energies

Article
Mathematical Modeling and Performance Analysis of
a New Hybrid Solar Dryer of Lemon Slices for
Controlling Drying Temperature
Wengang Hao 1 , Shuonan Liu 1 , Baoqi Mi 1 and Yanhua Lai 1,2, *
1 School of Energy and Power Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, China;
haowengangDL@163.com (W.H.); liusnnd@163.com (S.L.); sduszmbq@163.com (B.M.)
2 Suzhou Institute, Shandong University, Suzhou 215028, China
* Correspondence: laiyh@sdu.edu.cn or sdu2019hvac@163.com




Received: 9 December 2019; Accepted: 9 January 2020; Published: 10 January 2020


Abstract: A new hybrid solar dryer was designed and constructed in this study, which consisted
of a flat-plate solar collector with dual-function (DF-FPSC), drying chamber with glass, fan etc.
The DF-FPSC was firstly applied in drying agricultural products. The innovative application of
hybrid solar dryer can control the drying chamber air temperature within a suitable range by
different operation strategies. Drying experiments for lemon slices in the hybrid solar dryer were
conducted by comparing open sun drying (OSD). Eight mathematical models of drying characteristics
were employed to select the most suitable model for describing the drying curves of lemon slices.
Furthermore, energy, exergy economic and environment (4E) analysis were also adopted to analyze
the drying process of lemon slices. The results show that under the same experimental condition,
the drying capability of the hybrid solar dryer was stronger than that of OSD. Meanwhile, it was
found that the Two term and Wang and Singh models were the most suitable for fitting the lemon
slices’ drying characteristics inside the hybrid solar dryer. The drying chamber air temperature can
be controlled under about 60 ◦ C during the process of lemon slices’ drying. The experimental results
show the feasibility and validity of the proposed hybrid solar dryer.

Keywords: mathematical modeling; hybrid solar dryer; solar collector; lemon slices; performance
analysis

1. Introduction
Due to the energy crisis and environmental pollution issues, many governments are working on
developing green energy to alleviate these problems. In the process of drying, it is an effective way for
improving the economic efficiency of drying to reduce the energy consumption of drying systems.
Drying system energy consumption is mainly affected by the dried product and energy efficiency of the
drying system [1]. Hot air convection drying using a traditional energy source is not a sustainable way
of drying due to environmental pollution, high investment and operating costs [2]. Solar drying has the
advantages of being a renewable, free, and abundant energy source, meanwhile, the low-temperature
utilization of solar energy just matches the suitable material drying temperature [3]. However, the
practical application of solar drying generally needs to be supplemented by other forms of energy
due to the influence of solar energy instability, periodic change, low heat collection efficiency, and so
on [4–6]. Therefore, numerous research works concerning solar drying have been conducted over the
past few decades.
Solar drying can be divided into four groups: open sun drying, direct solar drying, indirect
solar drying and hybrid solar drying [7]. Many researchers have studied the design types of a solar

Energies 2020, 13, 350; doi:10.3390/en13020350 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 350 2 of 23

dryer. Solar thermal components are the key to distinguishing different solar drying systems. Hybrid
photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T), solar air collector types, greenhouses, etc. have been adopted in previous
literature reviews. Banout et al. [8] designed a new model of double-pass solar drier and tested it
under tropical conditions in central Vietnam. Tiwari et al. [9] proposed a hybrid pPV/T greenhouse
solar dryer under mixed mode. Elkhadraoui, A. et al. [10] investigated a forced convection solar
greenhouse dryer; this dryer consisted of a solar air collector and chapel-shaped greenhouse. Kabeel
and Abdelgaied [11] investigated a new solar dryer with rotary desiccant wheel. In addition, other
different types of solar drying system have also been designed and investigated such as Janjai, S. [12],
Aktaş, Mustafa [13], Sonthikun, Sonthawi [14] et al.
After the solar drying system is determined, the characteristics and operational analysis of the
drying system need to be studied. On the one hand, drying characteristics of various agricultural
products were also widely reported in the different solar drying systems. Can [15] investigated the
drying kinetics of pumpkinseeds. Gulcimen et al. [16] performed an experimental and theoretical study
on the drying of sweet basil with solar air collectors, and the drying kinetics mathematical modeling of
sweet basil was found. Ali et al. [17] studied the drying kinetics of sewage sludge at different drying
temperatures under the same air flow rate condition, the influencing factors on the product drying
process were investigated, and the best suitable mathematical model was found. Moreover, rubber
sheet [18], red pepper [19], seedless grapes [20], thymus and mint [21] were also studied to select the
best suitable drying characteristics mathematical model.
On the other hand, the operational performance and evaluation of the drying materials of the
solar drying system need to be analyzed and optimized. Energy analysis can provide the quantity of
energy required and can determine the quality of energy and analyse irreversible causes and directions
of processes in thermodynamics [3]. Rabha et al. [22] proposed and studied a solar tunnel dryer
by energy and exergy analysis; the average overall thermal efficiency of solar air collector ranged
from 22.95% to 23.30%. Fudholi et al. [23] studied the red seaweed drying process using energy and
exergy analysis. Akbulut and Durmuş [24] investigated the mulberry drying process with energy
and exergy analysis, and the maximum value of exergy loss was 10.82 W, the maximum value of
energy utilization ratio was 55.2%, and the exergetic efficiency increased with the increase of drying
air mass flow rate. Midilli and Kucuk [25] studied a solar drying cabinet for drying pistachios with
energy and exergy analysis. In addition, photovoltaic/thermal integrated with a solar greenhouse were
performed by Nayak and Tiwari [26] using the energy and exergy method. Aktaş et al. [13] presented
solar heat-recovery solar drying, with solar air collector efficiency of 50.6% being obtained. Janjai
et al. [12] investigated a PV-ventilated solar greenhouse dryer by employing qualities of dried product
and economic evaluation. Sarhaddi et al. [27] studied the exergetic performance of a PV/T air collector.
Environmental analysis and mathematical modeling of modified greenhouse dryer were conducted by
Prakash and Kumar [28].
From the above literature review, the DF-FPSC has not yet been applied in drying agricultural
products. Lemon is a more popular fruits for most people being rich in nutrients such as vitamin C,
carbohydrate, calcium and minerals. There are few studies on lemon slices’ solar drying in the current
research literature, among which Chen et al. [29] proposed and built the closed-type dryer and Wang
et al. [30] presented the far-infrared assisted vacuum dryer for drying lemon slices. In addition, energy,
exergy, economic and environmental (4E) comprehensive evaluations of solar drying have not been
studied so far.
Thus, the goals of this paper are to propose and study a new hybrid solar dryer with a flat-plate
solar collector with dual-function (DF-FPSC) for drying lemon slices and to develop a most suitable
drying characteristics mathematical model for lemon slices. The advantage of this study is to control
the suitable air drying temperature for drying lemon slices. Furthermore, energy, exergy economic and
environmental analysis of the dryer operation process were also carried out.
Energies 2020, 13, 350 3 of 23

