduction of torque on the disc depending on the concentration of guar
aqueous solution:
1 – speed of rotation of the disk 20 Rev/s; 2 – 40 Rev/s
Fig. 3.27 Relative reduction of torque on the disk depending on the concentration of aqueous
solution of polyethylene oxides of different molecular weight:
1 – ∼ 2 · 105 ; 2 – ∼ 6 · 105 ; 3 – ∼ 4 · 106 ; 4 – more 5 · 106
49
the resistance of the rough disk to the value of the resistance of a smooth disk,
it is necessary to increase the concentration of the polymer solution by 2...3
times.
Significant changes in the characteristics of the turbulent boundary layer
due to the introduction of polymer additives contributed to the formulation of
experiments with fully immersed bodies of rotation in three directions:
– investigation of the effectiveness of soluble polymer coatings placed on the
surface of the bow tip of the body;
– injection of polymer solution into the boundary layer’s;
– the study of the action of polymer additives on the boundary layer of
the body of rotation, fixed in a stream of aqueous polymer solution of low
concentration.
Analysis of the results of model studies carried out mainly in the United
States, allowed to obtain a number of very important recommendations that
can be used to create various kinds of vehicles in the water (underwater vehicles,
torpedoes, etc.):
– tests of bodies of rotation with a poorly-and well-streamlined shape of
the bow tip with a soluble polymer coating applied to its surface showed that
for a body with a poorly-streamlined tip, the presence of a polymer coating
led to a decrease in friction resistance by 27...30 %. For a body with a well-
streamlined bow extremity and, therefore, with a large length of the laminar
region, a significant reduction in resistance due to the polymer coating of the
bow extremity was not observed.
The reason for this, apparently,was the low solubility of the polymer under
laminar flow conditions.
In addition to the above methods, it is possible to inject high-molecular
polymers into the boundary layer formed by the flow around the body of a
viscous fluid in absolute or reversible motion. In this case, there are special
slots on the surface of the body, located perpendicular to the direction of the
flowing stream, through which the injection of a solution of a high-molecular
polymer is carried out.
Experimental studies conducted in the Pacific laboratory of the canadian
Navy, allowed us to make the following conclusions about the effect of injection
of polymer additives on the resistance of bodies and the factors determining
this effect:
– body resistance decreases with increasing molecular weight of polymers;
– body resistance decreases with increasing polymer concentration. At the
same time, there is always an optimal concentration value at which this reduc-
tion reaches the maximum value;
– the main factor determining the effect of resistance reduction is the amount
of polymer solution supplied to the boundary layer;
– studies and visual observations have shown that the polymer solution is
rapidly mixed with the boundary layer. The degree of dissolution varies from
100:1 at the exit of the slit to 10000:1 at the boundary layer.
Flow of polymer solutions through pipes. Any experiments with poly-
mer additives begin with testing the ability of the polymer solution to reduce
50
resistance when moving through the pipeline, which, as you know, when driving
on a straight section consists of friction resistance. In this case, the effect of
reducing the friction resistance is convenient to investigate by measuring the
difference pressures ∆p on a straight section of a pipe of length L:
L %υ2cp
∆p = λ ,
d 2
where λ – the resistance coefficient; L, d – the length and diameter of the
pipe section; υcp – average flow rate in the pipe.
To minimize the possibility of degradation (aging) of molecules, which is
possible at low flow rates, the discharge of the polymer solution from the tanks
and its further movement in the pipes are provided with high-pressure air.
The most complete studies in 1966 were conducted in one of the laboratories
of the US Navy. It was found that in some cases the movement of the aqueous
solution of polyox the pipeline is accompanied by a decrease in resistance by 80
%, i.e. 5 times (fig. 3.28).
Fig. 3.28 The relative decrease in the resistance ∆R/R of the pipeline at different the
concentration of the solution polyox WSR-301 at Reynolds number equal to 14000
51
Fig. 3.29 Friction coefficient λ of the pipeline at different concentrations of aqueous solution
Guara (pipeline diameter 50 mm):
1 – turbulent flow; 2 – laminar flow; + – pure water; water concentration guar solution, %: ◦
– 0.005; 5 – 0.01; 4 – 0.02 ; × – 0.04
– the greater the molecular weight of the polymer, the more effectively the
resistance decreases at a given concentration;
– the maximum reduction in resistance is observed at low polymer concen-
trations in the solution;
– as the concentration increases, the effect of reducing the resistance of the
pipeline slows down.
Specially conducted experiments with polymer solutions in seawater showed
that the salinity of the water practically does not affect the effectiveness of
polymer additives.
52
the plate is missing shape resistance and wave resistance, the desired effect
is achieved only by reducing friction resistance. Moreover, this effect can be
obtained after reaching of a certain velocity (corresponding to the transition of
the laminar to the turbulent flow regime in boundary layer.) It is characteristic
that the relative decrease in friction resistance increases up to a certain value
with increasing plate speed and increasing to the corresponding concentration
values of the polymer solution.
Analysis of experimental measurements of ship model resistance (see fig.
3.30 – 3.31) in clean water and polyoxy solutions with concentrations of 0.002
and 0.003 % allows to conclude that the relative the drag reduction of the
ship models is less (on average 25 %) compared to the plate. The latter is
probably explained by the presence of shape and wave resistances in the models
of ships resistance, the value of which the addition of polymers is not reflected.
The latter was confirmed special model tests, which indicate the absence of a
noticeable effect polymers on the wave resistance.
Fig. 3.30 Results of testing of plates and models of vessels in polymer solutions:
a – resistance R for the plate and its relative reduction ∆R/R in water WSR-301 polyox
solution at different flow rates Vs: 1 – pure water; concentration aqueous solution polioxy, %;
2 and 6 – 0.001; 3 and 5 – 0.002; 4 – 0.005; b – resistance models of the vessel of type
”Mariner”.
As for the plates, the influence of polymers affects after reaching a certain
speed. Then, as the speed increases, it increases, reaching the maximum value.
