P4 Stress and Strain Dr. A.B.

Zavatsky
HT08

Lecture 7
Further Development of Theory
and Applications
Hooke’s law for plane stress.
Relationship between the elastic constants.
Volume change and bulk modulus.
Spherical and cylindrical pressure vessels.

1
 Generalized Hooke’s Law
σy Apply σx, get εx, εy = -νεx, εz = -νεx
σz Apply σy, get εy, εx = -νεy, εz = -νεy
Apply σz, get εz, εx = -νεz, εy = -νεz
σx σx
For an isotropic linearly elastic material,
σz ε = σ / E in the x, y, and z directions.
σy

Use superposition to get εx : The resulting equations are:

σ
ε x = x − νε y − νε z
E
εx =
1
E
(
σ x −ν σ y −ν σ z )
⎛σ y ⎞
εx =
σx
−ν ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ −ν ⎜
⎛σz ⎞
⎟ εy =
1
(
σ y −ν σ x −ν σ z )
E ⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ E ⎠ E

εx =
1
(
σ x − ν σ y − ν σ z etc. ) εz =
1
E
(
σ z −ν σ x −ν σ y )
E
2
 Hooke’s Law for Plane Stress

For plane stress, substitute σz = 0 into the generalized Hooke’s Law

equations to get:
εx =
1
E
(
σ x −ν σ y )
εy =
1
E
(
σ y −ν σ x ) HLT, page 108

εz =
−ν
E
(
σx +σ y )
τ xy
Remember also the shear strain: γ xy =
G

3
These equations can be re-written in terms of stresses:

σx =
E
(ε x + ν ε y )
1 −ν 2
σy =
E
(ε y + ν ε x )
1 −ν 2 HLT, page 108
σz = 0
τ xy = Gγ xy

These equations contain three material constants: E, G, and ν.

We can show that these constants are related by the equation:

E
G= HLT, page 110
2 (1 + ν )

4
 Consider a plane stress element in “pure shear” and relate the
shear strains and stresses to the strains and stresses along the
θ = 45° direction.
τ = Gγ
Start with strains.

a b b
a π
π −γ
+γ 2
2
h

c
d h c d
Element before shear is applied. Element after shear applied.

Lbd = 2 h bd lengthens, ac shortens

Angle changes related to γ
5
 ′ =? b
Lbd = 2 h Lbd h
ΔLbd π a
π γ
ε bd = ΔLbd = ε bd Lbd +γ
2 −
Lbd 4 2
′ = Lbd + ΔLbd = Lbd (1 + ε bd )
h L’bd
Lbd
′ = 2 h (1 + ε bd )
Lbd
d
Using geometry, the normal strain εbd can be related to the shear
strain γ.

Using the cosine rule :

(Lbd
′ )2 = h 2 + h 2 − 2h(h) cos(π / 2 + γ )
[ 2 h (1 + ε bd )] 2 = 2h 2 [1 − cos(π / 2 + γ )]
Since ε bd and γ are small,
(1 + εbd ) = 1 − cos(π / 2 + γ )
2
(ε bd )2 ≈ 0 sin γ ≈ γ
1 + 2ε bd + (ε bd )2 = 1 + sin γ
ε bd = γ / 2
6
Now use Mohr’s circle and Hooke’s law to relate strains to stresses.
Find the stress along the θ = 45° direction :
B
B
τ σ1 = + τ
σ2 = - τ
σ2 σ1 σ
A 2θ1
2θ1 = 90°
A θ1 = 45°
τ
The strain in the σ1 direction is:
σ1 = + τ
σ1 σ2
ε1 = −ν
E E
σ2 = - τ τ ( −τ )
ε1 = −ν
E E
θ = 45°
τ
ε1 = (1 + ν ) = εbd
E
7
 τ
ε bd = γ / 2 ε bd = (1 + ν )
E
γ τ Gγ
= (1 + ν ) = (1 + ν )
2 E E
E
G=
2(1 + ν )
Data from HLT, page 41

