4 24 Mannitol

gloves, and a dust respirator are recommended. When heated to
decomposition, maltose emits acrid smoke and irritating fumes.
16 Regulatory Status
In the USA, maltose is considered as a food by the FDA and is
therefore not subject to food additive and GRAS regulations.
Included in the FDA Inactive Ingredients Database (oral solutions).
Included in the Canadian List of Acceptable Non-medicinal
Ingredients. Included in parenteral products available in a number
of countries worldwide.
17 Related Substances
Glucose, liquid.
19 Specific References
1 SPI Pharma Group. Technical literature: Advantose 100 maltose, 2004.
2 Bowe KE et al. Crystalline maltose: a direct compression pharmaceu-
tical excipient. Pharm Technol Eur 1998; 10(5): 40.
3 Mulderrig KB. Placebo evaluation of selected sugar-based excipients in
pharmaceutical and nutraceutical tableting. Pharm Technol 2000;
24(5): 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44.
4 Palevsky PM et al. Maltose-induced hyponatremia. Ann Intern Med
1993; 118(7): 526–528.
5 Mundt S, Wedzicha BL. Role of glucose in the Maillard browning of
maltose and glycine: a radiochemical approach. J Agric Food Chem
2005; 53: 6798–6803.
6 Lewis RJ, ed. Sax’s Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 11th
edn. New York: Wiley, 2004; 2275.
7 Japan Pharmaceutical Excipients Council. Japan Pharmaceutical
Excipients, 2004. Tokyo, Yakuji Nippo: 2004; 516–518.

20 General References
18 Comments
—
Crystalline maltose, e.g. Advantose 100 (SPI Pharma Group), is
spray-dried to produce spherical particles with good flow proper-
21 Author
ties. The material is also nonhygroscopic and is highly compressible.
A specification for maltose syrup powder is contained in the CK Tye.
Japanese Pharmaceutical Excipients (JPE).(7) The EINECS number
for maltose is 200-716-5. The PubChem Compound ID (CID) for 22 Date of Revision
maltose includes 6255 and 23724983. 19 February 2009.

M
Mannitol

1 Nonproprietary Names 6 Functional Category

BP: Mannitol Diluent; plasticizer; sweetening agent; tablet and capsule diluent;
JP: D-Mannitol therapeutic agent; tonicity agent.
PhEur: Mannitol
USP: Mannitol
7 Applications in Pharmaceutical Formulation or
Technology
2 Synonyms Mannitol is widely used in pharmaceutical formulations and food
Cordycepic acid; C*PharmMannidex; E421; Emprove; manna products. In pharmaceutical preparations it is primarily used as a
sugar; D-mannite; mannite; mannitolum; Mannogem; Pearlitol. diluent (10–90% w/w) in tablet formulations, where it is of
particular value since it is not hygroscopic and may thus be used
with moisture-sensitive active ingredients.(1,2)
3 Chemical Name and CAS Registry Number Mannitol may be used in direct-compression tablet applica-
D-Mannitol [69-65-8] tions,(3,4) for which the granular and spray-dried forms are
available, or in wet granulations.(5,6) Granulations containing
mannitol have the advantage of being dried easily. Specific tablet
4 Empirical Formula and Molecular Weight applications include antacid preparations, glyceryl trinitrate tablets,
and vitamin preparations. Mannitol is commonly used as an
C6H14O6 182.17
excipient in the manufacture of chewable tablet formulations
because of its negative heat of solution, sweetness, and ‘mouth
5 Structural Formula feel’.(6,7)
In lyophilized preparations, mannitol (20–90% w/w) has been
included as a carrier to produce a stiff, homogeneous cake that
improves the appearance of the lyophilized plug in a vial.(8–10) A
pyrogen-free form is available specifically for this use.
Mannitol has also been used to prevent thickening in aqueous
antacid suspensions of aluminum hydroxide (<7% w/v). It has been
suggested as a plasticizer in soft-gelatin capsules, as a component of
sustained-release tablet formulations,(11) and as a carrier in dry
powder inhalers.(12,13) It is also used as a diluent in rapidly
 Mannitol 42 5

dispersing oral dosage forms.(14,15) It is used in food applications as SEM 3: Excipient: mannitol powder; manufacturer: SPI Polyols Inc.; lot no:
a bulking agent. 3140G8; magnification: 100.
Therapeutically, mannitol administered parenterally is used as
an osmotic diuretic, as a diagnostic agent for kidney function, as an
adjunct in the treatment of acute renal failure, and as an agent to
reduce intracranial pressure, treat cerebral edema, and reduce
intraocular pressure. Given orally, mannitol is not absorbed
significantly from the gastrointestinal tract, but in large doses it
can cause osmotic diarrhea; see Section 14.

