Theory of gas detectors,

scintillation detectors, solid

state detectors: use in
Radiology & Nuclear Medicine

Louise Bowden, Temple Street

Children’s University Hospital
louise.bowden@cuh.ie

Radiation detectors for

nuclear medicine and
general purposes
Types of Radiation
Particle Symbol Mass
(MeV)
Charge
Alpha α 3700 +2
Electron e-, β- 0.511 -1
Positron e+, β+ 0.511 +1
Gamma photon
γ No rest
none mass
3

X-rays vs. γ-rays

∎ Maindifference is how they are
produced.
 ∎ γ-rays
originate from the
nucleus of a radionuclide after
radioactive decay

∎ X-rays are produced when

electrons strike
a target or when electrons are
rearranged within an atom.
α-particle range in
matter (mono-
energetic)
➢ Loses energy in a more or less continuous slowing

down process as it travels through matter.

➢ The distance it travels (range) depend only upon
its initial energy and its average energy loss rate in the

medium.
➢ The range for an α particle emitted in tissue is on

the order of μm’s.

α - particle
Rad. Detect & Measure, 2008 (TKL)
5

β-particle range in
matter (continuous
energy spectrum)
➢β particle ranges vary from one electron to the

next, even for β s of the same energy in the same

material.

➢ This is due to different types of scattering events

the β encounters (i.e., scattering events,

bremsstrahlung-producing collisions, etc.).

➢ The β range is often given as the maximum

distance the most energetic β can travel in the

medium.

➢ The range for β particles emitted in tissue is on the

order of mm’s.
β - particle

mm’s
6

Photon interaction with matter

(-
(Interaction Probability: P=1- e
μx)
)
Photoelectric effect ➢ photon is absorbed
Coherent (Rayleigh) scattering ➢ photon low
photon deflected energies with (<50 very keV) little
energy loss, only significant at Compton scattering

➢ part continues of the on energy with lower of the

energy photon is absorbed scattered photon Pair

production ➢ positron-electron MeV.

pair is created, requires photons above 1.022 where μ
is the linear attenuation coefficient with units of cm -1, and x is the thickness
of the material in cm.
7

Photon interactions
J. Nucl. Med. Technol. March 1, 2005 vol. 33 no. 1 3-18

DETECTORS
Modes of Operation of
Detectors
Detector + electronic circuitry &
display = DETECTOR SYSTEM
Basic Radiation
Detector Systems
What do you want to know about the
radiation?

➢ Energy?

➢ Position?
➢ How many/ how much?

Important properties of Radiation Detectors:

1. Energy resolution

2. Spatial resolution

3. Sensitivity

4. Counting speed

11

Detector Requirements
▪ The particulate (α, β+, β-) or
electromagnetic radiation (γ or X-ray) must
be able to penetrate the detector casing to
deposit its energy.

▪ The detector itself must have enough

‘stopping-power’ to absorb (and detect) the
radiation.

▪ Accurate over a wide range of intensities

▪ Measurement independent of radiation

energy

▪ Identify type of radiation

12

Detector Requirements
▪ Sensitive enough to detect small amounts
of radiation energy

▪ High absolute detection efficiency

▪ Excellent energy resolution

▪ A linear response with increasing activity

13

Absolute Efficiency
Absolute efficiency is composed of two factors:

a. the intrinsic stopping power of the detector

(intrinsic efficiency)

b. the spatial orientation of the detector relative to

the radiation source (geometric efficiency).

Pγ e μ x =1 - -
14

Intrinsic Efficiency
• Intrinsic Efficiency is the number of events
detected in a given interval divided by the
number of radiation quanta incident on the
detector.

• Only a fraction of events will be incident

on the detector. Of those which do strike
the detector, only a fraction are absorbed:
some are absorbed before reaching the
detector some will pass right through it
undetected.

15
Intrinsic Efficiency
The stopping power of a detector material for a
particular radiation depends on

a. the thickness, b. the density

c. the atomic number, d. type of incident radiation

16

Absolute Efficiency
Absolute efficiency is composed of two factors:
a. the intrinsic stopping power of the detector
(intrinsic efficiency)

b. the spatial orientation of the detector relative to

the radiation source (geometric efficiency).