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Description
Energies of System
2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 23

The new hybrid solar dryer with DF-FPSC was designed and established by the author of this
The new hybrid solar dryer with DF-FPSC was designed and established by the author of this
paper at Jinan city, located at Shandong province, China. According to the previous study results [4,31],
paper at Jinan city, located at Shandong province, China. According to the previous study results
the maximum hot air drying temperature for lemon slices should not exceed 60 ◦ C. Therefore, the
[4,31], the maximum hot air drying temperature for lemon slices should not exceed 60 °C. Therefore,
maximum temperature of the drying chamber inside air was set as 60 ◦ C in this study. The schematic
the maximum temperature of the drying chamber inside air was set as 60 °C in this study. The
diagram of the working principle of the hybrid solar dryer is shown in Figure 1. When the drying
schematic diagram of the working principle of the hybrid solar dryer is shown in Figure 1. When the
temperature is lower than 60 ◦ C, the outdoor air is heated by the collector absorbing energy, and then
drying temperature is lower than 60 °C, the outdoor air is heated by the collector absorbing energy,
sent to the cabinet, as shown in Figure 1a. When drying temperature is higher than 60 ◦ C, the collector
and then sent to the cabinet, as shown in Figure 1a. When drying temperature is higher than 60 °C,
absorbing energy is divided into two parts, one for drying lemon slices and the other for storing energy
the collector absorbing energy is divided into two parts, one for drying lemon slices and the other for
in the water tank as shown in Figure 1b. In the operation process of hybrid solar dryer, the operation
storing energy in the water tank as shown in Figure 1b. In the operation process of hybrid solar dryer,
modes of DF-FPSC include air cycle and air and water cycle simultaneous. When drying temperature
the operation modes of DF-FPSC include air cycle and air and water cycle simultaneous. When drying
is higher than 60 ◦ C, the air and water cycle of the DF-FPSC were simultaneously opened by water
temperature is higher than 60 °C, the air and water cycle of the DF-FPSC were simultaneously opened
pump and fan.
by water pump and fan.

(a) Tdryer , a < 60℃

(b) Tdryer , a > 60℃

Figure
Figure1.1.The
Theschematic
schematicdiagram
diagramofofhybrid
hybridsolar
solardryer
dryeroperation.
operation.

Thehybrid
The hybridsolar
solardryer
dryerincludes
includesDF-FPSC,
DF-FPSC,water
waterpump,
pump,fan,
fan,water
watertank,
tank,auxiliary
auxiliaryelectric
electricheating
heating
anddrying
and dryingchamber
chamberetc.
etc.The
Thephotograph
photographofofthe
thehybrid
hybridsolar
solardryer
dryerisisshown
shownin inFigure
Figure2.2.The
Thesystem
system
composition characteristic parameters are listed in Table 1. The other detailed descriptions ofofthe
composition characteristic parameters are listed in Table 1. The other detailed descriptions the
systemcan
system canbe
bereferenced
referencedtoto[32].
[32].
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 23
Energies 2020, 13, 350 4 of 23

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 23

Figure 2. Photograph of hybrid solar dryer.

Table 1. The system composition characteristic parameters.

Figure 2. Photograph of hybrid solar dryer.
Figure 2. Photograph of hybrid solar dryer.
Component Name Function Characteristic Parameters
Flat-plate solar collector Table
with
Table 1. The system
1. The Convertingcomposition characteristic
solar energy
system composition characteristic parameters.
Dual air and water channel. Size: 2
parameters.
dual-function
Component (DF-FPSC)
Name into hot air or
Function hot water m × 1 m × 0.15 m (L × W × H).
Characteristic
Component Name Function Characteristic Parameters
Parameters
Flat-plate solar collector with Converting solar energy Total volume:
Dual air and water 0.77 m 2. Inclination:
channel. Size: 2
Cabinet
Flat-plate solar collector with Drying sample material
Converting solar energy into hot Dual air and water channel. Size:
dual-function of 26.7°
dual-function (DF-FPSC)
(DF-FPSC) into hot
airair or hot
or hot water water m2m × 1× m
1m ××0.15
0.15mm(L (L××W W××H).
H).
Fan Driving air flow Fan power of 80 W
Total
Totalvolume:
volume:0.770.77 m2. Inclination:
Inclination:
Cabinet
Cabinet
Water tank Drying
Dryingsample
Storing sample material
material
hot water Water tankof bulk
of 26.7of
26.7° ◦ 120 mL

