INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION UNIVERSITY

RESEARCH METHODS ASSIGNMENT ONE

SOLUTIONS

SECTION A

1. (a) Deductive logical inference; is an inference that is made when a person (or machine)
goes beyond available evidence to form a conclusion.

(b) Inductive logical inference; is a logical system that uses evidence to support whether
that conditions are true or not.

(c) Empiricism; is the view that all knowledge (apart from purely logical relations
between concepts) is based on, or derives from, sensory experience.

(d) Reliability; is concerned about the extent to which a measurement of phenomenon

provides stable and consistent result (Carmines and Zeller, 1979).

(e) Validity; Explains how well the collected data covers the actual area of investigation
(Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005).

2. (a) Case study is an investigation strategy involving extensive exploration of a single unit
of study, which may be a person, family, group, community, or institution, or a very small
number of subjects who are examined intensively. The number of variables is usually very large.
For example a case study in medicine may examine a specific patient a doctor treated.

Format: -Introduction

-Challenges

-Solution
 -Benefits

-Result

(b) A longitudinal study design is a research strategy in which one or more groups in
various
stages of development are examined simultaneously with the intent of inferring trends ov
er time.Longitudinal studies often use surveys to collect data that is
either qualitative or quantitative.
Panel study design
A panel design is used when researchers sample a group, or panel, of participants and
then measure some variable or variables of interest at more than one point in time from
this sample. Ordinarily, the same people who are measured at Time 1 are measured at
Time 2, and soon. The successive measures are commonly referred to as waves. For
example, a three-wave panel study would measure the same sample of participants on
three separate occasions. The amount of time in between measurements is known as
the interwave interval. The use of multiple measures on the same variable(s) over time
allows for an assessment of longitudinal changes or stability on the variables of interest.

Cohort study
Cohort studies are a type of medical research used to investigate the causes of disease and
to establish links between risk factors and health outcomes. In this study subjects choose
which group to belong to on their own. For example, scientists may ask participants to
record specific lifestyle details over the course of a study. Then, they can analyze any
possible correlations between lifestyle factors and disease.
Trend design
A research strategy to examine changes in the general population in relation to a particula
r phenomenon by means of data collected at predetermined intervals of time from differe
nt samples selected from the general population.

(c) Experimental design - A research design that eliminates all factors that influence
outcome except for the cause being studied (independent variable). All other factors are
controlled by randomization, investigator-controlled manipulation of the independent variable,
and control of the study situation by the investigator, including the use of control groups.

Quasi study design - quasi-experimental research is research that resembles experimental

research but is not true experimental research. Although the independent variable is manipulated,
participants are not randomly assigned to conditions or orders of conditions (Cook & Campbell,
1979). Because the independent variable is manipulated before the dependent variable is
measured, quasi-experimental research eliminates the directionality problem. But because
participants are not randomly assigned—making it likely that there are other differences between
conditions—quasi-experimental research does not eliminate the problem of confounding
variables. In terms of internal validity, therefore, quasi-experiments are generally somewhere
between correlational studies and true experiments.

None-experimental study design - is the label given to a study when a researcher cannot control,
manipulate or alter the predictor variable or subjects, but instead, relies on interpretation,
observation or interactions to come to a conclusion. Typically, this means the non-experimental
researcher must rely on correlations, surveys or case studies, and cannot demonstrate a true
cause-and-effect relationship. Non-experimental research tends to have a high level of external
validity, meaning it can be generalized to a larger population.

(d) A cross – sectional study is a research strategy in which one or more group(s) of subjects
are studied at one given point in time.