Radiation is emitted isotropically

Geometric efficiency decreases with increasing

source-to-detector distance in accordance with the
inverse square law.

17

Geometric Efficiency
Although absolute efficiency primarily
determined by stopping power, the detector
housing must be designed to allow non-
penetrating radiations (e.g. low energy β-
particles) to enter the detector without first being
absorbed achieved by means of a very thin
entrance window.

18

Geometric Efficiency
For high sensitivity and accuracy, detector may
surround source (e.g. well counter for bioassay
samples or wipe tests).
If source is positioned incorrectly, overall efficiency
will decrease.

19

Energy resolution
Only applies to spectrometers – want to accurately
represent the energy of a detected event.

Example:
• Scintillation detector irradiated with a beam of
gamma photons
• detector output is a series of voltage pulses
• amplitude of pulses are proportional to the energy
deposited
• pulses sorted by amplitude and produce an energy
spectrum

20
The broadening of the distribution occurs due to:

(a) photoelectric interactions in the detector

(b) Compton scattering out of and into the detector

The photopeak characterises the photon energy

being detected

The width of the photopeak indicates the ability of

the detector to accurately represent detected energy
– the narrower the better

Energy resolution
21

Energy resolution
The energy resolution is determined by the
Full- Width at Half-Maximum height
(FWHM) of the photopeak.
Usually given as a percentage of the peak
energy (PE):
FWHM Energy Resolution =

PE

× (%)100
22
(t)

Pulse Mode
I

∎ Two interactions must be separated

Time ->

by a finite amount of time to produce

distinct signals.
∎ There is a time period when the

system cannot process or count

another ionisation event – dead time

∎ Dead times of different systems vary

greatly- need to know the count-rate

behaviour of a detector system.

i.e. if a detector system is operated at an

interaction rate that is too high, the effect of dead

time will be significant and an artificially low count

rate will be obtained.

Paralyzable vs.
Nonparalyzable
∎ Pulse mode: if incident events

are separated by a time greater

than the dead time of the system,

they will be processed.

∎ If event rates increase until they

start to overlap, detection efficiency

deteriorates.

∎ Paralyzable refers to dead time

behaviour where an event is lost if it

occurs within the dead time of any

previous event (even those not

recorded).
Paralyzable vs.
Nonparalyzable

∎ Nonparalyzable refers to dead time

behaviour where an event is lost if it

occurs within the dead time of a

previous recorded event.

∎ An ideal system has a linear

relationship between expected counts

and actual counts.

Paralyzable vs.
Nonparalyzable
∎ Incurrent mode,
Current there is continuous
Mode
Time ->
(t)
I

charge collection ►loss of information for

individual events.

∎ Amplitude of signal is proportional to the

rate of energy
deposition (dose rate) and represents the
total energy being detected.

∎ Because individual events are not being

processed, the
energy of individual photons being detected
cannot be measured.

∎ Detectors subject to very high interaction

rates are often
operated in current mode to avoid dead-
time losses incurred in pulse mode.
Modes of Operation of
Detectors used in
Radiology
∎ Geiger-Muller counters – pulse mode

∎ Scintillation detectors for Nuclear

Medicine
– pulse mode

∎ Most Ionisation chambers & dose

calibrators – current mode

∎ Scintillation detectors for digital

radiography, fluoroscopy and CT – current
mode
Radiation Detectors used
in Radiology & Nuclear
Med

1. Gas-Filled(ionisation)
Detectors 2. Semiconductor /
Solid State Detectors 3.
Scintillation Detectors
Radiation Detectors used
in Radiology & Nuclear
Med

∎ Gamma cameras & PMTs

operation covered in detail in
separate lecture

GAS FILLED
DETECTORS
Gas-filled Detectors &
Ionisation
• As radiation passes through air or a

specific gas, ionisation of the molecules in

the air occur.

• Voltage source is placed between two

areas of the gas filled space.

Gas-filled Detectors &

Ionisation

• Positive ions will be attracted to the

negative side of the detector (cathode)

• Free electrons (-) will travel to positive side

(anode).

Gas-filled Detectors &

Ionisation

• Charges are collected by anode and

cathode which then form a very small current

in the wires going to detector.

• Small current is measured and displayed

as a signal.

Gas-Filled Detectors
∎ The more radiation which enters the
chamber, the more current displayed by the

instrument.

