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Forests in Sustainable Mountain Development

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Forests in Sustainable Mountain Development

Martin F. Price
Centre for Mountain Studies, Perth College, UHI Millennium Institute, CriefJ Road, GB-Perth
PHi 2NX UK
phone +44-1738-877217, fax +44-1738-877018, e-mail martinprice@perth.uhi.ac.uk

Keywords: Forests, Mountains, Policy, Research, Sustainable development

1. Introduction

In 2000, the Task Force on Forests in Sustainable Mountain Development of the

International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO) published a state-
of-knowledge report (Price and Butt 2000). The terms of reference for the Task Force
recognized the need for such a report, deriving from four linked trends:
• a widespread shift in the science and practice of forestry, from an emphasis on the
production of wood towards integrated management recognizing that forests serve
multiple functions and produce a wide range of goods;
• changing expectations regarding the roles of mountain forests among populations
around the world, in an increasingly urbanized global society;
• rapid rates of change, both perceived and measured, in the cover and uses of
forests and adjacent ecosystems in mountain regions around the world;
• the growing recognition of the global importance of mountain ecosystems and
their inhabitants.
The report summarises existing information and needs for new research on issues
of global significance, and recognises that sound scientific information is essential for
developing policies. It was prepared during 1999 by 124 social and natural scientists
and practitioners from around the world, who provided 90 contributions, ranging from
global overviews to local case studies on the very wide range of topics relating to the
intersections of forests and sustainable development in mountain areas. This paper is

521
U M Huber et at. (eds.), Global Change and Mountain Regions, 521-529.
© 2005 Springer.
522 M. F. Price

largely based on these contributions.

2. The global extent of mountain forests

The first issue to address when preparing the report was to define the extent of the
world's mountain forests. This was not a simple task, as there are many definitions
of both mountains and forests. Consequently, the first map of the world's mountains,
objectively defined according to rules relating to altitude, slope, and relative relief,
was produced (Kapos et al. 2000). The basic data comprised a global database
recording the average altitude of every square kilometre of the Earth's surface. The
resulting map shows that mountains cover 24% (35,813,437 km2) of the Earth's
land surface. This map was then overlain on an existing global database of forests.
Putting these two databases together shows that 28% (5,179,248 km2) of the world's
forests are mountain forests. Despite the precision of this number, further accuracy is
needed and much work remains in order to refine definitions, especially at regional
and national scales. Nevertheless, these statistics show that mountain forests cover an
important proportion of our planet.

3. Global change and mountain forests

Mountain forests are subject to many forces of change, both natural and man-
made, and often acting together. Mountain ecosystems are particularly dynamic
in both space and time. Major disturbances, such as fire, wind, and avalanches,
may occur only infrequently, but have significant influences on mountain forests
(Peterson et al. 2000). Increasingly, the occurrence of such "natural" disturbances,
or "hazards", is influenced by human activities, both locally and at broader scales.
This is true both in developing countries, where forest cover is typically declining
- the greatest rate of forest loss in any biome is in tropical upland forests (1.1 % per
year: FAO 1993) - and throughout most of the temperate zone, where the area and/or
density of mountain forests is generally stable or increasing through both spontaneous
reforestation and planting (Piussi 2000). Research conducted across the world shows
that these processes of change are remarkably complex. In developing countries,
the concept of "more people, fewer trees" is increasingly questioned (Scherr and
Templeton 2000). Population density is clearly one factor, but others include property
rights, forest regulations, land management institutions, access infrastructure, and
timber harvesting policies. These processes are long-term, so that comparable studies
focusing on land and forest productivity, environmental quality, market evolution, the
impacts of technological and institutional innovation, and participatory management
- and their interactions over time - are needed to understand past and current change
and develop scenarios for possible future paths of change.
To manage these processes of change, and especially to prioritise the targeting of
scarce resources, considerable new research is also needed on biophysical themes,
such as the dynamics of ecological processes, the selection and establishment of forest
species, and the impacts of changing forest cover and composition on water flows and
Forests in sustainable mountain development 523

erosion. Such research by natural scientists needs to be linked to, and integrated with,
research by social scientists on the interactions of the key economic, political and
demographic factors. Such interdisciplinary (i.e. natural with social science) research
is becoming ever more important as mountain forests are increasingly affected by
large-scale forces, both economic and atmospheric. Two major atmospheric forces,
which may interact with and affect mountain forests in unpredictable ways, are
regional air pollution and climate change (Beniston 2000; Innes 2000). As climates
change, decision-makers at all levels - from mountain villagers to government
officials and representatives of global forestry companies - will have to decide which
species to plant and nurture where and for what purposes. In some cases, they will also
have to agree which areas to leave to change according to whatever forces become
most influential. Appropriate levels of intervention and appropriate location-specific
criteria, indicators, and guidelines for monitoring will have to be defined.
This initial discussion shows clearly that change in mountain forests is not just an
issue for those living in the mountains and concerned with forestry. At a global scale,
perhaps the greatest value of mountain forests is that they occupy much of the upper
watersheds of the rivers, which supply at least half of humanity with fresh water. The
management of these forests affects the timing, quantity, and quality of water flowing
downstream. In humid temperate areas, up to half of the water flowing to the lowlands
comes from the mountains; in semi-arid and arid areas, up to 90-95% (Liniger and
Weingartner 2000). These figures are persuasive, yet there are still no good global
overviews of the quantitative contributions of mountain regions to regional water
budgets, or of the roles of forests compared to other types of land use or vegetation
in influencing these contributions. Hydrological research over the last decades has
typically focussed on small watersheds, or parts of larger watersheds, and each study
has tended to use different methodologies, making comparison difficult. A critical
need with regard to the linkages between mountain forests and water flows is to bring
together many types of information, preferably in spatial databases or geographic
information systems (GIS). These can be invaluable tools for allowing diverse
interests - including scientists, foresters, engineers, local communities, government
employees, and political representatives - to jointly consider various water resource
scenarios for the future (Schreier 2000). This requires not only further research to
supply the necessary data, but also the commitment of governments to provide full
access to relevant information, which has not always been the case.