In the future it the effect decreases with increasing velocity because the relative
value of the wave resistance increases and, accordingly, the proportion of friction
resistance, the value of which affects the introduction of polymer additives falls.
In addition to the above model tests related to the evaluation of the impact
on the resistance polymer additives, a number of model and full-scale experi-
ments were carried out, exploring practical implementation of this method of
reducing resistance to the movement of ships. In this experience the efficiency
of one of the methods of resistance reduction based on the injection of polymer
additives into the boundary layer.
The tests were carried out in full-scale conditions on a 5.8 m long motor boat.
53
Fig. 3.31 Resistance of the model of the destroyer: 1 – in pure water; 2 – in a solution of
polyox WSR-301 at concentrations of 0.002 and 0.003 %; 3 – relative reduction of resistance
∆R/R at a solution concentration of 0.002 %
polyox, which was added to the water under pressure through a perforated tube
with a diameter of 12 mm, fixed in the transverse direction on the boat’s stem.
The relative decrease of resistance was 10 %. The main reason for the low
efficiency of the polyox was its dispersion in the environment, therefore most
do not fall in the region of the boundary layer, and also, the low power of the
device for polymer injection, which did not provide it sufficient concentration
in the boundary layer of the motor boat.
In 1966, at the XI International conference on the experimental pool, a
report was made on the results of reducing the resistance of the watchtower
model by injecting a polymer the solution into the boundary layer. Model
(L = 5,00 m and m =216 kg) made of fiberglass, had on both sides of the
longitudinal slit, which started at distances of 5; 25; 50 and 70 % of the length
of the model from the stem and had a width of 0.13 mm, increased during the
experiments to 0.51 mm. The model was tested at two speeds – 1.64 and 3.29
m/s, that corresponded to the numbers Re = 6.39 · 106 and 1.28 · 107. At a
towing speed of 1.64 m/s, a decrease in the total resistance was obtained 15.5
% and friction resistance – 20 %; at a speed of 3.29 m/s, respectively, 14.5 and
30 % at simultaneous injection of polymer solution from two slits located at a
distance 5 and 25 % of the length of the stem.
54
Studies have shown that there is a significant difference in acceptable con-
centrations and costs per unit of time during the flow through the pipes and the
flow around the surface of the floating object. So, during the flow through the
pipes polymer additive has a continuous positive effect until the leakage fluid
from the pipe, while the flow around the body it is effective only on a certain
the site of the moistened surface in a certain period of time then is thrown out
in passing stream. Thus, in the latter case, a continuous feed of the polymer in
the boundary layer.
Calculations show that the use of polymer additives for continuous reduction
the resistance of relatively large floating objects requires continuous feed in the
boundary layer of expensive high-molecular additives that at the existing cost
polymers are not economically profitable.
Therefore, the possible feasibility was noted applications of polymer solutions
for short-term resistance reduction relative to small floating objects (torpedoes,
UV, etc.)11) . In addition to injection, soluble polymers were offered, located in
the bow tip in special matrices.
Studies have also shown that the introduction of polymer additives in the
boundary layer allows significantly reduce hydrodynamic noise, which is very
important for objects such as torpedoes.
55
the longitudinal velocity on the resistance. Non-stationary tests are carried out
at speeds υ(t) ≤ 3.0 m/s, which corresponds to Re=(1.0...5.0) · 10 6, with the
following laws of change longitudinal velocity:
υ(t) = at – with positive acceleration a = 0.1...0.5 m/s2;
υ(t) = υ0 − at, for a = 0.1...0.3 m/s2;
υ(t) = A| sin ωt| ;
υ(t) = υ0 ekt , where k < 0 (for braking) or k > 0 (for acceleration).
In the process of testing was determined by the change ∆C of the coefficient
of viscous resistance rod due to the unsteadiness of the longitudinal velocity:
R(t)
C + ∆C = %v 2 (t)
,
2 S
where C is the quasi-stationary value of the resistance coefficient; S is the
wetted surface of the rod.
These results were processed under the assumption that the coefficient in-
cluded in this formula additional viscosity resistance due to the unsteadiness of
the longitudinal velocity, ∆C is a function of the number Re and the dimen-
sionless acceleration
dv(t) L
N=
dt v 2 (t)
The analysis of the obtained experimental data showed that the linear and
exponential laws in the velocity range of 0 ≤ (t) ≤ 3.0 m/s gives similar results.
Positive acceleration (acceleration) leads to an increase in the viscosity resis-
tance of the solid, and those who greater than less than Re/N (fig. 3.32). On
the contrary, negative acceleration (deceleration) reduces viscous drag of the
body. At the same time, the effect of the longitudinal velocity unsteadiness on
resistance when braking more than acceleration.
Fig. 3.32 Experimental values of the coefficient of additional viscosity resistance for unsteady
motion of a solid body according to the linear law ∆Cn (Re/N ):
1 – positive acceleration (acceleration); 2 – negative acceleration (braking))
56
at the resistance is probably due to the different degree of turbulence in the
flow in the boundary the layer, which is higher during acceleration than during
braking. This, by the way, in the future it was confirmed theoretically and
experimentally.
When the sinusoidal nature of the translational motion of the trolley with
the towed body ran along the pool a few half-waves. At the same time, the
resistance also changed sinusoidal law with a phase shift of π/2 with respect
to the oscillations of the longitudinal velocity, thus, the maximum increment
of the resistance force corresponded to the maximum acceleration, and not
speed, as one would expect. The averaged curves of the resistance for half life
the oscillations of the longitudinal velocity were about 40 % lower than the
corresponding stationary curve.
On this basis, the author studies A. N. Subalbum concluded that to reduce
viscous resistance at non-stationary translational motion of a rigid body it is
advisable to use a mode in which a short section of acceleration would be
replaced by a long one braking area.
For further analysis of the phenomena occurring in the unsteady motion of a
solid body, the problem of the nonstationary problem was solved theoretically
using numerical methods turbulent boundary layer on a flat rigid plate. Based
on the results of these calculations confirmed the above fact about the increase
of friction resistance at acceleration (a > 0) and deceleration reduction (a < 0).