∎ Many types of gas-filled detectors exist,

but three most commonly used are :

1. Ionisation chambers 2. Proportional
counters 3. Geiger-Muller counters

∎ Type of detector is primarily determined

by the voltage applied (low, med, high etc.)

between the two electrodes.

Detector design
Gas detectors: ∎ The gas is pressurized to

increase the linear attenuation coefficient

which in turn increases sensitivity

∎ The gas used should have a high atomic

number (Z) to increase the number of ion

pairs produced (Xenon commonly used)

∎ The gas used should be inert to avoid

corrosive effects

∎ The container should be sealed to avoid

temperature and pressure dependence

Voltage Dependence
∎ Thenumber of ions collected
by any
detector (and hence the induced
current) is a function of the
applied voltage

∎ These numbers can be divided

into five distinct regions as a
function of voltage: 1. Recombination
4. Geiger-Muller 2. Ionisation 5. Continuous
Discharge 3. Proportional
Gas-Filled Detectors –
Regions of Operation

ABCDEF

Recombin ation
 or recombine into
Region (A) neutral gas
molecules and
∎ When the produce little or
potential applied no current flow.
A

across the tube

is very low, ion
Ionisation
pairs produced Region (B)
by ionising
radiation will not ∎ As the voltage
move fast is increased, a
enough towards plateau is
their respective
electrodes. reached in the

curve.
∎ The ion pairs
will then reform
∎ Applied electric
significantly
field is
sufficiently strong increase the
to collect almost
current.
all electron - ion
∎ Ionisation
pairs. chambers are
operated in this
∎ An additional region.
AB

increase in the
applied voltage

does not βγ

Ionisation Region
∎ Ionisation Chamber detectors
produce a very small current requiring

high signal amplification.

∎ Generally operate in current mode

(no dead time)

∎ This type of detector can be used to

measure dose rate or accumulated

dose

∎ In ionisation chambers, the two

electrodes can have almost any

configuration: parallel plates, two

concentric cylinders or a wire within a

cylinder.

Ionisation Region
∎ Ionisation is extremely
sensitive - if an energy of 33 eV
forms an ion pair, a deposit of
100 keV creates ~3000 ion pairs

∎ Ionpairs can be collected to

produce an
electrical signal directly related
to the intensity of radiation.
Ionisation Chambers
Advantages ∎ These detectors can be

designed to respond to different types of

radiation including beta and alpha particles

∎ Very sensitive to low levels of low-energy

radiation

Disadvantages ∎ Sensitivity decreases as

the energy of photons increase

∎ Alsosensitive to changes in temperature

and pressure
Ionisation Chamber -
Applications

∎ Dose meters (DAP), Dose-rate

meters, Personal dose meter ∎ Large
chamber-scatter dose
measurements
Diagnostic Radiology
Ionisation Chambers -
Applications
Nuclear Medicine: Dose calibrators
∎ Well-type ionisation chambers

∎ used in Nuclear Medicine Depts to assay

the activity of radio-pharmaceuticals to be
administered to patients.

∎ Chamber is filled with pressurised argon

to
maximise intrinsic efficiency

Dose Calibrators
∎ Consists of a hollow, lead shielded

cylinder, in which samples of radionuclides

are lowered for measurement.

∎ Operated in current mode: does not

suffer from dead time

∎ Response is linear over clinically useful

activities - 0.1MBq to 80GBq.

Dose calibrators
∎ For fixed geometry and linear

response, ionisation current is directly

proportional to activity

∎ Response varies with type, energy

and abundance of radiation emissions -

cannot distinguish different energies

∎ Adjustments required to ensure that

the amplification of signal (calibration

factor) for each isotope is set to give

correct units of activity.

∎ So must use correct factor for the

radionuclide being measured

Proportional Region
ABC

(C)
∎ As filled ionisation the the proportional
chamber voltage chamber is potential

region. increased plateau, across past it

enters the the gas into ∎ In ion and this pairs

electrons region, which the towards send

voltage the the positive potential anode. ions

continues towards to the produce cathode ∎

However produce Townsend the applied

avalanches voltage is now in the large

vicinity enough of the to anode.