WaterFan pump
Fan Driving
Driving
Driving water flow
airflow
air flow Pump power
Fanpower
Fan power of of 80200W
80 WW
Water tank Storing
Providing hot water
extra heating Water tank bulk of 120 mL
Water
Auxiliary tank
system
Water pump
Storing hot water
Driving water flow
Water
Electric tank
heating
Pump
bulk
power
power
of 120
of 200ofW mLW
800
Water pump Drivingenergy
water flowenergy Pump power of 200
Auxiliary system Providing extra heating Electric heating power of W
800 W
Tray Placing
Providing
Placing the the
extradrying
drying heating
material Size: 0.6 m × 0.3 m (L × W).
Traysystem
Auxiliary Size: 0.6
Electric m × 0.3
heating m (Lof
power × W).
800 W
material
energy
The schematic
schematic diagramofofthe Placing
thedrying
drying the drying
chamber is shown in Figure 3. Material
The Tray diagram chamber is shown in Figure Size: 0.6 m × 0.3
3. Material trays mtrays
with with
(L × W). the
the wire
wire mesh of evenly spaced pores are placed material
in the drying chamber. In addition, the air outlet of the
mesh of evenly spaced pores are placed in the drying chamber. In addition, the air outlet of the DF-
DF-FPSC
FPSC is connectedthe
is connected todrying
the drying chamberinletair inlet through the ventilationpipepipe with a diameter of
The schematictodiagram chamber
of the dryingairchamber through
is shown thein
ventilation
Figure 3. Material withtrays
a diameter
with the ofwire
110
110
mm. mm. The water channel of the DF-FPSC is connected to the water tank through the water pipe with
meshThe water channel
of evenly of theare
spaced pores DF-FPSC
placed isinconnected
the dryingtochamber. the water Intank through
addition, the the
air water
outlet pipe
of thewith
DF-
aaFPSC
diameter of
diameter of 32
32 mm.
mm. The The hybrid
hybrid solar
solar dryer
dryer operation
operation is is controlled
controlled by by temperature
temperature control
is connected to the drying chamber air inlet through the ventilation pipe with a diameter of 110
control device
device
according to
according to the
the air
air temperature
temperature in in the
the drying
drying chamber.
chamber.
mm. The water channel of the DF-FPSC is connected to the water tank through the water pipe with
a diameter of 32 mm. The hybrid solar dryer operation is controlled by temperature control device
according to the air temperature in the drying chamber.

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of drying chamber.

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of drying chamber.

2.2. Sample Preparation

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of drying chamber.

2.2. Sample Preparation

Energies 2020, 13, 350 5 of 23

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 23

2.2. Sample Preparation
Freshlemons
Fresh lemonswere werepurchased
purchased from
from the
the RT-mart
RT-mart (at (at Jinan
Jinan city,
city, Shandong
Shandong province).
province). For
Fortesting
testing
themoisture
the moisturecontent
contentofoflemon,
lemon,thethelemon
lemonslices
sliceswere
wereplaced
placedinina adrying
dryingoven
ovenwith
with
the the temperature
temperature of
of ◦
105 °C for 24 h [33]. The average initial moisture content (wet basis) of the fresh
105 C for 24 h [33]. The average initial moisture content (wet basis) of the fresh lemons was tested as lemons was tested
as 82.8%.
82.8%. In order
In order to reduce
to reduce errors caused
errors caused by drying by raw
drying raw materials,
materials, the lemons theused
lemons
in thisused in this
experiment
experiment
were selectedwere selected
according to according to the same
the same species species and
and purchase purchase
batches. Thebatches. The lemons
lemons chosen werechosen
almost
were almost the same size. The fresh lemons without pre-treatment were sliced
the same size. The fresh lemons without pre-treatment were sliced with the similar size (diameter: with the similar size
(diameter: 5 ± 0.2 cm, thickness: 0.3 ± 0.1 cm). For each of the tests, the sample
5 ± 0.2 cm, thickness: 0.3 ± 0.1 cm). For each of the tests, the sample weights of an experimental group weights of an
experimental
and groupwere
a contrast group andselected
a contrast
fromgroup
300~400 were
g forselected
studyingfromdrying300~400 g for studying
characteristics. drying
In addition, the
characteristics. In addition, the mass of drying fresh lemons was selected at
mass of drying fresh lemons was selected at about 4 kg for studying the operational performance of about 4 kg for studying
thehybrid
the operational performance of the hybrid solar dryer.
solar dryer.

2.3.Experimental
2.3. ExperimentalProcedure
Procedure

InInorder
ordertotomeet
meetthe
theobjective
objectiveof ofthis
this research,
research, the
the drying
drying experiment
experiment was
was carried
carried out
out twice.
twice.OneOne
setofofexperiments
set experimentswas wasconducted
conductedto to study
study the
the drying
drying characteristics
characteristics of
of lemon
lemon slices;
slices; the
theother
othersetsetof
of
experiments was carried out to study the operational performance of hybrid solar dryer.
experiments was carried out to study the operational performance of hybrid solar dryer. In the drying In the drying
characteristicsofoflemon
characteristics lemonslices
slicesexperiment,
experiment, two two drying
drying methods
methods for
for lemon
lemon slices
slices were
were employed;
employed;one one
wasOSD,
was OSD,thetheother
otherwas
wasthethenew
newhybrid
hybrid solar
solar dryer.
dryer. The
The drying
drying process
process was
was terminated
terminated untiluntilthe
the
change of samples quality is less than ±1 g for studying drying characteristics and ±10
change of samples quality is less than ±1 g for studying drying characteristics and ±10 g for studying g for studying
theoperation
the operationperformance
performanceofofhybrid
hybridsolar
solardryer.
dryer.Lemon
Lemonslice
slicedrying
dryingexperiments
experimentswere werecarried
carriedoutoutin
in June 2018 from 08:30 to 18:00. The measurement variables included air temperature
June 2018 from 08:30 to 18:00. The measurement variables included air temperature (inlet and outlet of (inlet and
outlet ofinlet
collector, collector, inlet and
and outlet outlet of
of drying drying ambient
chamber, chamber,andambient
dryingand drying inside),
chamber chamberrelative
inside),humidity
relative
humidity (inlet and outlet of drying chamber, ambient and drying chamber
(inlet and outlet of drying chamber, ambient and drying chamber inside), water temperature (inlet inside), water
and
temperature (inlet and outlet of collector), solar radiation intensity, electrical consumption of fan and
outlet of collector), solar radiation intensity, electrical consumption of fan and pump, mass of drying
pump, mass of drying lemon slices, mass rate of drying air and water. The schematic diagram of the
lemon slices, mass rate of drying air and water. The schematic diagram of the experimental test system
experimental test system is shown in Figure 4. The test instruments characteristics were listed in Table
is shown in Figure 4. The test instruments characteristics were listed in Table 2. The experimental data
2. The experimental data are recorded automatically every 10 min, and the data collection was
are recorded automatically every 10 min, and the data collection was connected to the computer.
connected to the computer.