Unsteady calculations have shown also, that in some cases the imposition of
additional harmonic oscillations on the translational movement according to
the law υ(t) = υ0(1 + C sin ωt) can lead to a decrease in friction resistance by
compared to its stationary value when moving at a constant speed υ 0 .
A similar result was obtained by D. Weiss, who investigated the unsteady
swimming of fish with negative buoyancy (mackerel, pelamide, tuna, sharks –
white, mackerel, mako). Calculations have shown that these fish energetically
beneficial cyclic two-phase swimming with alternating passive, no energy con-
sumption, inclined sliding down by inertia at some depth and subsequent active
ascent at an angle to the horizon. At the same time saving energy can reach 50
% or more compared to the horizontal uniform motion at same distance.
Another, no less important factor affecting the non-stationary resistance is
the deformation the body surface associated with a characteristic body move-
ments of marine organisms, the flapping motion of the fins, the work of the Gill
apparatus, etc.
In this regard, it should be noted the results of experimental studies car-
ried out under the guidance of professor L. F. Kozlov at the Institute of hy-
dromechanics, Academy of Sciences of Ukraine in field conditions the bottlenose
dolphins (L = 2.50 m), using telemetry equipment that allows the capture of
instantaneous values of the longitudinal speed of the dolphin on a straight sec-
tion and the degree of turbulences. It is concluded that the degree of turbulence
in the boundary layer of the bottlenose dolphin reached high in areas of accel-
eration and decreased at sites of inhibition. Moreover, it was recorded the fall
of the turbulent pulsations in the feed with the active work of the caudal fin.
And finally, for acne-like, slow-swimming, and scombroid, fast-swimming,
57
fish on unsteady resistance to movement is influenced by the work of the Gill
apparatus performing the following two functions:
– isolation of mucus in the area located behind the Gill covers, which reduces
friction resistance;
– injection of a jet that is adjacent to the surface of the fish body behind the
Gill covers (Coanda effect) and leads to an increase in velocity in the boundary
layer, which ultimately provides a non-separable the nature of the flow around
the body of fish with a relatively small elongation.
58
Fig. 3.33 Diagram of forces and velocities at the water slide the animal on the slope of the
waves
buoyancy forces balanced weight force, and its component in the direction of
motion of the dolphin (driving force) – resistance force. Since the angle of the
wave slope is small, the magnitude of the driving power is also small. But since
the drag force of the dolphin R is small, the balance of the driving force and
resistance forces are possible. Otherwise, the body with great resistance will
leave with the front slope of the wave and will remain at the stern of the ship.
The art of dolphins to move with the speed of the ship is based, thus, on
their ability use the energy of the wave by selecting the appropriate position
relative to the wave curvature body and fin positions. Prof. G. Hertel in the 70s
of the last century wrote that it is better after studying the waves, we may be
able to like dolphins to extract energy from the waves in the technical purposes.
One of the proposed in the direction of the ways is to install in the bow of a (in
the area of the bow transverse wave) systems of fixed and rotary wings. Point
these proposals and their practical implementation in relation to surface vessels
will be considered in the next Chapter, devoted to the study of marine animal
and fish propulsion systems and the creation of on the basis of their technical
counterparts for the medium movement in water.
59
– in the biological process of development of hydrobionts associated with
with the increase in size and level of organization, the maximum speed increases
significantly. The latter is due to the fact that the effective power of aquatic
animals is proportional to muscle mass, that is, the linear dimensions in a cube
are l3, and the resistance is l 2 ;
– swimming hydrobionts unsteady, often periodic, close to harmonic. This
fact is explained, on the one hand, by the biological processes occurring in them
(cycles of energy exchange, respiration, blood circulation, etc.) and, on the
other – mechanical efficiency unsteady swimming that is of undoubted practical
interest in hydrobiont;
– unification of the engine. The most common are wavelike propellers with
elastic vibrational range of different structures, which when you increase the
size hydrobionts are localized in the tail part of the body.
There are wave-like and hydro-reactive methods of animal navigation in
the aquatic environment.
Wave-like method of swimming is most common in mobile aquatic animals.
Less common are its modifications-moving due to wave-like motion flagellum,
which is typical for the simplest single-celled organisms, and moving with move-
ments of a large number of cilia observed among the simplest coelenterates and
crests.
The opposite of the wave-like method of swimming in water is the hydro-
reactive motion for the expense of ejection of water jets. So swim hydra and
jellyfish, as well as cephalopods, like squid. Most cephalopods possess fins, in
which the wavy movement when maneuvering. Among vertebrates, hydrojet
method of navigation is not found.
Hydro-reactive motion is effective at high Reynolds numbers, and movement
with cilia – at sufficiently small values of these numbers. In this sense, the wave-
like method is the most universal, since it is acceptable throughout the range
of Reynolds numbers ranging from slowly floating tapeworms and annelids to
high-speed fish and cetaceans.
For cetaceans characteristic is a wave-like way of movement, and the main
driver – horizontal tail fin, the amplitude of oscillations in the vertical plane of
which is significant exceeds the amplitude of the other parts of his body. So,
for example, the ratio of amplitudes the caudal fin a1 , CoG a2 and stern a3
dolphin a1 : a2 : a3 = 1.00 : 0.05 : 0.40. From this it follows that CoG dolphin
moves almost in a straight line, while the amplitude of the the oscillations of
the caudal fin are almost 2.5 times greater than the amplitude of the nose
oscillations. Herewith fluctuations nose dolphin occur in the opposite phase
relative to the oscillations of the caudal fin. The oscillation frequency of the
two-bladed tail fin of cetaceans is f = (0.2...2.0) s−1 .
The relatively large height of the tail of cetaceans due to the presence of
powerful muscles, providing movement of the horizontal fin in the vertical plane.