3. (a). STEPS FOR DEVELOPING A QUESTIONNAIRE

i. Deciding the purpose - The initial step in developing a questionnaire is to ask yourself what
you want to know.

ii. Understanding the use - before you start a survey, you need to understand how you will use
the data.

iii. Selecting the target - A key component of survey design is deciding whom to survey. You
need to decide, for instance, whether you want to target a specific demographic or if you want
answers from a broad cross section of the public.
iv. Choosing a method - Surveys can be administered in a variety of ways — for example, in
person, by phone or online. Choose a method that you think will be most convenient for your
customers or other respondents.

v. Selecting question types - Survey questions take one of two forms — they are either
quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative questions are used to get concrete responses whereas
qualitative questions ask for opinions.

vi. Writing questions - Questions should be written as succinctly as possible. State your
questions in plain, simple language. Avoid using complicated sentence structure or uncommon
words.

vii. Arranging questions - The placement of survey questions needs to be carefully thought out.
To ease your respondents into the questionnaire, start with simple questions that do not ask for
much personal information. In longer surveys, it helps to mix up question types.

viii. Testing - Test your questionnaire on friends, family and employees. This helps you to
identify unclear questions, awkward wording or other mistakes that you may not notice on your
own. Rewrite any problem questions before administering the questionnaire to real respondents.

(b) The following pitfalls can be avoided when developing a questionnaire;

1. Loaded Questions or Leading Words

-Avoid wording differences (could, would, should, might)

-Watch for strong words (prohibit)

-Don’t use biased phrases (wouldn’t you…)

2. Misplaced Questions

-Consider question order and context

-Use the Funnel Approach

-Avoid “ringer” or “throw away” questions

3. Mutually Non-Exclusive Response Categories

-Use mutually exclusive multiple choice questions unless otherwise specified

4. Non-Exhaustive Listings

-Are all of the options covered?

-Do a pretest or use an “Other (please specify)” option

-Cover at least 90% of the respondent answers with your survey

5. Nonspecific Questions

-Build questions that are clearly understood

-Be specific about what you want to know

6. Confusing or Unfamiliar Words

-Avoid specific jargon or confusing acronyms

-Make sure your audience understands your language level, terminology, and intent

-Keep it simple (9-11th grade reading level)

7. Non-directed Questions that Give Excessive Latitude

-Provide clear intent and direction for the question

8. Forcing Respondents to Answer

-Avoid being too intrusive

-Try offering incentives and assurances of confidentiality

9. Unbalanced Listings

-Avoid unbalanced scales

-Clearly identify end points

10. Double Barreled Questions

-Don’t ask two questions simultaneously

4. There is a wide range of methods available for collecting data in social research, but the three
main methods of collecting survey data are: face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews and
questionnaires.

1. Face-to-face interviews

Face-to-face interviews are preferable: when the subject matter is very sensitive, but not
personal. Overall face-to-face interviews are more expensive than other methods but they can
collect more complex information and are also useful when the subject matter is not of great
personal interest to the respondent who would be unlikely to complete a postal questionnaire. Do
not conduct face-to-face interviews where you are asking personal questions such as about
sexual history or drug taking, as the information you receive is likely to be inaccurate.

2. Telephone interviews

Telephone interviews can be a very effective and economical way of collecting quantitative data,
if the individuals in the sampling frame can all equally be accessed via a telephone and if the
questionnaire is fairly short. This may not be an appropriate method for a deprived population
where telephone ownership is likely to be low, but can be ideally suited to a busy professional
respondent, such as a social worker or a hospital consultant, if prior appointments are made.
Telephone interviews are particularly useful when the respondents to be interviewed are widely
geographically distributed, but the complexity of the interview is limited without the use of
visual aids and prompts. The length of a telephone interview is also limited, although this will
vary with subject area and motivation. When it comes to data collection, telephone interviews are
sometimes recorded using a tape-recorder or the answers can be typed directly into a computer as
the interview is being conducted.

3. Questionnaire

Questionnaires are a useful option to consider when conducting a postal survey. They can be
cheaper than personal interviewing and quicker if the sample is large and widely dispersed. For
any postal survey regardless of the sample size you must allow at least six weeks for the first
wave of questionnaires to be returned, and another four weeks for each successive mailing. As
with telephone interviewing, a postal survey is useful if your respondents are widely distributed.
However, due to the lack of personal contact between the respondent and the researcher, the
design and layout of the questionnaire is all important. All mailed questionnaires should be
accompanied by a covering letter and include a stamped, addressed envelope.

5. Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of

observations are taken from a larger population. The following sampling methods are used in
social research;

Random sampling -to obtain a random (or probability) sample, the first step is to define the
population from which it is it be drawn. This population is known as the sampling frame. For
instance, you are interested in doing a survey of children aged between two and ten years who
have been adopted in the last year. Or you want to study adults (aged 16-65 years) diagnosed as
having asthma and receiving drug treatment for asthma in the last six months, and living in a
defined geographical region. In each case, these limits define the sampling frame. The term
random may imply to you that it is possible to take some sort of haphazard or ad hoc approach,
for example stopping the first 20 people you meet in the street for inclusion in your study. This is
not random in the true sense of the word. To be a 'random' sample, every individual in the
population must have an equal probability of being selected. In order to carry out random
sampling properly, strict procedures need to be adhered to. Random sampling techniques can be
split into simple random sampling and systematic random sampling.

Simple random sampling; if selections are made purely by chance this is known as simple
random sampling. So, for instance, if we had a population containing 5000 people, we could
allocate every individual a different number. If we wanted to achieve a sample size of 200, we
could achieve this by pulling 200 of the 5000 numbers out of a hat. This is an example of simple
random sampling. Another way of selecting the numbers would be to use a table of random
numbers. These tables are usually to be found in the appendices of most statistical textbooks.
However, these are only valid if the researcher is blind to the table.
Systematic random sampling; systematic random sampling is a more commonly employed
method. After numbers are allocated to everybody in the population frame, the first individual is
picked using a random number table or out of a hat and then subsequent participants are selected
using a fixed sampling interval, i.e. every nth person. The NIHR RDS for the East Midlands /
Yorkshire & the Humber 2009 12 SURVEYS AND QUESTIONNAIRES Assume, for example,
that we wanted to carry out a survey of homeless people attending drop in centres in one Region.
There may be too many to interview everyone, so we want to select a representative sample. If
there are 3,000 homeless people attending the centres in total and we only require a sample of
200, we would need to: · calculate the sampling interval by dividing 3,000 by 200 to give a
sampling fraction of 15 · select a random number between one and 15 using a set of random
number tables or numbers out of a hat · if this number were 13, we select the individual allocated
number 13 and then go on to select every 15th person after that This will give us a total sample
size of 200 as required. Care needs to be taken when using a systematic random sampling
method in case there is some bias in the way that lists of individuals are compiled, for example if
all the husbands' names precede wives' names and the sampling interval is an even number, then
we may end up selecting all women and no men.

Stratified random sampling; Stratified sampling is a way of ensuring that particular strata or
categories of individuals are represented in the sampling process. If, for example, we want to
study consultation rates in a general practice, and we know that approximately four per cent of
our population frame is made up of a particular ethnic minority group, there is a chance that with
simple or systematic random sampling we could end up with no ethnic minorities (or a much
reduced proportion) in our sample. If we wanted to ensure that our sample was representative of
the population frame, then we would employ a stratified sampling method. · First we would split
the population into the different strata, in this case, separating out those individuals with the
relevant ethnic background. · We would then apply random sampling techniques to each of the
two ethnic groups separately, using the same sampling interval in each group. · This would
ensure that the final sampling frame was representative of the minority group we wanted to
include, on a pro-rata basis with the actual population.

Disproportionate sampling; taking this example once more, if our objective was to compare
the results of our minority group with the larger group, then we would have difficulty in doing
so, using the proportionate stratified sampling just described, because the numbers achieved in
the minority group, although pro-rata those of the population, would not be large enough to
demonstrate statistical differences. To compare the survey results of the minority individuals
with those of the larger group, then it is necessary to use a disproportionate sampling method.
With disproportionate sampling, the strata selected are not selected pro-rata to their size in the
wider population. For instance, if we are interested in comparing the referral rates for particular
minority groups with other larger groups, then it is necessary to over sample the smaller
categories in order to achieve statistical power, that is, in order to be able to demonstrate
statistically significant differences between groups. Note that, if subsequently we wish to refer to
the total sample as a whole, representative of the wider population, then it will become necessary
to re-weight the categories back into the proportions in which they are represented in reality. For
example, if we wanted to compare the views and satisfaction levels of women who gave birth at
home compared with the majority of women who have The NIHR RDS for the East Midlands /
Yorkshire & the Humber 2009 13 SURVEYS AND QUESTIONNAIRES given birth in hospital,
a systematic random sample, although representative of all women giving birth would not
produce a sufficient number of women giving birth at home to be able to compare the results,
unless the total sample was so big that it would take many years to collate. We would also end up
interviewing more women than we needed who have given birth in hospital. In this case it would
be necessary to over-sample or over-represent those women giving birth at home to have enough
individuals in each group in order to compare them. We would therefore use disproportionate,
stratified random sampling to select the sample in this instance. The important thing to note
about disproportionate sampling is that randomisation is still taking place within each stratum or
category. So we would use systematic random selection to select a sample from the ‘majority’
group and the same process to select samples from the minority groups.