8 Description
Mannitol is D-mannitol. It is a hexahydric alcohol related to
mannose and is isomeric with sorbitol.
Mannitol occurs as a white, odorless, crystalline powder, or free-
flowing granules. It has a sweet taste, approximately as sweet as
glucose and half as sweet as sucrose, and imparts a cooling
sensation in the mouth. Microscopically, it appears as orthorhom-
bic needles when crystallized from alcohol. Mannitol shows
polymorphism.(16)
SEM 4: Excipient: mannitol granular; manufacturer: SPI Polyols Inc.; lot
no: 2034F8; magnification: 100.
9 Pharmacopeial Specifications
See Table I. See also Section 18.

SEM 1: Excipient: mannitol; manufacturer: Merck; magnification: 50;

voltage: 3.5 kV.
M

10 Typical Properties
Compressibility see Figure 1.
Density (bulk)
0.430 g/cm3 for powder;
SEM 2: Excipient: mannitol; manufacturer: Merck; magnification: 500; 0.7 g/cm3 for granules.
voltage: 3.5 kV.
Density (tapped)
0.734 g/cm3 for powder;
0.8 g/cm3 for granules.
Density (true) 1.514 g/cm3
Dissociation constant pKa = 13.5 at 188C
Flash point <1508C
Flowability Powder is cohesive, granules are free flowing.
Heat of combustion 16.57 kJ/g (3.96 kcal/g)
Heat of solution 120.9 J/g (28.9 cal/g) at 258C
Melting point 166–1688C
Moisture content see Figure 2.
NIR spectra see Figure 3.
Osmolarity A 5.07% w/v aqueous solution is isoosmotic with
serum.
Particle size distribution
Pearlitol 300 DC: maximum of 0.1% greater than 500 mm and
minimum of 90% greater than 200 mm in size;
 4 26 Mannitol
100
Table I: Pharmacopeial specifications for mannitol.

Test JP XV PhEur 6.4 USP 32 90

Identification þ þ þ 80

Tablet crushing strength (N)

Characters — þ —
Appearance of þ þ — 70
solution
Melting range 166–1698C 165–1708C 164–1698C
60
Specific rotation þ1378 to þ1458 þ238 to þ258 þ1378 to þ1458
Conductivity – 420 mScm1 —
Acidity þ — þ 50
Loss on drying 40.3% 40.5% 40.3%
Chloride 40.007% — 40.007% 40
Sulfate 40.01% — 40.01%
Arsenic 41.3 ppm — 41 ppm 30 Pearlitol 300DC
Lead – 40.5 ppm — Pearlitol 400DC
Nickel þ 41 ppm — 20 Pearlitol 500DC
Heavy metals 45 ppm — —
Reducing sugars þ 40.2% þ 10
Residue on 40.10% — —
ignition 0
Related — þ — 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
substances Compression force (kN)
Bacterial — 44 IU/g(b) —
endotoxins(a)
42.5 IU/g (c) Figure 1: Compression characteristics of granular mannitol (Pearlitol,
Microbial — 4100 cfu/g — Roquette Frères).
contamination Tablet diameter: 20 mm. Lubricant: magnesium stearate 0.7% w/w for
Assay (dried 5 98.0% 98.0–102.0% 96.0–101.5% Pearlitol 400 DC and Pearlitol 500 DC; magnesium stearate 1% w/w for
basis) Pearlitol 300 DC.