Figure 4. The schematic diagram of the experimental test system.

Figure 4. The schematic diagram of the experimental test system.

2.4. Uncertainty Analysis Table 2. Characteristics of the test instrument.

In general, Measuring
the R value of experimental results uncertainty may be calculated byAccuracy
a set of independent
Instruments Name Range
Parameters
measurements, namelySolar 2 , . .
x1 , xradiation. , xn . The uncertainty of the experimental results R can be calculated
TBQ-2 Pyranometer
as follows [22]: 0~2000 W/m 2 2%
intensity
T type thermocouple temperature −200~350 °C ±0.5 °C
Energies 2020, 13, 350 6 of 23

2 2 n # 12
∂R ∂R ∂R
"
wR = ( w1 ) + ( w2 ) + ..... + ( wn ) (1)
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn
The independent parameters measured in this study were solar radiation intensity, ambient
temperature and relative humidity, samples’ mass, temperature (drying air temperature and relative
humidity, air outlet temperature of collector, water inlet and outlet temperature of collector), air and
water mass flow rate of the collector. The dependent parameters measured include solar collector
efficiency, thermal efficiency and exergy efficiency. Uncertainties in different measurement variables of
the experiments are listed in Table 3.

Table 2. Characteristics of the test instrument.

Instruments Measuring
Range Accuracy
Name Parameters
TBQ-2 Solar radiation
0~2000 W/m2 2%
Pyranometer intensity
T type
temperature −200~350 ◦ C ±0.5 ◦ C
thermocouple
Temperature and Air relative
0~100% 3%
humidity tester humidity
Mass flow rate of
Air flow meter 0~500 m3 /h 1%
air
Mass flow rate of
Water flow meter 0~15 m3 /h 1%
water
Electronic balance Samples mass 0~10 kg ±0.1 g
Clamp meter Testo Power of fan and Alternating/direct current (0~600 A) Alternating/direct current (± 2%)
770-3 pump Alternating/direct voltage (0~600 V) Alternating/direct voltage (± 1%)

Table 3. Different experimental variables’ uncertainty values.

Name Value
Solar radiation 2.8 W/m2
Temperature 1 ◦C
Mass flow rate (air and water) 1.4 m3 /h
Power 0.04 W
Air relative humidity 4.24%
Sample mass 0.52 kg
Thermal efficiency of collector 3.44%
Drying system thermal efficiency 2%
Drying system exergy efficiency 2.43%

3. Performance Analysis

3.1. Drying Analysis

The moisture content of the lemon slices at the initial time is determined on a dry basis (d.b) as:

W0 − Wd
Md,0 = (2)
Wd

The moisture content of the lemon slices at initial time is determined on a wet basis (w.b) as:

W0 − Wd
Mw,0 = (3)
W0
Energies 2020, 13, 350 7 of 23

The drying rate of lemon slices during drying experiments can be expressed using the following
equations:
Mt+dt − Mt
DR = (4)
dt
The quantity of water can be calculated as:
 
M0 − M f
Wf =   × W0 (5)
100 − M f

The instantaneous moisture content can be defined as:

" #
(M0 + 1)Wt
Mt = −1 (6)
W0
The relation between dry basis and wet basis can be expressed as:
!
1
Mw = 1 − (7)
Md + 1

The moisture ratio MR is defined as:

Mt − Me
MR = (8)
M0 − Me

Due to Me Far less than M0 , the above equation can be simplified as:
Mt
MR = (9)
M0
Drying mathematical models were used to select the most suitable model for describing the
drying curves of lemon slices during the drying process, as given in Table 4. The regression analysis
was performed by using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) 17 software package. The
coefficient of determination R2 and root mean square error (RMSE) was also applied to select the most
suitable models.
The above statistical parameters can be calculated using the following equations:
N
P N
P
(MRi − MRpre,i ) · (MRi − MRexp,i )
2 i=1 i=1
R = s (10)
N N
(MRi − MRpre,i )2 ][ (MRi − MRexp,i )2 ]
P P
[
i=1 i=1

 N 1
 1 X 2  2
RMSE =  MRexp,i − MRpre,i  (11)
N
i=1

Table 4. Drying curve models for lemon slices.

Number Model Name Model Equation Ref.

1 Newton MR = exp(−k × t) [34]
2 Page MR = exp(−k × tn ) [35]
3 Henderson and pabis MR = α × exp(−k × t) [36]
4 Logarithmic MR = α × exp(−k × t) + c [37]
5 Two term MR = α × exp(−k0 × t) + b × exp(−k1 × t) [38]
6 Wang and Singh MR = 1 + α × t + b × t2 [39]
7 Modified Page MR = exp(−(kt)n ) [40]
8 Thompson t = α × ln(MR) + b × (ln(MR))2 [41]
Energies 2020, 13, 350 8 of 23

3.2. Energy Analysis

The energy analyses of the hybrid solar dryer were carried out by the conservation of mass and
energy. In the process of lemon slices’ drying, the energy inflows of the hybrid solar dryer include
solar energy and electric energy used by the fan and pump, the energy outflows of the hybrid solar
dryer include heat losses of different locations (solar collector, connection duct, drying chamber et al.)
and the drying air of the drying chamber outlet.
The general mass conservation equation of drying air can be expressed as follows:
. .
X X
ma,in = ma,out (12)

The general mass conservation equation of moisture can be calculated as follows:

. . .
X X
(ma,in win + mmp ) = ma,out wout (13)

The general equation of energy conservation can be expressed as follows:

 2
  2 
Vin
X  Vout  X  
Q−W = ma,out hout +  − ma,in hin +  (14)
2  2 

During the energy analyses, the following assumptions can be made:

• The drying air flow was assumed to be steady [25].