4. Sustainable development and mountain forests

4.1 Values and knowledge

Reflecting the diverse range of stakeholders concerned with mountain forests,

it is increasingly recognised around the world that "multifunctionality" must be a
keyword for planning and managing these forests (Buttoud 2000). This concept,
deriving particularly from the forestry profession, recognises that mountain forests
have diverse values to many different groups of people. For instance, recent research
in Switzerland has shown that, while foresters regard the protective functions of
524 M. F. Price

mountain forests as most important, members of the public perceive that they are
most valuable for recreation and nature (Zimmermann and Schmithiisen 2000).
Research on public perceptions and attitudes could generate an understanding of
different value systems and complement and challenge the knowledge and judgement
of experts and politicians. This is essential for informed and equitable decision-
making. In addition, it must be recognised that western "objective" science is not the
only source of knowledge. Traditional ecological knowledge can be complementary;
training and education, both from traditional knowledge-holders to scientifically
trained individuals and vice versa, are necessary (Thomson et a1. 2000). Both types of
knowledge should be important inputs to environmental education in mountain areas
(for indigenous people and visitors) and further afield to raise awareness of the diverse
values of mountain forests to different groups. In this respect, the tourism industry
should be a particularly important actor, given that mountains are primary tourism
and recreation destinations, second only to coastal areas in the global tourism market
(Godde et a1. 2000).
The indigenous knowledge ofmountain people is particularly important with regard
to their diverse uses of both plants and animals (Ramakrishan, this volume). Mountain
forests are global "hotspots" of biological diversity for various reasons, including
evolution and migration of species over geological time, isolation, contrasting
conditions on different slopes and at different altitudes, and diverse microhabitats.
However, scientific knowledge of the biological diversity of mountain forests varies
greatly, both from one area to another, and also with regard to different groups of
flora and fauna. Greater emphasis needs to be given to inventory and taxonomic
description, as well as understanding and prioritising human uses (Grabherr 2000). As
much of this knowledge is the intellectual property oflocal people, it is essential that
scientists work in partnership with them - and that they derive appropriate benefits
from such research.

4.2 Forest products and systems

One aspect of the remarkable diversity of mountain forests is the many plants and
animals, which are, or can be, used to produce non-timber forest products (NTFPs).
These are of great value to mountain people for subsistence and sale, especially in hard
times (e.g. crop failure, unemployment) (Arnold and Ruiz Perez 2000; Shrestha and
Pokharel 2000). While this is particularly true in developing countries, NTFPs - such
as mushrooms and herbs - can also contribute significantly to mountain economies
in industrialised countries. However, as the value of these traditional products grows
in wider economies, pressures towards excessive production or harvesting tend to
increase, and a growing proportion of profits is often taken by the wealthiest mountain
villagers, middlemen, or outsiders. Thus, apart from an emphasis on maintaining
indigenous knowledge, collaboration between people and groups who traditionally
have not collaborated is increasingly needed. Development agencies, NGOs, and
governments have key roles to play in this. They should also be involved in research
and action to ensure that use and management rights are protected or established,
and processing and marketing facilities developed. The aim should be that a greater
Forests in sustainable mountain development 525