(a) Test applied only if the mannitol is to be used in the manufacture of parenteral

M
dosage forms. 12
(b) For parenteral preparations having a concentration of 100 g/L or less of mannitol.
(c) For parental preparations having a concentration of more than 100 g/L of mannitol.
Sorption equilibrium moisture
10 Desorption equilibrium moisture
Moisture content (%)

Pearlitol 400 DC: maximum of 20% greater than 500 mm and

minimum of 85% greater than 100 mm in size; 8
Pearlitol 500 DC: maximum of 0.5% greater than 841 mm and
minimum of 90% greater than 150 mm in size.
6
Average particle diameter is 250 mm for Pearlitol 300 DC,
360 mm for Pearlitol 400 DC and 520 mm for Pearlitol 500
DC.(17) See also Figure 4. 4
Refractive index n20 D = 1.333
Solubility see Table II.
Specific surface area 0.37–0.39 m2/g
2
Table II: Solubility of mannitol.

Solvent Solubility at 208C 0

23 33 43 52 57 67 75 100
Alkalis Soluble
Ethanol (95%) 1 in 83
Relative humidity (%)
Ether Practically insoluble
Glycerin 1 in 18 Figure 2: Sorption–desorption isotherm for mannitol.
Propan-2-ol 1 in 100
Water 1 in 5.5

11 Stability and Storage Conditions
Mannitol is stable in the dry state and in aqueous solutions.
Solutions may be sterilized by filtration or by autoclaving and if
necessary may be autoclaved repeatedly with no adverse physical or
chemical effects.(18) In solution, mannitol is not attacked by cold,
dilute acids or alkalis, nor by atmospheric oxygen in the absence of
catalysts. Mannitol does not undergo Maillard reactions.
The bulk material should be stored in a well-closed container in a
cool, dry place.
12 Incompatibilities
Mannitol solutions, 20% w/v or stronger, may be salted out by
potassium chloride or sodium chloride.(19) Precipitation has been
reported to occur when a 25% w/v mannitol solution was allowed
to contact plastic.(20) Sodium cephapirin at 2 mg/mL and 30 mg/mL
concentration is incompatible with 20% w/v aqueous mannitol
solution. Mannitol is incompatible with xylitol infusion and may
form complexes with some metals such as aluminum, copper, and
iron. Reducing sugar impurities in mannitol have been implicated in
the oxidative degradation of a peptide in a lyophilized forma-
tion.(21) Mannitol was found to reduce the oral bioavailability of
cimetidine compared to sucrose.(22)