• The hybrid solar dryer was the same horizontal line.
• The kinetic energies of the hybrid solar dryer can be neglected [22].

Therefore, the energy conservation of the lemon slices’ drying process can be determined as
follows based on the above assumptions and equations:

Q − W = ma (hout − hin ) (15)

The relative humidity of drying air can be calculated as follows:

wP
φ= (16)
(0.622 + w)Psat@T

The collector efficiency was calculated by:

Qu
η= (17)
ατIAc

The enthalpy of drying air can be expressed:

h = Cp,a Ta + whsat@T (18)

The useful heat gained of collector can be calculated by:



 ma Cp,a (Tou,a − Tin,a ) only air cycle

Qu =  m w Cp,w (Tou,w − Tin,w ) only water cycle (19)



 m C (T
a p,a ou,a Tin,a ) + mw Cp,w (Tou,w − Tin,w )
− air and water cycle simultaneously

The specify energy consumption (SEC) of system can be defined as follows:

Qu + E f an + Ep
SEC = (20)
mw
Energies 2020, 13, 350 9 of 23

The mass of water removed can be estimated by:

mp (mi − m f )
mw = (21)
100 − m f

The system drying efficiency can be calculated as follows:

mw hev
η= (22)
IAc + E f + Ep

The theoretical thermal efficiency can be calculated by:

Tdc − Tdc.out
ηth = (23)
Tdc − Tamb

3.3. Exergy Analysis

In general, the exergy losses of the drying chamber include the exergy loss of the drying chamber
wall heat dissipation, the exergy loss of drying air, and the exergy loss of the product. The following
assumptions were made:

• The flow of drying air can be assumed to be steady.

• The exergy loss of the product was neglected due to the type of chamber.
• The variation of drying air moisture content was neglected [22].
• The change of pressure in the inlet and outlet of drying chamber was neglected.

Therefore, the flow exergy of steady flow stream of drying chamber can be given by:

T
  
Ex = ma Cp,a (T − Tr ) − Tr ln (24)
Tr

The exergy of drying chamber inlet can be given by:

T
  
Exin = ma Cp,a (Tdc − Tr ) − Tr ln dc (25)
Tr

The exergy of drying chamber outlet can be given by:

Tout
  
Exout = ma Cp,a (Tout − Tr ) − Tr ln (26)
Tr

Thus, the exergy losses of the drying chamber can be determined by:
X X X
Exloss = Exin − Exout (27)

The exergetic efficiency of drying chamber can be written as:

Exout Ex
ηEx = = 1 − loss (28)
Exin Exin

The improvement potential (IP) of the novel hybrid solar dryer can be given as:

IP = (1 − ηEx )Exloss (29)

3.4. Economic Analysis

The capital costs of the hybrid solar dryer include material cost and construction cost, which can
be obtained from a local market. It can be calculated by:
Energies 2020, 13, 350 10 of 23

Ct = Cm + Cc (30)

The annual cost calculation method was proposed by Audsley and Wheeler [42] and can be
expressed by:
N
  !
 X
i
 Z−1
Ca = Ct + (Cmaint + Coptera )Z  (31)
i=1
Z(ZN − 1)

where
100 + iin
Z= (32)
100 + i f
The operating cost of the hybrid solar dryer include only the electricity consumption cost (fan and
pump), and it can be calculated by:

Coptera = E f an · t f an + Ep · tp (33)

The maintenance cost of the hybrid solar dryer was equal to 1% of the capital cost. The cost per
unit of drying materials can be calculated by:

Ca
F= (34)
Md

The payback period can be calculated by:

Ct
PBP = (35)
Md Pd − M f P f − Md F

3.5. Environmental Analysis

In the drying process, the CO2 reductions per batch based on results of this experiment can be
calculated as follows [43]:
ψco2 · Qu,overall
Rco2 = (36)
1000
The CO2 emission of system per batch drying products can be obtained as follows:

EMco2 = (E f an + Ep ) · ψco2 (37)

The revenue of CO2 abatement was calculated by:

Yco2 = CPco2 · (Rco2 − EMco2 ) (38)

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Drying Characteristics

The set of experimental data for studying the drying characteristics of lemon slices were performed
on 7 and 8 June 2018. The change of solar radiation intensity was shown in Figure 5. The maximum
values of solar radiation intensity at two days were 424 W/m2 and 438 W/m2 , respectively, and the
average values of solar radiation intensity were 257.36 W/m2 and 218.33 W/m2 , respectively. The
maximum values of solar radiation intensity at two days occured at 12:30 and 11:40, respectively. The
solar radiation intensity increased gradually to the maximum value and then decreased during the
period of the drying experiment.
The change of air temperature and relative humidity is shown in Figure 6. The range of ambient
temperature was 28~38.5 ◦ C. Meanwhile, the range of temperature inside drying chamber was
28.5~60.2 ◦ C. The average temperature of drying cabinet was about 44 ◦ C. The range of ambient
 Energies
The solar2020, 13, x FOR
radiation PEER REVIEW
intensity 11 of
increased gradually to the maximum value and then decreased during 23
the period of the drying experiment.
4.1. Drying Characteristics
The set of experimental data for studying the drying characteristics of lemon slices were
performed
Energies 2020, 13,on
3507 and 8 June 2018. The change of solar radiation intensity was shown in Figure115.ofThe 23
maximum values of solar radiation intensity at two days were 424 W/m2 and 438 W/m2, respectively,
and the average values of solar radiation intensity were 257.36 W/m2 and 218.33 W/m2, respectively.
environment
The maximum relative
valueshumidity was 22.4%~44.5%.
of solar radiation intensity at Meanwhile, the relative
two days occured at 12:30humidity
and 11:40,range inside
respectively.
drying
The solar radiation intensity increased gradually to the maximum value and then decreased equal
chamber was 11.7%~38.1%. The maximum temperature of drying chamber was almost during
tothe
theperiod
experiments set value. These
of the drying experiment. results show that the operation parameters can meet design
requirement in terms of controlling the drying temperature of the drying chamber.