Mild Steel: E = 210 GPa,ν = 0.27-0.30, G = 81 GPa

Aluminium 2024: E = 72 GPa,ν = 0.33, G = 28 GPa

Using the equation just derived:

Mild Steel: G = 210 / [2(1+0.27)] = 83 GPa
G = 210 / [2(1+0.30)] = 81 GPa
Aluminium 2024: G = 72 / [2(1+0.33)] = 27 GPa
8
 Volume Change and Bulk Modulus
Normal stresses produce changes in volume, whereas shear
stresses produce changes in shape.
Normal stress causes a change in length dL of each face.
Since ε = dL / L, each dL = εL. y
aεx
a
c
bεy
Vo = abc Original volume Vo cεz
New volume V1
b
V1 = (a + aε x )(b + bε y )(c + cε z )
x
V1 = abc (1 + ε x )(1 + ε y )(1 + ε z )
V1 = Vo (1 + ε x )(1 + ε y )(1 + ε z ) z
V1 = Vo (1 + ε x + ε y + ε z + ε xε y + ε yε z + ε xε z + ε xε yε z )

This equation is valid for both large and small strains.

If strains are assumed to be small, the product terms all tend to 0.
9
Assuming that the strains are small,
V1 = Vo (1 + ε x + ε y + ε z )

The change in volume ΔV is then:

ΔV = V1 − Vo
ΔV = Vo (1 + ε x + ε y + ε z ) − Vo
ΔV = Vo (ε x + ε y + ε z )

The unit volume change (“dilatation”,“volumetric strain”) is defined as:

ΔV Vo (ε x + ε y + ε z )
e= =
Vo Vo
e = εx + ε y + εz

Consider next two situations: spherical stress and uniaxial stress.

10
Spherical stress is defined as σx = σy = σz = σo.

εx =
1
E
( 1
E
)
σ x − νσ y − νσ z = (σ o − νσ o − νσ o ) (Hooke’s Law)

σo
εx = (1 − 2ν ) = ε y = ε z = εo
E
e = εx + ε y + εz (unit volume change)
3σ o (1 − 2ν )
e = 3ε o =
E
E HLT,
Define the bulk modulus of elasticity: K =
3 (1 − 2ν ) page 110
σo
e=
K
σ spherical stress σ
K= o = = o
e volumetric strain 3ε o

These equations also hold for hydrostatic stress (σx = σy = σz = - σo)

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Data from HLT, page 41

Mild Steel: E = 210 GPa,ν = 0.27-0.30, K = 160-170 GPa

Aluminium 2024: E = 72 GPa,ν = 0.33, K = 75 GPa

Using the equation for K just derived:

Mild Steel: K = 210 / { 3 [1-2(0.27)] } = 152 GPa
K = 210 / { 3 [1-2(0.30)] } = 175 GPa
Aluminium: K = 72 / { 3 [1-2(0.33)] } = 71 GPa

E If ν = 0, K = E / 3.
K=
3 (1 − 2ν ) If ν = 1/3, K = E.

If ν = 1/2, K → ∞.
This corresponds to a rigid material having no change in volume
(that is, the material is incompressible).

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Next, consider the unit volume change for uniaxial stress,
σy = σz = 0.
σx
e = εx + ε y + εz εx =
E
− νσ x
ε
Substituting σy = σz = 0 into Hooke’s Law gives: y =
E
− νσ x
The volumetric strain is then: εz =
σ νσ νσ E
e= x − x − x
E E E
σ
e = x (1− 2ν )
E

Note here that the maximum possible value of Poisson’s ratio for
common materials is 0.5, because a larger value means that the
volume would decrease when the material is in tension, which is
contrary to ordinary physical behaviour.
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Example (based on Gere, 6th ed, p 537, 7.6-10)
A solid steel sphere (E = 210 GPa, ν = 0.3) is subjected to
hydrostatic pressure p such that its volume is reduced by 0.4%.

Calculate:
(a) the bulk modulus of elasticity K for the steel
(b) the pressure p
(c) the strain energy stored in the sphere if its diameter d = 150
mm.