In accordance with the orientation of the tail fin, the main maneuver is carried
out in a vertical planes. Thus, dolphins are able to dive to a depth of 300
m, whales up to 1500 m. vertical tail section due to large lateral surface area
provides high maneuverability in the horizontal plane. In addition to vertical
60
strokes tail fin when maneuvering in vertical plane and horizontal transverse
vibrations of the tail part of the body, providing maneuvering in the horizontal
plane, cetaceans can make rotational oscillations of the body and tail fin with
respect to longitudinal axis.
As well as for cetaceans, for fish the undulating way of movement which is
observed is characteristic for the numbers Re ¡ 108 and thus covers the range
of fish swimming, the varieties of which are acne and scombroid. With acne,
the amplitude of the traveling wave is constant in length marine organisms
(eels, snakes, gar?ar, trout), while when it scombroidei variable length. So, for
acne-like fish the whole complex, including fins and body, is the driver, called
wave. The length of the propulsive wave is equal to or less than the length
of the hydrobiont, and its the amplitude is commensurate with the transverse
dimensions of the body, and usually increases from the spout to the tail’s. The
phase velocity of the propulsive wave exceeds the velocity of the translational
movement of marine organisms and due to this, the traction force is created,
going to overcome the resistance force of the hydrobiont. With increase in
the sizes of a hydrobiont the mover is localized in a tail part, and the body
practically does not participate in the creation of the driving force. This type
of propulsion is called a waving fin propulsion.
Many fish with the same success can move back, for example, a knife-fish.
The vibrations of its band fins are a peculiar and interesting example of vibra-
tions, not only creating a driving force, but also control the movement of fish.
To create a driving force in the direction of the movements of the fins oscillate in
the form of waves passing along the body in the direction, opposite movement.
In forward motion, the propulsive waves pass through the the side of the tail
end, when moving back – from the tail fin to the head. When standing in place
in the ready-to-move position, the propulsive waves of the tail and nose parts
pass through in opposite directions to the middle of the hydrobiont body.
By comparing the performance of two varieties (eel and scombroidei) wave
motion fish, it is possible to recognize more effective acne-like way of swimming.
Despite this, in modern hydrobionical the greatest interest is represented fin
form of high-speed swimming of fish and cetaceans. They also make a wave-
like movement of the body, but the main part of the driving force creates a
developed waving tail fin. The fin has a characteristic shape: ”sickle” in high-
speed tuna and xyphoid fish and ”semilunar” in cetaceans. Waving Crescent-
shaped fin speed fish hard and narrow, has a large elongation of λ ¿ 5...6 and
high frequency, and the semilunar fin cetacean elastic, relatively wide, with λ ≈
4 and low-frequency: f ¡ 4 s−1 .
And finally, one of the mechanisms of movement of hydrobionts – hydro jet
propulsion. Holder such an engine is, for example, a jellyfish. In this case, the
function of the engine is performed by the dome jellyfish. The water enclosed
in the space under the dome is pushed out by muscle force with frequency 1
... 10 pulses per minute. This type of propulsion is much more effective in
cephalopods (squid, octopus and cuttlefish). So, some types of squid using
water jet propulsion, can jump out of the water to a considerable height (more
than 1 m) and plan in the air.
61
The body of the cephalopod mollusk is soft, elastic and can be significantly
deformed. It covers diamond-shaped fins, which play the role of longitudinal
keels, well stabilizing and controlling motion in space. These fins are used in
the slow movement of the squid due to formation on their surface of propulsive
waves running along the length of the mollusk. The more rapid movement the
squid floats shocks with a frequency of emission of hydrojet propulsion engine
1...2 emissions per second at normal speed and 5 emissions – by increasing the
speed of the squid.
62
moistened surface), shown in fig. 4.1, allows us to draw the following conclu-
sions:
– at given wave number α and the law of change of amplitude of the wave
along the chord of the propeller α(x) the value of CT the greater the relative
frequency of σ. At the same time there are the following modes of operation of
the wave mover:
– σ < α, at which the phase velocity of the wave c = λ/τ (τ – wave period)
is less than the flow rates are υ0, so CT < 0 and thus a resistance force arises;
– σ = α, where the phase velocity of the wave is c = υ0 and CT = 0 (critical
velocity);
– σ > α and thus c > υ0 . In this case, a positive pull CT ¿ 0 occurs;
– decreasing the wave number α all other things being equal [α(x) = const
and σ = const] leads to an increase in the thrust coefficient CT ;
– optimal law α(x) = α0 + α1 x + α2 x2 changes in amplitude along the hy-
drobiont body is a linear law (curve 2 in fig. 4.1).
3. The loss of mechanical energy on the wave mover is due to the presence
of a vortex trace and therefore The efficiency of the wave mover h ¡ 1 – a value
that depends on the mode of its operation.
For waves of a deformable plate for all values σ > α ¿ 1 (c > υ0 ) efficiency
η > 0.50 and reaches η = 0.80...0.90. For the body wave mover, with increasing
thickness, its fall occurs hydrodynamic characteristics of C T and η.
4. Theoretical studies and optimization of a thin elastic wave mover have
shown that the hydrodynamic characteristics in this case depend, along with
σ and α, on the density and bending rigidity of the material from which the
wave mover is made. Moreover, it is established that optimal modes (c = 1, 2υ 0
and η = 0.80) there is a section of small length and spaced at a distance of
0.7B (B – chord of the wave mover), which is not loaded and thus thus, it does
not create traction. This allows you to make it less wide and thus reduce the
63
resistance of the wave mover. This theoretical result allows us to explain the
existence of fish and cetaceans have narrowed transitional areas from the body
to the caudal fin.
Studies have shown that for elastic wave movers there is an optimal value of
stiffness, at which the efficiency, ceteris paribus reaches its maximum value.
5. Comparison of the effectiveness of acne and scombroid methods swimming
(two types of wave motion of hydrobionts), shown in fig. 4.2, allows you to
following conclusion:
Fig. 4.2 The dependence of the hydrodynamic efficiency η from the relative velocities c/υ 0 the
propulsive waves to eel-like (1) and scombroidei (2) methods of navigation;
n is the number of propulsive waves on the length of the fish
– with a combined method of swimming and the same relative velocities c/υ 0
the efficiency of the propulsive wave is less than that of the acne-like swimming
method. At the same time the maximum the efficiency value for the acne-like
swimming method is achieved at a relative speed of c/υ0 = 1, while at the
scombroid method – at 1, 0 < c/υ0 < 1, 2;
– the value of efficiency at scombroidei the method of swimming is committed
to an appropriate value with eel a method of swimming with an increase in the
number of n propulsive waves.