Figure 5. The change of solar radiation intensity.

The change of air temperature and relative humidity is shown in Figure 6. The range of ambient
temperature was 28~38.5 °C. Meanwhile, the range of temperature inside drying chamber was
28.5~60.2 °C. The average temperature of drying cabinet was about 44 °C. The range of ambient
environment relative humidity was 22.4%~44.5%. Meanwhile, the relative humidity range inside
drying chamber was 11.7%~38.1%. The maximum temperature of drying chamber was almost equal
to the experiments set value. These results show that the operation parameters can meet design
5. The
Figure the
requirement in terms of controlling change
drying of solar radiation
temperature of theintensity.
drying chamber.
Figure 5. The change of solar radiation intensity.

The change of air temperature and relative humidity is shown in Figure 6. The range of ambient
temperature was 28~38.5 °C. Meanwhile, the range of temperature inside drying chamber was
28.5~60.2 °C. The average temperature of drying cabinet was about 44 °C. The range of ambient
environment relative humidity was 22.4%~44.5%. Meanwhile, the relative humidity range inside
drying chamber was 11.7%~38.1%. The maximum temperature of drying chamber was almost equal
to the experiments set value. These results show that the operation parameters can meet design
requirement in terms of controlling the drying temperature of the drying chamber.

Figure 6. The change of air temperature and relative humidity.

Figure 6. The change of air temperature and relative humidity.
4.1.1. Drying Kinetics
The change of lemon slices’ moisture content is shown in Figure 7. The lemon slices moisture
content of OSD was 0.455 g g−1 higher than that of hybrid solar dryer at the end of first day, and lemon
slices’ moisture content of OSD was 0.598 g g−1 higher than that of hybrid solar dryer at the end of
second day of drying. The lemon slices moisture content of OSD and hybrid solar dryer was 0.905 g g−1
and 0.307 g g−1 respectively at the end of drying. These results indicate that the drying capacity of the
hybrid solar dryer is higher than that of OSD under the same conditions. Furthermore, according to
Figure 6. The change of air temperature and relative humidity.
Figure 6, drying temperature has an important influence on the different solar drying curves of lemon
slices. It is consistent with the problems revealed by the factors influencing the effective diffusion rate
in material drying [10,17,44].
 slices’ moisture
second content
day of drying. Theoflemon
OSD wasslices0.598 g g−1 higher
moisture contentthan thatand
of OSD of hybrid
hybridsolar
solardryer
dryer at
wasthe0.905
end gof
g and 0.307 g g respectively at the end of drying. These results indicate that the drying capacity ofg
second
−1 day of drying.
−1 The lemon slices moisture content of OSD and hybrid solar dryer was 0.905
g−1 hybrid
the and 0.307
solarg gdryer
−1 respectively at the end of drying. These results indicate that the drying capacity of
is higher than that of OSD under the same conditions. Furthermore, according
tothe hybrid
Figure 6, solar
dryingdryer is higher than
temperature has anthatimportant
of OSD under the same
influence conditions.
on the different Furthermore, according
solar drying curves of
lemon slices. It is consistent with the problems revealed by the factors influencing the effectiveof
to Figure
Energies 6,
2020, drying
13, 350 temperature has an important influence on the different solar drying curves
12 of 23
lemon slices.
diffusion rate inIt material
is consistent with
drying the problems revealed by the factors influencing the effective
[10,17,44].
diffusion rate in material drying [10,17,44].
5
5
DFHSD
DFHSD
OSD
4 OSD

) )
4

-1
(g·g
(g·g-1
3
content
content
Moisture 3

2
Moisture

1
1

0
8:30
0 12:00 15:30 8:30 12:00 15:30 18:30
8:30 12:00 15:30
(h) 12:00 8:30
15:30
Drying time 18:30
Drying time (h)
Figure 7. The change of lemon slices moisture content.
Figure 7. The change of lemon slices moisture content.
Figure 7. The change of lemon slices moisture content.
Figure
Figure88represented
representedthe thechange
changeofofmoisture
moistureratioratiofor
forlemon
lemonslices.
slices.TheThemoisture
moistureratio
ratioranged
ranged
from Figure 8 represented the change of moisture ratio for lemon slices. The moisture ratio ranged
from 1 to final moisture ratio of about 0.073 inside hybrid solar dryer. Meanwhile, the moistureratio
1 to final moisture ratio of about 0.073 inside hybrid solar dryer. Meanwhile, the moisture ratio
from 1 from
ranged to final moisture ratio of about 0.073 inside hybrid solar dryer.operation
Meanwhile, the moisture ratio
ranged from11totothe thefinal
finalmoisture
moistureratio
ratioofofabout
about0.215
0.215under
underthe theOSD
OSD operationmode. mode.These
Theseresults
results
ranged
again from 1 to the final moisture ratio ofdrying
about 0.215 under the OSD operation mode. These results
againindicate
indicatethatthatthethehybrid
hybridsolar
solardryer
dryer dryingcapacity
capacitywas washigher
higherthan thanthat
thatofofOSD
OSDunder
underthe the
again
same indicate that the hybrid solar dryer drying capacity was higher than that of OSD under the
sameconditions.
conditions.
same conditions.
InInaddition,
addition,thethedecrease
decreaseininthe therate
rateofofthe
themoisture
moistureratio
ratiowas
wasfaster
fasteratatthe
thebeginning
beginningofofthe thedrying
drying
In
experiment addition,
and the
later decrease
decreased, in the
as rate
shown of the
in moisture
Figure 8. ratio
This is was faster
because at
the the
lemon beginning
slices’ of the
surface drying
water
experiment and later decreased, as shown in Figure 8. This is because the lemon slices’ surface water
experimentduring
evaporated and later decreased, as shown in Figure 8. This is because thelemon
lemonslices
slices’diffuses
surface from
water
evaporated during the initial drying
the initial drying process,
process, and
and thethe water
water content
content of
of lemon slices diffuses from inside
evaporated
inside during of the initialmaterials.
drying process, and the water content of
bylemon slices diffuses from
to thetosurface
the surface
of drying drying
materials. These These
resultsresults
werewere
also also verified
verified previous
by previous research
research [45,46].
[45,46].
inside to the surface of drying materials. These results were also verified by previous research [45,46].
1.0
1.0 DFHSD
OSD
DFHSD
0.8
OSD
0.8
ratio