Cluster sampling; Cluster sampling is a method frequently employed in national surveys where
it is uneconomic to carry out interviews with individuals scattered across the country. Cluster
sampling allows individuals to be selected in geographical batches. So for instance, before
selecting at random, the researcher may decide to focus on certain towns or electoral wards.
Multi-stage sampling allows the individuals within the selected cluster units to then be selected
at random. Obviously care must be taken to ensure that the cluster units selected are generally
representative of the population and are not strongly biased in any way. If, for example, all the
general practices selected for a study were fund holding, this would not be representative of all
general practice. Note that even if the researcher randomly selects the initial clusters this does
not constitute a truly random sampling method.

Quota sampling; Quota sampling is a technique for sampling whereby the researcher decides in
advance on certain key characteristics which s/he will use to stratify the sample. Interviewers are
often set sample quotas in terms of age and sex. So, for example, with a sample of 200 people,
they may decide that 50% should be male and 50% should be female; and 40% should be aged
over 40 years and 60% aged 39 years or less. The difference with a stratified sample is that the
respondents in a quota sample are not randomly selected within the strata. The respondents may
be selected just because they are accessible to the interviewer. Because random sampling is not
employed, it is not possible to apply inferential statistics and generalize the findings to a wider
population. Convenience or opportunistic sampling selecting respondents purely because they
are easily accessible is known as convenience sampling. Whilst this technique is generally
frowned upon by quantitative researchers, it is regarded as an acceptable approach when using a
qualitative design, since generalizability is not a main aim of qualitative approaches.

6.

a) Researchers have attempted to understand the factors that influence living conditions. WHO
proposes three-factor structural model that influence living condition (e.g., Income,
Consumption, housing conditions, accessibility to Healthcare, Sanitation and Employment
status). Along with variables identified in the literature, the absence of these factors seems to
facilitate poverty. Beyond the six consistent variables found in the literature (i.e., Income,
Consumption, housing conditions, accessibility to Healthcare, Sanitation and Employment
status), studies suggest that living condition is affected if one of the mentioned factors is missing.

b)
Background
Following change of government in 1991, the Zambian economy was liberalized anchored on
free market policies. The newly formed government then embarked on a vigorous Structural
Adjustment Programme (SAP) as the main developmental undertaking to be used to reform the
ailing economy. SAP had its own share of successes and failures. Arising from the observed
negative effects of this reform process, the Government of the Republic of Zambia with its co-
operating partners decided to put in place a mechanism for monitoring and evaluating the welfare
of the Zambian population through Priority Surveys I(PSI 1991) and II(PSII 1993). The Living
Conditions Monitoring Surveys (LCMSs) evolved from these monitoring and evaluation
mechanisms. The first LCMS survey was conducted in 1996. Since then, seven surveys have
been undertaken inclusive of the 2015 LCMS. Each of the successive LCMS has been used to
gauge effectiveness of Government policies and development programmes.

Statement of the problem

Poor Living condition is increasingly catching the attention of many due to its dilapidating
impacts on society. The ILO indicates that many nations are now coming up with measures to
improve living condition.

Sampling design
The Central Statistical Office (CSO) has consistently been using nationally representative Cross-
Sectional household surveys with varied sample sizes to measure, monitor and evaluate the
welfare of the Zambian society except in the 2002/3 survey where a longitudinal sample was
used. The 2020 survey will be designed to cover a representative sample of 12,260 non-
institutionalized private households residing in urban parts of Kanyama constituency. A total of
15 Enumeration Areas (EAs) will be drawn from a total of 10,000. The survey will be designed
to produce reliable estimates at national, provincial and Residence (rural/urban) levels.