64
with other movers. Observations and experiments performed in situ and at
experimental facilities, allow us to conclude about the most effective resonant
mode works fin propulsion, when n = nk , where nk is the critical oscillation
frequency of the fin corresponding to the maximum oscillation amplitude.
The practical application of the waving wing as an engine is more promising
in the aquatic environment. In aviation flapping wing as a force is not applied
due to the structural complexity, as also, the difficulties associated with ensuring
its strength under the action of large inertial forces. On the contrary, in a denser
environment (water) to create the necessary traction requires a waving wing
much smaller and performing cross-torsional vibrations with relatively small
amplitudes and frequencies. In this case, the inertial forces are much smaller
in comparison with hydrodynamic.
Fig. 4.3 Diagram of the flapping wing in the coordinate system Oξη
Moreover, the flapping fin propulsion in comparison with the wave more
promising for technical means of movement in the water.
Let us consider in more detail the scheme of the waving engine, which is a
wing end of the scale (fig. 4.3). Let the waving mover moving in the direction
of the axis ξ with speed υ0 , makes the joint harmonic transverse translational
and torsional oscillations with the same circular frequency ω = 2πn and phase
angle ϕ:
65
u
γ= ,
υ0
where u = dηdt = −αω sin ωt – the speed of transverse progressive oscillations of
the wing.
Thus, taking into account the torsional vibrations β(t) instantaneous angle
of attack of the wing will be
αω sin ωt
α(t) = β + γ = β0 cos(ωt + ϕ) + (− ).
υ0
At the same time, the speed of the wing flow
q q
W = u2 + v02 = α2 ω2 sin2 ωt + v02.
Each value of the angle of attack α(t) will correspond to the instantaneous
values of the lift forces Ry and drag Rx (where Oxy is a wing-bound coordi-
nate system). Projecting these forces on the horizontal Oξ and vertical Oη
coordinate axes, we obtain instantaneous thrust T and cross-power of P :
66
and torsional oscillations ∂e = βa0 b . In this case, the maximum efficiency of the
waving motor is achieved with pure transversely-progressive minimal – if only
torsional oscillations.
In this case, the maximum value of the thrust of the waving motor is achieved
with the following: the ratio of the amplitudes of the transverse translational
and torsional vibrations:
a p
> (π/2 + ϕ2Sh) + (π/2 + ϕ2 Sh)2 + ϕ2,
β0 b
where Sh = ωb/υ0 and ϕ = 1 + |x0 |/b.
67
Fig. 4.5 Hydrodynamic characteristics of waving wings
68
tail fin, critical nk .
69
the well-known fact that in mechanical systems the resonant frequency is most
effective because it meets the minimum energy consumption.
Unlike technical designs for which under the conditions of mechanical
strength and fatigue of materials, as usually, do not allow resonance modes,
for dolphins, these modes are common and, moreover, appropriate. However
to use them dolphin must have a reliable and automatically operating bodies
of elasticity control the blades of the caudal fin. This phenomenon is called
adjustable hydroelastic effect.
In fish, blood pressure which is an order of magnitude less than that of
dolphins, and the tail fin plate, such regulation is impossible.
Fig. 4.7 A schematic diagram of the squid in the time of emission of the jet:
1 – aft end of the squid; 2 – fin; 3 – part of the body, called the mantle;
4 – jet nozzle; 5 – squid jet; 6 – the front part of the squid, which in normal motion is behind;
7 – tentacles; 8 – squid head; 9 – hole in mantle for water intake
The body shape of the squid is most often fusiform and is divided into a
mantle with a fin and a head with a hydro-reactive nozzle and tentacles. The
aft part of the mantle, which when the squid moves under the action of a
hydro jet, is turned to the side movement, rounded, which improves the flow
conditions of his body. The form of frames-round or close to it.
The nozzle of the pulsating water jet propulsion is located behind the head
and its inlet at translational motion the squid is directed in the direction op-
posite to the movement, and the water jet is ejected at an angle of 5...10 ◦
70
to longitudinal axis bodies. The driving force in this case is created only by
pulsating water jet propulsion. Paired fins at this point are tight to the mantle.
The funnel functions as a rotary nozzle of the hydro-jet pulsating propul-
sion. By expanding its free end, squid swims in any direction. Rapid shots of
squid accompanied by strong changes in the shape of the body. So, the largest
diameter of the mantle at the time of filling is one fifth of the length of the
whole body, and when ejected, it is halved.
71
For very long period (more than 300 years) of the development and im-
provement there was a large number of designs water cannons that have found
practical application on ships of the world fleet. The most common design
feature of water cannons is the presence of the guide channel and the working
body. Depending on the type of the latter and the method of fluid acceleration
guide channels are circular or rectangular cross-section.
According to the method of creating a jet of continuous action (for hydro-
bionts jet pulse) water jet propellers used on ships can be classified as motor-
driven and hydro-reactive propellers (fig. 4.8).
The working body of water jet propulsion is most often axial propeller pumps
– single – and multi-stage; less often centrifugal pumps are used. Water jet
propellers are often equipped with devices to rotate the ejected jet, performed
in the form of nozzles, and special rudders that provide reverse jet. As a working
body for hydrojet water cannons (gas water meta) takes compressed gas.
The wave motion of the body of aquatic organisms and flapping motion of the
fins to provide forward motion with a constant speed or acceleration prompted
researchers to use this principle to create technical means movement in the
water (surface and underwater vessels, underwater vehicles, etc.). Consider an
example of an experimental and the practical application of the propulsion type
”flapping wing” and the wave propulsion.