0.6
ratio

0.6
Moisture
Moisture

0.4
0.4

0.2
0.2

0.0
8:30
0.0 12:00 15:30 8:30 12:00 15:30 18:30
8:30 12:00 15:30 8:30
Drying time(h) 12:00 15:30 18:30
Drying time (h)

Figure 8. The change of moisture ratio for lemon slices’ drying.

4.1.2. Drying Rates Curves

Figure 9 shows the change of lemon slices’ drying rate of the typical experiments. The drying rate
of lemon slices at the first day was higher than that on the second day. The average drying rate of lemon
slices for the hybrid solar dryer and OSD was 0.262 g g−1 s−1 and 0.229 g g−1 s−1 , respectively, on the
first day. The average drying rate of lemon slices for the hybrid solar dryer and OSD was 0.109 g g−1 s−1
 Figure 8. The change of moisture ratio for lemon slices’ drying.

4.1.2. Drying Rates Curves

Figure 9 shows the change of lemon slices’ drying rate of the typical experiments. The drying
Energies
rate 2020, 13,slices
of lemon 350 at the first day was higher than that on the second day. The average drying13rate
of 23

of lemon slices for the hybrid solar dryer and OSD was 0.262 g g−1 s−1 and 0.229 g g−1 s−1, respectively,
on the first day. The average drying rate of lemon slices for the hybrid solar dryer and OSD was 0.109
and 0.085 g g−1 s−1 , respectively, on the second day. The average drying rate of lemon slices for hybrid
gsolar
g−1 sdryer
−1 and 0.085 g g−1 s−1, respectively, on the second day. The average drying rate of lemon slices
was faster than OSD due to the high temperature of drying air. Combined with the results
for hybrid solar dryer was faster than OSD due to the high temperature of drying air. Combined with
of Figure 6, these results show that the drying rate of lemon slices is affected significantly by the drying
the results of Figure 6, these results show that the drying rate of lemon slices is affected significantly
air temperature. The drying capacity of the hybrid solar dryer was higher than OSD.
by the drying air temperature. The drying capacity of the hybrid solar dryer was higher than OSD.

0.7
DFHSD
OSD
0.6

0.5
Drying rate (g·g-1·s-1)

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
Moisture content (g·g )

Figure 9. The change of drying rate for lemon slices’ drying.

Figure 9. The change of drying rate for lemon slices’ drying.

4.1.3.
4.1.3.Fitting
Fittingof
ofDrying
DryingModel
Model
The
The highest value
value ofofRR2 2and
andthethelowest
lowest value
value of of
rootroot
meanmean squared
squared errorerror
(RMSE)(RMSE) are used
are used to
to select
select the drying
the drying characteristics
characteristics mathematical
mathematical model asmodel
shown as in
shown
Table in
5. Table 5. Itconcluded
It can be can be concluded that
that Two term
Two term and
and Wang andWang
Singhand
wereSingh weremodel
the best the best
formodel
fittingfor
thefitting
lemon the lemon
slices sliceswith
drying R2 value
drying with Rof2 value
0.998
of
and0.998
RMSEandvalue
RMSEofvalue
0.001 of
for0.001 for thesolar
the hybrid hybrid solarTwo
dryer. dryer.
termTwowasterm was model
the best the bestwith R2 value
model with Rof 2

value of 0.998
0.998 and RMSEand valueRMSE
of 0.001 value of 0.001
for OSD. for OSD. The
The relationship relationship
between predictedbetween predictedvalues
and experimental and
experimental values for lemon slices’ drying are shown in Figure 10. The predicted
for lemon slices’ drying are shown in Figure 10. The predicted values can be fitted into a line with values can be
fitted into of
the slope a line with the slope
1. Therefore, the Twoof 1.term
Therefore,
modeltheandTwoWang termandmodel
Singhand Wang
model areand
theSingh model are
most suitable to
the most suitable
describe the dryingto describe the drying
characteristics characteristics
of lemon slices underof lemon
hybridslices
solarunder
dryer.hybrid solarmodel
Two term dryer. isTwo
the
term
mostmodel is to
suitable thedescribe
most suitable to describe
the drying the drying
characteristics characteristics
of lemon of lemon
slices under OSD. slices under OSD.

Table
Table 5.
5. Non-linear
Non-linearregression
regression analyses
analyses for
for lemon
lemon slices’
slices’ drying.
drying.