∎ This from diameter.

avalanche the anode region wire, which

occurs itself only is fractions of a very of

small a millimeter

Proportional Region (C)

Proportional Region
∎ Each original ionising event due to

incident radiation produces only one

avalanche.
➢ i.e. measured pulse amplitude α incident

particle energy

∎ This is to ensure proportionality

between the number of original events

and the total ion current

∎ Therefore the applied voltage, the

geometry of the chamber and the

diameter of the anode wire are critical

to ensure proportional operation.

Proportional Region
∎ Proportional counters can be used
to discriminate between various types
and energies of ionising radiation.

∎ Must contain a specific gas.

∎ Commonly used in standards

laboratories,
physics research but seldom used in
medical centres
➢ not suitable as a portable measuring
device ➢ voltage must be very carefully
controlled

Limited Proportionality
(D)

ABCDIf avalanches start to self-multiply

due to UV photons, then the counter
enters a region of limited
proportionality

The proportionality feature is lost.

ABCDE Geiger-Müller Region
∎ GM last detectors voltage counters

plateau operate of at gas the ∎ The

avalanche proportional produced

anode. increased when of counters)

secondary voltage electrons but

potential ionisations strike also UV the

not photons collecting only (as for

causes are an ∎ These ionisations,

except added UV to that ensure

photons a which quenching the would

 produce process gas be self another

(alcohol ceases. perpetuating

avalanche or bromine) of is

Geiger-Müller Region
Geiger-Müller Region
∎ The time taken to quench a
discharge is the
dead time.

∎ These meters have thin windows to

allow most
beta particles and conversion
electrons to reach the gas and be
detected.

∎ GM counters produce a very large

signal for
each ionising event. The signal is the
same for all ionising radiation.
Geiger-Muller Counters
∎ Used for radiation surveys

∎ Relatively high sensitivity but inaccurate

(yes/no answer)

∎ Can be calibrated within a limited energy

range
∎ They are operated in pulse mode with

very long dead times

∎ Different probes with different entrance

windows can be used discriminate between

different radiation types for specific

purposes.

Continuous Discharge
(F)

ABCDEF
∎A steady discharge current flows ∎ The
applied voltage is so high that once
ionization takes
place in the gas, there is a continuous
discharge of electricity so that the detector
cannot be used for radiation detection
Gas-filled Detectors in
Practice: Ionisation
Chamber vs. GM Counter
∎ Type of radiation
➢ both respond to X-rays, gamma rays and
beta particles.

∎ Sensitivity
➢ GM more sensitive than IC and may be

used to detect low levels of contaminations.

∎ Nature of reading
➢ IC gives reading of exposure and

exposure rate. GM is not a radiation monitor

but a radiation detector.

Gas-filled Detectors in
Practice: Ionisation
Chamber vs. GM Counter
∎ Size
➢ IC generally larger than GM as it must

collect all secondary ionisations.

∎ Robustness and simplicity

➢ the GM tube is generally preferred.
Problems with Gas
detectors
Inefficiency:
• Relatively low density of gases, many x-

ray photons pass through the chamber

undetected

• Partially overcome in three ways

• using Xenon as the detector. This is the

heaviest of the inert gases - provides a large

target

• by compressing the Xe by 8 to 10

atmospheres, increasing the density of the

gas

• by using a long chamber to increase the

number of atoms along the path of the beam

60

SOLID STATE
DETECTORS
Solid State Detectors
∎ Solid state detectors work on the

principle that they collect the charge

generated by ionising radiation in a

solid material.

∎ Solid-state detectors have a wide

range, they can be small and robust,

they are quite stable over a wide range

of temperature and humidity.

∎ They are made of semi-conducting

material e.g. mostly from silicon or

germanium.

Semiconductor Material
Solids have two electron energy band

states: ∎ Valence Band

➢ Energy range of bound electrons

∎ Conduction Band
➢ Energy range of unbound electrons

∎ Band Gap
➢ Energy barrier that must be overcome to
move an
electron from the valence to the conduction
band (i.e. to free an electron from the
binding energy)

Semiconductor Material
∎ Incident radiation can deposit

enough radiation to raise electrons

from the valence band to the

conduction band.