Research questions
The following are the research questions:

i) What living condition policies are there in Zambia?

ii) How prevalent is poor living condition in Kanyama constituency?

iii) What categories of people are mostly victims of poor living condition?
iv) What recommendations can be made on the best strategies in curbing poor living condition?

Theoretical framework
Theoretical framework represents the researcher’s synthesis of literature on how to explain a
phenomenon. It explains how the particular variables in the study connect with each other. Thus,
it identifies the variables required in the research investigation. It shows theories related to the
study.

Literature review
The literature review shows studies conducted by various researchers related to Living
conditions.

Research design
The study design is defined by Sidhu (2011) as an arrangement of conditions for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure. Research design will be descriptive. This method enables the researcher
to collect data in order to answer questions and allow for an in-depth investigation on the factors
that influence living condition in selected households in Kanyama constituency.

Ethical considerations
Ethical issues are institutionalized procedures that are used to guarantee that informed consent is
obtained prior to initiating all research (Barata, 2001). This protocol and any subsequent
alterations will be reviewed by the research ethics committee. Since this study involves human
subjects, it is paramount to obtain consent from the participants. It therefore followed that letters
expressing purpose, benefits and risks will be given to all eligible participants and authorities.
The participants in this study will be conferred confidentiality to the extent permitted by law.
None of the information will identify the premises of the participants by name and all
information provided by participants will be considered confidential. Research data will be
destroyed at the end of the study. This will guarantee the participants that no other person will
have access to the information that they will provide.
Triangulation and conclusions.

Triangulation of data in qualitative research is one of the key determinants of improving the
methodology for conducting qualitative research. In essence, triangulation is defined as the
method used in social research to ensure higher quality of research and reduce measurement
error. Triangulation of data in qualitative research basically mainly consists of collecting data
using two or more methods (e.g. observation together with a survey, surveys and content
analysis), followed by comparing and combining results. It may consist of various, specific
partial methods and research instruments used. The composition of specific partial research
methods and instruments can change and be improved by implementing new ICT information
technologies, Industry and others.

SECTION B

1. Hypothesis testing

i. Testing problem

H0: µ = 900

H1: µ > 900

ii. Test statistic

Z* =¿)√ n

iii. Critical region

Reject H0 if Z* is greater than Zα = Z0.05 = 1.645

iv. Observed value

Z* =¿)√ n = ( 930−900
80 ) √ 64
=3

v. Conclusion

Since the observed value Z* = 3 is greater than Zα = 1.645, we reject H 0 and conclude that the
manufacturer’s claim is valid.

2. Hypothesis testing

i. Testing problem

H0: µ = 380

H1: µ > 380

ii. Test statistic

Z* =¿)√ n

iii. Critical region

Reject H0 if Z* is greater than Zα = Z0.05 = 1.645

iv. Observed value

Z* =¿)√ n = ( 390−380
35.2 )
√51

= 2.0288

v. Conclusion

Since the observed value Z* = 0.288 is greater than Zα = 1.645, we reject H 0 and conclude that
the mean live weight for the steers on the new diet is greater than 380. Researchers should be
able to conclude that the new diet is better than the previous one.

3.
Subject X Y R(X) R(Y) [ R ( X )−R (Y )]2

1 50 22.1 9 4 25

2 11 35.9 3.5 8 20.25

3 2 57.9 1.5 12 110.25

4 19 22.2 5.5 5 0.25

5 26 42.4 8 10 4

6 73 5.8 11 2 81

7 81 3.6 12 1 121

8 51 21.4 10 3 49

9 11 55.2 3.5 11 56.25

10 2 33.3 1.5 7 30.25

11 19 32.4 5.5 6 0.25

12 25 38.4 7 9 4

The Pearson’s correlation coefficient;

2
n 1

ρ=
∑ R ( X ) R (Y )−n ( ) +
2 2
=
398.5−507
= -0.7627
[∑ 2
R ( X ) −n ( n+12 ) ² ] 12 [ ∑ R ( Y ) −n ( n+12 ) ² ] 12
2 (11.8954 )(11.9583)