Solution:

(a) The bulk modulus of elasticity is found using the equation for K
derived earlier.

E 210 × 109
K= = = 175 × 109 Pa = 175 GPa
3 (1 − 2ν ) 3(1 − 2(0.3))
14
 ΔV
(b) e= = 0.4% = 0.004
Vo
σ o = K e = (175 × 10 9 )(0.004) = 700 × 10 6 Pa = 700 MPa
σο is the same as the pressure p.
(c) The strain energy density u (strain energy per unit volume) is
given by the area under the σο = K e curve (which is linear).
1 σ o2 (700 × 10 6 ) 2 J
u = σo e = = = 1.40 × 10 6

2 2 K 2 (175 × 10 )9
m3
The volume V of the sphere is
4 4
V = π r = π (75 × 10 −3 ) 3 = 1.77 × 10 −3 m 3
3

3 3
The strain energy density U is then simply
U = uV = (1.40 × 10 6 )(1.77 × 10 −3 ) J = 2478 J
15
 Pressure Vessels
• Closed structures containing liquids or gases under pressure.
Examples are tanks, pipes, pressurized cabins in aircraft, etc.

• Pressure vessels are considered to be thin-walled when the

ratio of radius r to wall thickness t is greater than 10.
• Assume that the internal pressure pin exceeds the pressure pout
acting on the outside of the vessel (usually atmospheric pressure).
If pout > pin, the vessel could collapse inward due to buckling.

• We are interested in the stresses and strains that develop in the

walls of pressure vessels.
• We will derive equations based on the “net” or “gauge” pressure p,
where p = pin – pout.

16
 Spherical Pressure Vessels
To determine the stresses in the (thin) walls of a spherical
pressure vessel with inner radius r and wall thickness t, first
cut through the sphere on a vertical diametral plane.

Next, isolate half of the sphere and its fluid contents as a

single free body.
t
tensile stress σ
in the walls
r
fluid pressure p
p

Fluid force in horizontal direction Tensile force in horizontal direction

P = p (πr 2) T = σ (2πrmt) where rm= r + t/2
17
For equilibrium, forces in the horizontal direction must balance.
ΣF = σ (2π rm t ) − p(π r 2 ) = 0
pr 2
σ=
2 rm t

For thin-walled vessels, r ≅ rm and the equation becomes

pr
σ= * Note that using r instead of rm actually gives a result
2t closer to the theoretically “exact” result.

Since the same equation for tensile

σ
stresses would result from any slice
through the centre of the sphere, we σ
conclude that the wall of a spherical
pressure vessel is subjected to uniform
tensile stress in all directions.

Sometimes called “membrane stresses”

18
 Stresses at the Outer Surface
σy= σ

σx = σy = σ = pr / 2t
σx σx= σ σz = 0
τxy = 0

σy

When new stress elements on the sphere are obtained from rotating this
element about the z axis, the normal stresses remain the same and there
are no shear stresses. So, every plane tangent to the sphere is a principal
plane, and every direction a principal direction.

The principal stresses are σ1 = σ2 = pr / 2t, σ3 = 0.

The maximum (out-of-plane) shear stress is τmax = (σ1 – σ3) / 2 = pr / 4t

Draw the three Mohr’s circles to convince yourself of this.

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 Comments on the theory

1. The wall thickness must be small in comparison to the other

dimensions. The ratio r/t should be 10 or more.

2. The internal pressure must exceed the external pressure to

avoid inward buckling.

3. The analysis is based only on the effects of (net) internal

pressure. The effects of external loads, reactions, the weight
of the contents, and the weight of the structure are not
included.

4. The formulae derived are valid throughout the (thin) wall of

the vessel, except near points of stress concentration.