1.5
1000 × [2nd deriv. log(1/R)]
1674
0.0
1498 1686
2123
2082
−1.5 −0.2
1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500
Wavelength/nm
Figure 3: Near-infrared spectrum of mannitol measured by reflectance.
100
80
Weight oversize (%)
60
Median size = 88 μm
40
20
0 Mannitol is an isomer of sorbitol, the difference between the two
0 40 80 100
Particle diameter (μm)
Figure 4: Particle size distribution of mannitol powder.
13 Method of Manufacture
Mannitol may be extracted from the dried sap of manna and other
natural sources by means of hot alcohol or other selective solvents.
It is commercially produced by the catalytic or electrolytic reduction
of monosaccharides such as mannose and glucose.
14 Safety
Mannitol is a naturally occurring sugar alcohol found in animals
and plants; it is present in small quantities in almost all vegetables.
Laxative effects may occur if mannitol is consumed orally in large
quantities.(23) If it is used in foods as a bodying agent and daily
ingestion of over 20 g is foreseeable, the product label should bear
the statement ‘excessive consumption may have a laxative effect’.
After intravenous injection, mannitol is not metabolized to any
appreciable extent and is minimally reabsorbed by the renal tubule,
about 80% of a dose being excreted in the urine in 3 hours.(24)
A number of adverse reactions to mannitol have been reported,
primarily following the therapeutic use of 20% w/v aqueous
intravenous infusions.(25) The quantity of mannitol used as an
excipient is considerably less than that used therapeutically and is
consequently associated with a lower incidence of adverse reactions.
However, allergic, hypersensitive-type reactions may occur when
mannitol is used as an excipient.
Mannitol 42 7
0.6 An acceptable daily intake of mannitol has not been specified by
2245 the WHO since the amount consumed as a sweetening agent was
not considered to represent a hazard to health.(26)
2415
LD50 (mouse, IP): 14 g/kg(27)
1og(1/R)
LD50 (mouse, IV): 7.47 g/kg
LD50 (mouse, oral): 22 g/kg
LD50 (rat, IV): 9.69 g/kg
2168 LD50 (rat, oral): 13.5 g/kg
2452
15 Handling Precautions
2261
Observe normal precautions appropriate to the circumstances and
quantity of material handled. Mannitol may be irritant to the eyes;
eye protection is recommended.
16 Regulatory Status
GRAS listed. Accepted for use as a food additive in Europe.
Included in the FDA Inactive Ingredients Database (IP, IM, IV, and
SC injections; infusions; buccal, oral and sublingual tablets,
powders and capsules; ophthalmic preparations; topical solutions).
Included in nonparenteral and parenteral medicines licensed in the
UK. Included in the Canadian List of Acceptable Mon-medicinal
Ingredients.
17 Related Substances
Sorbitol.
18 Comments
Mannitol is one of the materials that have been selected for
M
harmonization by the Pharmacopeial Discussion Group. For further
information see the General Information Chapter <1196> in the
USP32–NF27, the General Chapter 5.8 in PhEur 6.0, along with the
‘State of Work’ document on the PhEur EDQM website, and also
the General Information Chapter 8 in the JP XV.
160 200 polyols occurring in the planar orientation of the OH group on the
second carbon atom. Each isomer is characterized by its own
individual set of properties, the most important difference being the
response to moisture. Sorbitol is hygroscopic, while mannitol resists
moisture sorption, even at high relative humidities.
Granular mannitol flows well and imparts improved flow
properties to other materials. However, it usually cannot be used
with concentrations of other materials exceeding 25% by weight.
Recommended levels of lubricant are 1% w/w calcium stearate or
1–2% w/w magnesium stearate. Suitable binders for preparing
granulations of powdered mannitol are gelatin, methylcellulose
400, starch paste, povidone, and sorbitol. Usually, 3–6 times as
much magnesium stearate or 1.5–3 times as much calcium stearate
is needed for lubrication of mannitol granulations than is needed for
other excipients.
A study has examined the influence of common excipients such
as sucrose and trehalose, on the crystallization of mannitol in freeze-
drying.(28)
Mannitol has been reported to sublime at 1308C.(29)
Ludiflash (BASF) is a coprocessed excipient used as a tablet filler,
binder, and disintegrant, and contains mainly mannitol, and also
crospovidone and polyvinyl acetate.
A specification for mannitol is contained in the Food Chemicals
Codex (FCC).(30)
The EINECS number for mannitol is 200-711-8. The PubChem
Compound ID (CID) for mannitol includes 6251 and 453.
19 Specific References
1 Allen LV. Featured excipient: capsule and tablet diluents. Int J Pharm
Compound 2000; 4(4): 306–310324–325.
 4 28 Mannitol
2 Yoshinari T et al. Improved compaction properties of mannitol after a
moisture induced polymorphic transition. Int J Pharm 2003; 258(1–2):
121–131.