In Germany, under the leadership of prof. G. Hertel, studies were carried out
on the characteristics of propulsion systems sea animals and on their basis the
idea of use on the vessel as a vessel is offered and experimentally realized the
mover of the elastic waving wing. For this purpose, a model with an oscillatory
drive was created (fig. 4.9).
As an engine driven by a special drive, this model was used a thin metal
sheet length 0.4 m, height 0.1 m and a thickness of 0.3 mm, which made the
transverse torsional vibrations with the amplitude of the transverse a = 70
mm and torsional vibrations β0 = 35◦ and frequency f = 3.1 s−1, the law of
oscillations-harmonic:
72
η = a cos 2πf t; β = a cos 2β0f t.
Due to the elastic properties of the plate on its surface there was wave length
λ = 0.55 m and the average phase velocity c = 1.7 m/s. the rate of translational
motion of the model was υ0 = 0.65 m/s, and thus υ0 /c = 0.38. The achieved
value of the average stop created by the waving motor was T ≈ 3 H and the
efficiency of η0 = 0.5...0.6.
Fuel economy, which plays a primary role in all sectors of the economy, is of
particular importance in the organization of water transport. Indeed, the vessel,
having a certain rate of fuel, is forced to take on Board its slowly consumed
stock, resulting in increased displacement, and part of the consumed fuel is
spent on its own transportation.
For these reasons, even a small gain in power justifies considerable initial
costs in the construction of the vessel associated with the improvement of its
propulsive qualities. Meanwhile, the vessel, intended for navigation in sea or
lake basins, spends a significant part of the operating time in the conditions of
excitement, which is one of the forms of mechanical energy, the supply of which
is practically inexhaustible. Calculations show that a continuous and useless
flow of energy flows past a ship on a wave, the value of which reaches tens of
thousands of kilowatts. Therefore, the creation of devices that allow using at
least part of this energy to improve the propulsive qualities of the vessel is of
undoubted practical interest. The most convenient from this point of view is
the wave energy going to the rocking of the vessel and accumulated by it in the
form of mechanical energy of oscillatory motion.
The simplest and very perfect hydraulic device for creating a driving force
due to the energy consumption of the pitching (side or longitudinal) is a waving
wing. For the first time in 1936, the idea and theoretical justification for the
73
use of waving wings that consume the energy of the onboard pitching, was
proposed by G. E. Pavlenko. If you imagine the wing is reinforced in the area
of the cheekbones to the underwater part of the hull, it is possible to find such
position of the wing at which the lift force will have a direction conducive to
the promotion of the ship forward. Since the transverse pitching of the vessel is
accompanied by its translational motion, it is necessary that the wing changed
its position, being located at any time at the proper angle of attack. The easiest
way to properly rotate the wing was carried out under the influence of changing
the direction of the velocity of flow of the wing (fig. 4.10).
The outside plating of the ship near the cheekbones are set flapping wings,
performing torsional oscillations about an axis oriented at normal to the outer
skin. The axis of rotation passes in front of the center of the wing pressure;
thus, if the rotation was performed freely, that fins, like weathervanes, would
be located in the direction of flow and lift in this case does not arise. Therefore,
to create the conditions of the lifting force, it is necessary to spring the fin with
the help of any elastic element that returns the fin to the neutral position when
it is deflected in one direction or another.
The principle of its operation is as follows. Let the ship move at a speed of
υ and, in addition, makes a transverse pitching, which gives the location of the
fin transverse velocity u. In this case, the fin will flow around at a rate of W ,
magnitude, and direction which are defined by expressions
p u
W = u 2 + υ2 ; β= .
υ
Being under the action of the resulting flow, the fin will deviate from the
central position by an angle of γ < β due to the action of the elastic element and
will flow around the fluid flow at an angle of attack α = β − γ. In this case there
is the lifting force R, the horizontal component S which is the driving force,
and the vertical component T contributes to the damping of rolling motions of
the vessel.
74
The idea of using a waving rigid wing as a ship’s propulsion, using the energy
of waves or operating from special drive, found in the last 10...20 years of its
practical application on various ships.
Thus, in the 80s of the Norwegian company ”Wave Control Co” developed
a number of projects of marine propulsion type ”waving wing”, working from
a special drive or on the energy of longitudinal motions of a ship on waves.
Obtained on ship models experimental data, as well as the results of calculations
showed that the vessel with a length of 45 m with stern thrusters in the form
of vertically arranged waving wings, working from a special drive, can reach
speeds of up to 15 knots. On according to the creators, these engines can be
very effective for small vessels and it is advisable to use them on sports, rescue
and towing vessels.
This company has also developed a project of propulsion system that uses
the energy of the longitudinal pitching of the vessel. Installation it consisted
of a horizontally located waving wing mounted on special racks in the bow
tip vessels. The longitudinal pitching fore end makes a vertical harmonic os-
cillations, thereby horizontally located wing, which is attached to the baller,
will make forward-torsional vibrations. This setup was equipped Norwegian
research trawler ”Kustfangs” length of 20.4 m.
Similar studies on the practical application of the fin thruster were conducted
in Japan by Hitachi Zosen. On a fishing vessel with a capacity of 20 reg. tons in
the bow was installed a horizontal plate 1.05x3.80m. Used active (a mechanical
drive and a computer) and passive (energy pitching on the waves and springs)
form of management the bow fin propulsion. Operation of this engine was
recommended for moderate excitement.
The project ”waving wing” as an auxiliary propulsion using the energy of
longitudinal pitching on the excitement was also carried out in Sweden on one
of the small vessels (about 40 m long). Operating experience has shown that
about 60 % the energy expended to move the vessel at a speed of 8 km was
provided by the energy of longitudinal rocking on the wave.
In the 90s, the project of the Institute of mechanics of Moscow state Uni-
versity on one of the stocks of St. Petersburg shipyard the equipment was
carried out by the bow wave propellers (BWP) of the fishing vessel (fig. 4.11).
Model tests in hydrodynamics, Moscow state University (fig. 4.12) confirmed
the improved performance of this vessel at the expense of use of energy of the
oncoming excitement.