∎ Vacancy left by the electron is

known as a hole (analogous to a

positive ion in a gas detector)

∎ Movement of electrons and holes

creates an electrical signal that can be

measured

Semiconductor Material

∎ The charge collected is proportional

to the energy deposited in the detector

and therefore these devices can also

yield information about the energy of

individual particles or photons of

radiation

Solid State Detectors

∎ For dosimetry they are often used

interchangeably with ionisation

chambers
➢ notas sensitive to backscatter ➢ more
robust than ionisation chambers

∎ The solid detector materials used in

semiconductor detectors are several
thousand times more dense than
gases
➢ much better stopping power ➢ much more
efficient detectors for ionising radiation X-
and γ- rays.

Solid State Detectors

∎ When ionised by an ionising
radiation
event, the electrical charge
produced can be collected by an
external applied voltage (like
with gas detectors).

∎One ionisation is produced per

3 eV of radiation energy
absorbed. (~33 eV for gas).
Solid State Detectors
Potential problems ∎ Silicon and
germanium conduct a significant amount of
thermally induced electrical current at room

temperature.

∎ This creates a noise current that

interferes with detection of radiation-

induced currents.

∎ Some of these detectors are operated at

temperatures well below room temperature-

at liquid nitrogen temperature, the

background current is almost zero

∎ Also quite expensive

Solid State Detectors -
Applications

∎ Used in most of the new meters

used to check x- ray equipment. Can
measure dose, dose rates, pulse
times.

∎ Nuclear medicine-can dispense with

the need
for bulky PMTs

∎ Personal monitors-can provide a

direct and immediate reading
Solid State Detectors -
Applications
∎ Used in digital radiography
technology
Solid State Detectors -
FPD
∎ Solid state flat panel detectors (FPD)

are used in radiology. E.g.

➢ Amorphous selenium (a-Se) FPDs

∎ An electric field is first applied across

the selenium layer.

∎ Then the X-ray exposure generates

electrons and holes within the a-Se

layer: ➢ Those charges (proportional to the
incident X-ray
beam)are generated and migrate vertically
to both surfaces of the selenium layer

Solid State Detectors -

FPD
∎ Atthe bottom of the a-Se layer,
charges are
drawn to the TFT (thin-film transistor)
charge collector, where they are
stored until readout.
➢ charge collected at each storage
capacitor is
amplified and quantified to a digital code
value for the corresponding pixel.
➢ During the readout, the charge of the
capacitors of
every row is conducted by the transistors to
the amplifiers.
Solid State Detectors -
Applications

∎ Intraoperative gamma probe:

➢Small activity of Tc-99m injected at
tumour
site

➢Probe used to detect node location,

and
measure activity
 SCINTILLATION
DETECTORS
Direct & Indirect
Detectors
Direct & Indirect
Detectors
Direct ∎ Direct-conversion detectors have an
X-ray photoconductor,
such as amorphous selenium, that directly
converts X-ray photons into an electric charge. ∎
E.g. Amorphous Selenium

Indirect ∎ Indirect-conversion detectors

have a scintillator that first
converts X-rays into visible light. ∎ That light
is then converted into an electric charge by
means of photodetectors. ∎ E.g. Ceisum
Iodide (CsI)

Direct vs Indirect
∎ Indirect is more sensitive than
direct
➢ Caesium has a higher absorption

efficiency then selenium ➢ A thicker layer

is need for direct detectors to achieve

comparable results

∎ Direct has better spatial

resolution
➢ Resolution determined by crystal

spacing in detector ➢ Indirect can have

lower resolution due to spread of

photons in scintillating layer ➢ Direct

selenium detectors yield better inherent

spatial resolution than indirect detector

Indirect detectors -
Scintillators

∎ Certain materials emit light after the

interaction of ionising radiation with the

material

∎ This is a type of scintillating crystal

Scintillation Detectors
∎ Crystals of different materials are
used
depending on energy range
➢ Can be liquid or crystal
➢Gamma cameras use crystal scintillators.

➢ Most commonly encountered scintillator is

thallium-
activated Sodium Iodide (NaI (Tl)) or
Thallium doped Cesium Iodide (CsI(Tl))
Indirect detectors -
Scintillators

∎ Crystal is coupled to a Photocathode

which converts the light photon into an

electron

➢ When ionising radiation interacts, electrons are

raised to an excited energy level

➢ Electrons fall to lower state with the emission of

visible or UV light.