3 Debord B et al. Study of different crystalline forms of mannitol:
comparative behaviour under compression. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 1987;
13: 1533–1546.
4 Molokhia AM et al. Aging of tablets prepared by direct compression of
bases with different moisture content. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 1987; 13:
1933–1946.
5 Mendes RW et al. Wet granulation: a comparison of Manni-Tab and
mannitol. Drug Cosmet Ind 1978; 122(3): 36, 38, 40, 44, 87–88.
6 Bouffard J et al. Influence of processing variables and physicochemical
properties on the granulation mechanisms of mannitol in a fluid bed top
spray granulator. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2005; 31: 923–933.
7 Daoust RG, Lynch MJ. Mannitol in chewable tablets. Drug Cosmet Ind
1963; 93(1): 26–2888, 92, 128–129.
8 Cavatur RK et al. Crystallization behavior of mannitol in frozen
aqueous solutions. Pharm Res 2002; 19: 894–900.
9 Liao XM et al. Influence of processing conditions on the physical state
of mannitol – implications in freeze drying. Pharm Res 2007; 24: 370–
376.
10 Pyne A et al. Crystallization of mannitol below Tg0 during freeze-drying
in binary and ternary aqueous systems. Pharm Res 2002; 19: 901–908.
11 Parab PV et al. Sustained release from Precirol (glycerol palmito-
stearate) matrix. Effect of mannitol and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose
on the release of theophylline. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 1986; 12: 1309–
1327.
12 Tee SK et al. Use of different sugars as fine and coarse carriers for
aerosolised salbutamol sulphate. Int J Pharm 2000; 208: 111–123.
13 Steckel H, Bolzen N. Alternative sugars as potential carriers for dry
powder inhalers. Int J Pharm 2004; 270(1–2): 297–306.
14 Lee KJ et al. Evaluation of critical formulation factors in the
M development of a rapidly dispersing captopril oral dosage form. Drug
Dev Ind Pharm 2003; 29(9): 967–979.
15 Seager H. Drug development products and the Zydis fast dissolving
dosage form. J Pharm Pharmacol 1998; 50: 375–382.
16 Bauer H et al. Investigations on polymorphism of mannitol/sorbitol
mixtures after spray drying using differential scanning calorimetry, x-
ray diffraction and near infrared spectroscopy. Pharm Ind 2000; 62(3):
231–235.
17 Roquette Frères. Technical literature: Pearlitol, 2004.
18 Murty BSR, Kapoor JN. Properties of mannitol injection (25%) after
repeated autoclavings. Am J Hosp Pharm 1975; 32: 826–827.
19 Jacobs J. Factors influencing drug stability in intravenous infusions. J
Hosp Pharm 1969; 27: 341–347.
20 Epperson E. Mannitol crystallization in plastic containers [letter]. Am J
Hosp Pharm 1978; 35: 1337.
21 Dubost DC et al. Characterization of a solid state reaction product from
a lyophilized formulation of a cyclic heptapeptide. A novel example of
an excipient-induced oxidation. Pharm Res 1996; 13: 1811–1814.
22 Adkin DA et al. The effect of mannitol on the oral bioavailability of
cimetidine. J Pharm Sci 1995; 84: 1405–1409.
23 Anonymous. Flatulence, diarrhoea, and polyol sweeteners. Lancet
1983; ii: 1321.
24 Porter GA et al. Mannitol hemodilution–perfusion: the kinetics of
mannitol distribution and excretion during cardiopulmonary bypass. J
Surg Res 1967; 7: 447–456.
25 McNeill IY. Hypersensitivity reaction to mannitol. Drug Intell Clin
Pharm 1985; 19: 552–553.
26 FAO/WHO. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants.
Thirtieth report of the joint FAO/WHO expert committee on food
additives. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser 1987; No. 751.
27 Lewis RJ, ed. Sax’s Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 11th
edn. New York: Wiley, 2004; 1944–1945.
28 Schneid S et al. Influence of common excipients on the crystalline
modification of freeze-dried mannitol. Pharmaceutical Technology
2008; 32: 178–184.
29 Weast RC, ed. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 60th edn. Boca
Raton: CRC Press, 1979; c–369.
30 Food Chemicals Codex, 6th edn. Bethesda, MD: United States
Pharmacopeia, 2008; 583.
20 General References
Armstrong NA. Tablet manufacture. Diluents. Swarbrick J, Boylan JC, eds.
Encyclopedia of Pharmaceutical Technology, 2nd edn, vol. 3: New
York: Marcel Dekker, 2002; 2713–2732.
BASF. Product literature: Ludiflash, 2004. http://www.pharma-solutions.-
basf.com (accessed 3 February 2009).
Bolhuis GK, Armstrong NA. Excipients for direct compression – an update.
Pharm Tech Technol 2006; 11: 111–124.
European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and Healthcare
(EDQM). European Pharmacopoeia – State Of Work Of International
Harmonisation. Pharmeuropa 2009; 21(1): 142–143. http://www.edq-
m.eu/site/-614.html (accessed 3 February 2009).
Pikal MJ. Freeze drying. Swarbrick J, Boylan JC, eds. Encyclopedia of
Pharmaceutical Technology, 2nd edn, vol. 2: New York: Marcel Dekker,
2002; 1299–1326.
21 Author
NA Armstrong.
22 Date of Revision
3 February 2009.