The results of the experiment on the ship model in the scale of 1:50 (model
length 2.5 m, the area of the bow wings was 11 % of the areas of overhead
lines, spring stops limited the amplitude of angular oscillations to ± 22 ◦) it was
shown that the model could move at a speed of 0.5 m/s towards waves with a
period of τ = 1.6 s and a height of h = 0.2 m, which corresponds to the speed
of 7 ultrasonic full-scale vessel.
In connection with the development of the world ocean is relevant to increase
the propulsive qualities of man when using muscle energy for swimming with
the use of simple personal tools. Well-known conventional pair rubber fins
industrial production, with which a trained swimmer can increase the speed
75
Fig. 4.11 Ship with wave propulsion on the slipway in St. Petersburg
Fig. 4.12 The dependence of the speed of the ship on the intensity of the oncoming waves:
1 – speed of the vessel with BWP; 2 – speed of the vessel on still water; 3 – speed of the vessel
without BWP
76
ment in the form of ”waving wing”, which is a technical analogue of fin movers
of fish and cetaceans. Stay on the wave movements of the body of aquatic
organisms to create the wave propulsion.
There are various projects of elastic coating of the hulls of surface vessels,
submarines and vehicles on the surface of which a ”running wave” is created.
For example, in the United States in 1965 was published a patent in which
the propulsion system of the vessel was proposed to use deformable in a cer-
tain way elastic coating of the body. Such coverage shall provide the vessel
with the necessary emphasis due to wave-like deformations created by a special
mechanical structure inside the hull.
Of interest is the patent issued in 1962 in the United States for a new design
of hydrodynamic propulsion for underwater vehicles. The mover contains four
elements, which are arranged symmetrically along the frames of the UV in the
form of longitudinal boules – two in CP and two in the WL plane. The boules
are made of an elastic material and are created with the help of a hydraulic
system ”running wave”, driving the submarine in motion. When turning on
the hydraulic elements located on one of the sides, UV will move in the plane
of the overhead line. In turn, the depth maneuvering is provided by elastic
bullets, located in CP. The patent States that the engine does not require a
propeller, vertical and horizontal handlebars, which improves the sealing of the
robust housing, provides high maneuverability and increases the stealth of the
submarine, as the propulsion system operates silently.
In the 60s of the American engineer Bowles was built a small catamaran,
the joints of the body which made the wave movements like a dolphin’s. As
shown by observations, the movement of this ”catamaran-dolphin” did not oc-
cur hurry up!, which provides noiseless movement. This immediately became
interested in the United States with the prospect of development UV project
with a body dismembered by three swivel joints, believing that due to the
absence of propellers, engines and gearboxes discovery UV will be hindered.
77
for this type of work. Thus, in the laboratories ”Sealab II and III” (USA) dol-
phin Taffy (fig. 5.1) went in harness, found and brought various items and
returned to the laboratory for the horn, which he heard at a distance of up to
30 m (man such a signal could only be heard at a distance of 1 m). Studies have
shown the ability of dolphins to deliver various items from the surface to scuba
divers, as well as to transport them along the bottom of the sea with the help of
special harnesses. These items include instruments, medicines, samples for lab-
oratory tests, etc. In the 60s of the American engineer Bowles was built a small
catamaran, the joints of the body which made the wave movements like a dol-
phin’s. As shown by observations, the movement of this ”catamaran-dolphin”
did not occur hurry up!, which provides noiseless movement. This immediately
became interested in the United States with the prospect of development UV
project with a body dismembered by three swivel joints, believing that due to
the absence of propellers, engines and gearboxes discovery UV will be hindered.
In the test center of the US Navy missile control dolphins were involved in the
search launching pads missiles that fly at launch with the rocket. Dolphin by the
sound of a buzzer attached to the sunken pillow, looking for her, and followed
him a diver made the rise of the pillow. In addition, dolphins were trained to
attach cables to submerged torpedoes and rockets for their subsequent ascent
from the seabed.
In addition, in the laboratories of the ”Sealab” was studied and other features
of the use of marine animals as helpers of man in the development of the
oceans. In this regard, great importance was attached to the study of the spoken
language of dolphins, which can significantly facilitate direct communication
between them and the person.
It should also be noted the research conducted by sharks in the oceanariums
78
of various countries (USA, UK, Australia, etc.) mainly to develop measures to
protect people from their attacks. Despite the difficulties in studying sharks,
were also conducted experiments on the training of sharks and determine their
abilities to distinguish objects by shape and color.
79
Organs through which marine animals make sounds. The most well-
known among researchers of the acoustic and language abilities of dolphins is an
American scientist, a neurologist by education D. Lilly, who believes that dol-
phins possess intelligence enough to teach them to deliver to the target warhead
missiles to undermine mines like a suicide ”kamikaze” and, most importantly,
dolphins can be taught to communicate with humans.
Dolphins have two, and possibly three devices for sound reproduction, which
they can use both separately and simultaneously. The source of the sound is
the bow orifices of the windpipe. The right channel of the respiratory is slightly
larger than the left, which affects the frequency of sounds played. The dolphin
can use the left windpipe to reproduce the sound, the height of which increases
over time, and the right – for the sound, the height of which falls. When mixing
sounds, signals with frequencies equal to the sum or difference of frequencies of
the two channels occur. The signal with a difference frequency is in the range
of sounds perceived by a person, while the sound with the total frequency is out
of the range of audibility. In this regard, the sounds produced by the dolphin
lie in the frequency range from 200 Hz to 150 kHz.
Sounds of spoken communication of sea animals among themselves.
Observations show that dolphins exchange sounds with each other, which have
the character of whistles and clicks. When communicating, they always respond
in the same form in which they were sent a request, and the dolphin plays sounds
in the pauses between the whistles of another. There were also deviations
from this rule, when dolphins whistle simultaneously, and these whistles are
reproduced synchronously.
Original experiments conducted in the laboratories of the United States D.