proportion of the value added remains with mountain people while, at the same time,
environmental protection is fostered and biological diversity is maintained.
Many similar issues relate to agroforestry in mountain areas. Agroforestry systems
have similar biophysical structures to natural forests, but with a greater density of
species valued for local use or sale. Again, a key issue is how to establish and maintain
agroforestry systems that provide the best distribution of economic, societal, and
ecological benefits to both local people and others depending on mountain landscapes.
Major areas of research, which need to be continued, are soil erosion control, soil
fertility, improved fallows, biomass transfer, and the selection and breeding of species
(especially indigenous) which provide key benefits (Atta-Krah and Tang 2000). While
many of these species provide valuable NTFPs, others are important sources of wood
for many purposes. The provision of fuel wood is particularly important, given that
this is the major fuel source for most mountain people (Schweizer and Preiser 1997).
However, although many case studies exist on the production and demand of wood
fuels in mountain areas and a regional overview has been put together for the Hindu
Kush-Himalaya (Rijal 2000), reliable national and regional data compilations are
generally lacking. In this context, interdisciplinary research is needed on production,
demand, land tenure, appropriate species, and sustainable energy consumption.
Until very recently, mountain forestry in much of the world focussed primarily
on wood harvesting. However, the "traditional" concept of sustained-yield forestry,
developed in the lowland forests of Europe two centuries ago and applied widely
in mountain forests around the world, has shown to be inappropriate for these
multifunctional forests. This concept presumed that all forest functions could be
achieved through the annual removal of a sustained yield of timber. However, it was
based on three assumptions that often do not hold in mountain forests - if they ever
did: 1) all areas of the forest can be managed; 2) there is a sustained demand for wood;
and 3) there is a sufficient workforce (Price 1990). The concept of multi functionality,
mentioned above, is a direct response to the recognition that sustained-yield forestry
is generally inappropriate for mountain forests. Nevertheless, timber harvesting
remains an important activity in these forests (Heinimann 2000). There is a continued
need to compare means of harvesting and extracting timber, using not only economic,
but also environmental and societal criteria, in order to minimise negative impacts and
maximise benefits. The information resulting from such comparisons is of value not
only for planning and management, but also for training the forestry workforce.

4.3 Economics and benefits

Many decisions regarding the management of mountain forests are based on

economic data. Economic datasets that specifically address mountain forests are
available for Austria, Germany and Switzerland (Sekot 2000) but are rare for other
countries. The available data show that forestry in the Alps has higher costs of access
and logging, and lower levels of profitability and value added per hectare, than
lowland forestry. For appropriate decision-making regarding the future of mountain
forests, economic data need to be dis aggregated at least to the level of mountain/non-
mountain. Also, mountain forestry needs to be better established in reporting systems.
526 M. F. Price

In addition, common definitions and protocols are needed for data collection, linked
to research on appropriate multipliers (Gregersen 2000; Sekot 2000). The provision
of well-justified, comparable economic data is critical for defining levels of equitable
compensation of mountain people, forest owners and enterprises by the downstream
beneficiaries of mountain forest management (Zingari 2000). Further research is
needed to evaluate the "downstream" benefits from mountain forest management.
While it may be possible to value some of these benefits in economic terms, many -
such as protection against natural hazards, protection of watersheds, and maintenance
of landscape diversity and aesthetics - can only be expressed in non-market terms.
Yet, although such research is at an early stage, and the full suite of quantitative data
is not yet available, mechanisms for compensation exist (Koch-Weser, this volume).
They recognise the essential services provided by mountain forests to downstream
populations and, with regard to the conservation of biological diversity and the
sequestration of carbon, the global community.

4.4 Institutions

These issues lead into the question of the appropriate institutions for planning and
implementing the management of mountain forests. Around the world, the number of
stakeholders concerned with these forests is growing, and various studies suggest that
power relationships are more important than the actual participation of stakeholders in
decision-making (Dubois 2000). It is worth noting that institutions for the cooperative
management of mountain forests have very long histories in many cultures around
the world (Kissling-Nlif 2000), and various new models are being developed (Joshi
2000). As mountain forests are increasingly influenced by regional and global forces,
these experiences should be of great value for shaping and reshaping institutions
for the future. Critical analysis and inter- and intra-regional comparisons are highly
desirable. The same holds for research and action on legislation and policies relating
to mountain forests, given recent shifts towards proactive, multifunctional, and cross-
sectoral measures based on monitoring and incentives (Schmithusen and Zimmermann
2000). However, successes and failures of policy implementation need to be evaluated
in order to develop and implement more effective policies, which meet the goals of
the diverse stakeholders in mountain forests.

5. Looking ahead: Collaboration, integration, and

communication
The state ofthe art in research in mountain forests is that we have many snapshots,
but not enough consistent data sets, especially with regard to economic data for
both market and non-market goods and services. Analyses or syntheses, which are
sufficiently broad in both space and time and bring together insights from a sufficiently
diverse range of perspectives, are lacking. Such broad analyses and syntheses are of
ever greater importance in a period of economic, political, and ecological change;
they are necessary to provide the foundations of integrated policies which recognise
Forests in sustainable mountain development 527

the key roles of mountain forests for many sectors of society.

While analyses and syntheses are important, so is fundamental research; many
needs have been highlighted throughout this paper. In mountain forests around
the world, scientists from a wide range of natural and social scientific, as well as
technical, disciplines are undertaking research. Yet this is too infrequently multi- or
interdisciplinary, despite increasing recognition of the added value of collaborative
work for informing policy-making and implementation. The planning and
implementation of future research should be more strategic, and should also recognize
that mountain people, although often poorly trained in the "scientific method", can
complement western science with local expertise (Branney and Robley 2000). To
bring together and integrate these different worldviews, new technologies such as
GIS can be of great value. The outcomes of research also need to be communicated
more effectively, using all appropriate media (Pandey 2000) to all those concerned, in
mountain villages, forestry companies, government agencies, academic institutions,
non-governmental organisations, parliaments, regional policy-making bodies, and
global organisations.

6. References
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