SECTION C
1. The misrepresentation and abuse of research findings may arise for a number of reasons. It
may be willful, dishonest, accidental, partisan, political, ignorant, biased, careless or any
combination of these. Research is about doubt and certainty, about complexity and simplicity.
Research evidence may sometimes replace questions with greater certainty, while just as often
such evidence may raise more questions than it answers. Sometimes researchers may claim a
degree of certainty that is not warranted by the evidence. It is through understanding how
research is 'misused' that you will be able to understand better how it 'should' be used. A
common technique, much beloved of researchers themselves, is to undermine or reject research
studies by the deployment of contradictory findings. This is often a legitimate and necessary
activity that properly tests and critiques research. However, it can also reflect academic nit-
picking or battles between entrenched theoretical perspectives that prevents useful research being
used to effect action or social policy. For practitioners it is the problem of balancing complex
realities against the necessity of making decisions in the real world. Another systematic and
well-established technique for dealing with research is to just pretend it isn't there. The medical
evidence about the dangers of smoking has been known for 30 years or more, with consequent
deaths running into millions worldwide. Commercial and political pressures have meant that this
research has largely been ignored in terms of producing effective policies to eradicate or prevent
smoking, apart from tokenistic health campaigns and warnings.
Ethical issues are institutionalized procedures that are used to guarantee that informed consent is
obtained prior to initiating all research (Barata, 2001). This protocol and any subsequent
alterations have to be reviewed by the research ethics committee. What the physicians did was
ethically wrong; injecting live cancer cells into indigent elderly patients without their consent
was ethically wrong. Every researcher need to obtain consent from the participants. It therefore
follows that letters expressing purpose, benefits and risks must be given to all eligible
participants and authorities. The participants in the study need to be conferred confidentiality to
the extent permitted by law. None of the information identified the premises of the participants
by name and all information provided by participants should be considered confidential.
Research data must be destroyed at the end of the study. This guarantees the participants that no
other person will have access to the information that they provided.
2. (a) Objectivism is the belief that certain things, especially moral truths, exist independently of
human knowledge or perception of them.

(b) Ontology is a set of concepts and categories in a subject area or domain that shows their
properties and the relations between them.

(c) Epistemology is the theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods, validity, and
scope, and the distinction between justified belief and opinion.

(d) Axiology the study of the nature of value and valuation, and of the kinds of things that are
valuable.

(e) Subjectivism is the doctrine that knowledge is merely subjective and that there is no external
or objective truth.

(f) Positivism is a philosophical theory stating that certain ("positive") knowledge is based on

natural phenomena and their properties and relations.

(g) Interpretivism is an approach to social science that opposes the positivism of natural science.

(h) Pragmatism is a philosophical movement that includes those who claim that an ideology or
proposition is true if it works satisfactorily, that the meaning of a proposition is to be found in
the practical consequences of accepting it, and that unpractical ideas are to be rejected.

(i) Postmodernism is a late 20th-century style and concept in the arts, architecture, and criticism,
which represents a departure from modernism and is characterized by the self-conscious use of
earlier styles and conventions, a mixing of different artistic styles and media, and a general
distrust of theories.

(j) Epistemological relativism is a way to reason where facts used to justify any claims are
understood to be relative and subjective to the perspective of those proving or falsifying the
proposition.
3. Name the labelled items in the research onion below

A=Positivism
B=Realism
C=Interpretivism
D=Pragmatism
H=Deductive
I=Inductive
J=Monomethod
F=Mixed methods
E=Longitudinal
4. Complete the table below

Assumption type Question Objectivism Subjectivism

Ontology What is the nature of reality? … Reality can be Reality is subjective.

generalised
What is the world like? Reality can be
generalised.

Epistemology What is the nature of Knowledge is Knowledge is about the

knowledge? accurate and way in which people
certain. make meaning in their
lives.

Axiology What is the role of values in Values have no Values are an integral
research? place in research; part of social life– no
must eliminate all values are wrong, only
bias. different.
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