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 Cylindrical Pressure Vessels
A m p B
σy The thin-walled cylindrical
σx
b tank is subjected to a net
internal pressure p.
n q

Longitudinal Stress

A m
tensile stress σL
in the walls
fluid pressure p

n
Fluid force in horizontal direction Tensile force in horizontal direction
P = p (πr 2) T = σL (2πr t)
21
For equilibrium, forces in the horizontal direction must balance.
pr
The longitudinal stress is then: σ L =
2t
Circumferential (or Hoop) Stress
m p
tensile stress Tensile force
in the walls σh r t T = σh (2bt)

fluid pressure p b Fluid force

P = p (2br)

n q
For equilibrium, forces in the horizontal direction must balance.
pr
The circumferential (or hoop) stress is then: σ h =
t

22
 A m p B
σy
σx
b

n q
The normal stresses σx and σy are principal stresses since no
shear stresses are acting.
Circumferential (Hoop) Direction
pr
σ y = σ1 = σ h =
t
Longitudinal Direction
pr
σ x =σ2 =σL =
2t
An obvious discontinuity exists at the ends of the cylinder, where the ends
(usually plates or hemispheres) are attached, because the geometry of the
structure changes abruptly.
23
 Stresses at the Outer Surface
σy= σ1

σx = σ2 = pr / 2t
σx σx= σ2 σy = σ1 = pr / t
σz = σ3 = 0
τxy = 0
σy

The maximum (in-plane) shear stress is

σ1 − σ 2 ( pr / t ) − ( pr / 2t ) pr
τ max(1,2) = = =
2 2 4t
The maximum (out-of-plane) shear stresses are
σ1 − σ 3 ( pr / t ) − 0 pr
τ max(1,3) = = = overall max shear stress
2 2 2t
σ 2 − σ 3 ( pr / 2t ) − 0 pr
τ max(2,3) = = =
2 2 4t
24
 Example
A spherical pressure vessel having 450 mm inside diameter and 6 mm
wall thickness is to be constructed by welding together two aluminium
hemispheres. From tests, it is found that the ultimate and yield stresses in
tension at the weld are 165 MPa and 110 MPa, respectively. The tank
must have a factor of safety of 2.1 with respect to the ultimate stress and
1.5 with respect to the yield stress. What is the maximum permissible
pressure in the tank? (Gere and Timoshenko, 3rd ed, p 413)

r = d/2 = 0.450/2 = 0.225 m t = 0.006 m

r / t = 37.5 (>10, so thin-walled assumption okay)
The allowable stress based on the ultimate stress is:
σallow = σult / n = 165/2.1 = 78.6 MPa

The allowable stress based on the yield stress is:

σallow = σy / n = 110/1.5 = 73.3 MPa

The latter is lower, so it is the most critical and governs the design.
25
Tension at the weld for the spherical vessel is σ = pr / 2t

p = 2 t σallow / r = 2 (0.006)(73.3 x 106) / 0.225

p = 3.91 x 106 Pa = 3.91 MPa

So, the maximum allowable pressure is 3.9 MPa.

(Note that for safety reasons we have rounded down here, not up.)

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 Example
A cylindrical pressure vessel is constructed with a helical weld that makes an
angle of 55° with the longitudinal axis. The tank has inside radius 1.8 m and
wall thickness 8 mm. The maximum internal pressure is 600 kPa.

Find the circumferential and longitundal stresses, the absolute maximum

shear stress, and the normal and shear stresses acting perpendicular and
parallel to the weld. (Gere and Timoshenko, 3rd ed, p 414)

55° r / t = 1.8/0.008 = 225 > 10

(so thin-walled assumption okay)

Circumferential and longitudinal stresses

σx = σL = pr / 2t = (600 x 103)(1.8)/2(0.008) = 67.5 MPa
σy = σh = pr / t = 135 MPa
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Absolute maximum shear stress
σ1 = σh, σ2 = σL, σ3 = 0 (at the outer surface)
τmax = (σ1 - σ3 )/2 = 67.5 MPa

Need stresses perpendicular and parallel to the weld.

Consider the stress element below and use either the
transformation equations or Mohr’s circle with θ = 35°
(why not 55°?) to find σx1 = 89.7 MPa, σy1 = 112.8 MPa,
τx1y1 = 31.7 MPa.

135

67.5

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