Lilly, D. Butt and D. Bastion, it was found that in the process of communication
between a system of information transmission in dolphins is acoustic. Moreover,
the study of numerous acoustic signals emitted by animals led to the conclusion
that dolphins do talk to each other and that their communication is much more
complex than a simple exchange of signals. The results of the experiments also
showed how developed the acoustic and mental abilities of dolphins compared
to other animals, including primates.
Sonar sounds. Location signals from dolphins serve two main purposes:
orientation in the environment and recognition of objects. When swimming
even in clear water in good light dolphins produce short explosive sounds that
are heard as loud clicks. The purpose of these sounds is to obtain information
about nearby large objects. If the dolphin identifies a target of interest, the
frequency of sent pulses increases from 20 ... 80 pulses per second to several
hundred. The sound is perceived as the creaking of the opening door. Exam-
ination of the surrounding area dolphin performs, turning his head and using
two separate sources of sound.
It was also found that, making clicking sounds and turning his head from
side to side, the dolphin perceives the reflected signal. Then he sends even
more trigger signals, and with greater frequency. The dolphin determines the
distance to the object by the time interval between the sent and reflected signals.
Observations have shown that dolphins have high sonar abilities, allowing to
80
detect even a small difference in the size of objects, and, moreover, can recognize
the material from which these objects are made. In the latter case, they seem to
use information other than the intensity of the reflected signal. The threshold
of sensitivity, which is the minimum level of sound felt by a dolphin, about the
same as in humans. However, the range of perceived frequencies is wider and
is 75...150 kHz.
The possibility of audio communication of marine animals with the
person. This direction is interesting and most promising, because observations
and experiments show that the dolphin has better acoustic devices than any
other animal. Ongoing in this direction of research might help to recreate
zvukopodrazhanii device dolphin. It is also possible that dolphins will be able
to communicate with a person using a certain vocabulary, and become his
assistant in the development of the oceans.
The solution to the problem of man and dolphin requires the use of means
of compensation for inconsistencies in the frequency characteristics of their au-
ditory apparatus, apparatus for sound reproduction and environmental prop-
erties. For example, in the sounds of the human voice are ultrasonic signals
that he does not perceive, but which can hear a dolphin. To shift a person’s
speech to a region hearing of a dolphin and on the contrary created a special
electronic transmitters, called translators ”human-dolphin” and ”dolphin-man”,
the scheme of which is shown in fig. 5.2.
81
Translator ”dolphin-man” converts human speech into sinusoidal signals of
different frequencies, having the character of whistles, they look like dolphins.
Dolphins, in turn, are taught to understand each of these whistles. During
the experiments the researcher is in the cockpit and speaks in front of the
microphone connected to the transducer ”dolphin-man”. Words spoken with
a frequency of 200 . . . 3500 Hz, shifted towards higher frequencies. Thus, the
signal coming to the hydrophone is in the frequency band 2 . . . 35 kHz. The
converter itself consists of a pulse detector of speech frequencies, a speech to
DC converter and a whistle generator. The logic circuit turns the signal on and
off, filtering out sounds that do not correspond to human speech. Translator
”dolphin-man” transforms dolphin whistles into synthetic speech by generating
a constant a current with a voltage proportional to the frequency of dolphin
whistles. This voltage is then converted into double pulses, the time between
which changes with the expectation of providing a better understanding of the
synthesized language.
American scientists D. Lilly and D. Button was discovered amazing ability
of dolphins, rarely found in animals-to reproduce the words and associate them
with objects. This ability of dolphins was achieved in the process of learning and
consisted in the simultaneous reproduction of the ”word” through a translator
and demonstrations of the subject or action. So, one of the employees D. Button
managed to ensure that the dolphin began to connect the word with a certain
object. He accustomed the animal to the sight of this object, from time to
time repeating, for example: ”ball”, ”hat”, ”stick”. And animal quite quickly
began to associate this object with its name. Also, if the dolphin repeated the
word or reproduced it close enough, he heard another word corresponding to
the approval in the language of whistles, and received a ”prize” in the form of
fish. Vocabulary was limited, because under a large the number of words the
observer could not always understand what the dolphin ”said”.
82
6. List of references
1.Hydrobionics in shipbuilding. – Moscow: Central research Institute of
information and technical and economic research, 1970.
2.Kozlov L. F. Theoretical biohydrodynamics. – K.: Vischa school, 1983.
3.Nosov E. p. Fin propulsion and steering complex // Shipbuilding. – 1996.
– 1.
4.Pavlenko G. E., Selected papers. – K.: Naukova Dumka, 1978.
5.Pershin S. I. Fundamentals of hydroponics: Proc. benefit. – L.: Shipbuild-
ing, 1988.
6.Slizhevsky N. B. Basics of hydrobionics. – Nikolaev: NKI, 1992.
7.Chirichenko V., Konstantinov G. From the body to the wave propulsion
// Navy. – 1996. – 2.
8.Foilpropellen Kanrevolusjonere skipsfarten // Tekt.Ukeb. – 1988. – 39.
9.Isshiki H., Murakami M. Wave power utilization into ship propulsion //
Proc. of the 5th. Intern. Offshore Mech. and Arct. End. (OMAE) Symp. –
Tokyo, 1986.
10.Potze W. On Optimum Sculling Propulsion // J. Ship. Res. – 1986. –
30.
11.Potze W., Sparenberg J.A. On the efficiency of optimum finite amplitude
sculling propulsion// Intern. Shipbuild. Progr. – 1983. – 99.
12.Jakobsen E. The working principle of the foil propeller // Norw. Shipp
News. – 1983. – 39.
13.Wave power for ship propulsion // Mat. Ship. – 1983. – 54.
83
Contents
1. Introduction 3
1.1. Bionics and its contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2. A subject of a hydrobionics and its place in a cycle of sciences
about technical means of driving in water . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3. Hydrobionics methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4. Hydrobionic and biological features of swimming of hydrobionts 6
84
4.4. Propulsive hydrojet engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.5. Technical modeling of propulsion of aquatic organisms and their
use in the establishment of marine propulsion . . . . . . . . . . 71
6. List of references 83
86