Name of HybridSolar
Hybrid SolarDryer
Dryer Open Sun
Open Sun Drying
Drying (OSD)
(OSD)
Name of Model
Model Constant Coefficients R2 RMSE Constant Coefficients R2 RMSE
Constant Coefficients R2 RMSE Constant Coefficients R2 RMSE
Newton k = 0.116 0.973 0.0617 k = 0.083 0.956 0.0316
Newton
Page k k= = 0.116
0.156 n = 0.834 0.973
0.989 0.0617
0.0742 = 0.083
k =k0.128 n = 0.767 0.956
0.992 0.0316
0.0138
Page and
Henderson k = 0.156 n = 0.834 0.989 0.0742 k = 0.128 n = 0.767 0.992 0.0138
Henderson a = 0.965 k = 0.109 0.979 0.0276 a = 0.953 k = 0.075 0.974 0.0239
pabis and a = 0.965 k = 0.109 0.979 0.0276 a = 0.953 k = 0.075 0.974 0.0239
pabis
Logarithmic a = 0.735 k = 0.208 c = 0.277 0.996 0.0120 a = 0.596 k = 0.192 c = 0.404 0.997 0.0069
Logarithmic a =a0.735 k=
= 0.031 b =0.208 =0 0.277
0.976c k = −0.168 0.996 0.0120 a a==0.596
0.87 bk ==0.126
0.192kc0 = 0.404 k1 0.997
= 0.133 0.0069
Two term a = 0.031k1b==0.15
0.976 0.998 0.0069 a = 0.87 b = =0.126 k0 = 0.133
−0.075
0.998 0.0069
Two term 0.998 0.0069 0.998 0.0069
k0 = −0.168 k1 = 0.15 k1 = −0.075
Wang and Singh a = −0.127 b = 0.007 0.998 0.0069 a = −0.099 b = 0.005 0.997 0.0098
Wang and
Modified Page a = −0.127
k = 0.108 b=n =0.007
0.834 0.998
0.989 0.0069
0.0195 a =k−0.099
= 0.071bn==0.005
0.773 0.997
0.986 0.0098
0.0183
Singh
Thompson a = −5.36 b = 4.412 0.985 0.3727 a = −6.424 b = 10.215 0.992 0.2661
Modified Page k = 0.108 n = 0.834 0.989 0.0195 k = 0.071 n = 0.773 0.986 0.0183
Thompson a = −5.36 b = 4.412 0.985 0.3727 a = −6.424 b = 10.215 0.992 0.2661
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23
Energies 2020, 13, 350 14 of 23

(a) OSD

(b) hybrid solar dryer

Figure
Figure 10.
10. The
Therelationship
relationshipbetween
between predicted
predicted and
and experimental
experimental values
values for
for lemon
lemon slices’
slices’ drying.
drying.

4.2. Energy
4.2. Energy and
and Exergy
Exergy Analysis
Analysis
The set
The set of
of experiments
experiments data data for
for studying
studying thethe operation
operation performance
performance of of hybrid
hybrid solar
solar dryer
dryer were
were
carried out
carried out on
on 1–3
1–3 June 2018. The The change
change of of solar
solar radiation
radiation intensity
intensity and
and ambient
ambient temperature
temperature are are
shown in
shown in Figure
Figure 11.
11. The
The red
red dotted
dotted line
line indicates
indicates the
the end
end of
of the
the previous
previous dry
dry day
day and
and the
the beginning
beginning
of the
of the next
next dry
dry day. In the process of drying lemon slices, the solar radiation radiation intensity
intensity ranged
ranged from
from
33 W/m
W/m to2 to618
618W/m 2
W/m. The . The variation amplitude of solar radiation intensity
33 2 2 variation amplitude of solar radiation intensity waswas relatively
relatively large
large on
on the
the first
first drying
drying day.day. In addition,
In addition, thethe maximum
maximum of of solar
solar radiationintensity
radiation intensityoccurred
occurredatatthe
the time
time ofof
11:30~14:00. The Theambient
ambienttemperature
temperature varied
varied from
from 25.6 ◦
25.6 °CC to
to 37.5 ◦
37.5 °CCwith
withan
anaverage
average of
of 32.08 ◦
32.08 °C.C.
11:30~14:00.
Figure 12 represents the change of different parts temperature and relative humidity. The inlet
and outlet air temperature range of drying cabinet were from 27.6 ◦ C to 52.8 ◦ C and from 27.8 ◦ C to
54 ◦ C, respectively. The relative humidity of ambient air and the drying chamber inside varied from
31.3% to 59.2% and 10.7% to 34.9%, respectively. The average inlet and outlet air temperature of the
drying chamber were 43.39 ◦ C and 43.14 ◦ C, respectively. See Figure 12, the outlet air temperature of
drying chamber was occasionally higher than the inlet air temperature of the drying chamber, it was
not consistent with the research results of Rabha et al. [22], this is because the drying chamber type in
this study is different from Rabha et al. [22]. The experimental results of this study were similar to
those of Elkhadraoui et al. [10]. Furthermore, the average relative humidity of ambient air and drying
chamber inside were 45.14% and 17.36%, respectively.
Energies 2020, 13, 350 15 of 23

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 23

Figure 11. The change of solar radiation intensity and ambient temperature.

Figure 12 represents the change of different parts temperature and relative humidity. The inlet
and outlet air temperature range of drying cabinet were from 27.6 °C to 52.8 °C and from 27.8 °C to
54 °C, respectively. The relative humidity of ambient air and the drying chamber inside varied from
31.3% to 59.2% and 10.7% to 34.9%, respectively. The average inlet and outlet air temperature of the
drying chamber were 43.39 °C and 43.14 °C, respectively. See Figure 12, the outlet air temperature of
drying chamber was occasionally higher than the inlet air temperature of the drying chamber, it was
not consistent with the research results of Rabha et al. [22], this is because the drying chamber type
in this study is different from Rabha et al. [22]. The experimental results of this study were similar to
those of Elkhadraoui et al. [10]. Furthermore, the average relative humidity of ambient air and drying
Figure 11.
11. The change
Theand
Figure45.14% change of
of solar
solar radiation
radiation intensity
intensity and
and ambient
ambient temperature.
temperature.
chamber inside were 17.36%, respectively.
Figure 12 represents the
Inlet changeofofdrying
temAerature different
chamber parts temperature and relative
Drying chamber inside humidity. The inlet
relative humidity
Outlet temAerature of drying chamber Ambient air relative humidity
and outlet air temperature range of drying cabinet were from 27.6 °C to 52.8 °C and from 27.8 °C to
54 °C, respectively.55The relative humidity of ambient air and the drying chamber 60 inside varied from
31.3% to 59.2% and 10.7% to 34.9%, respectively. The average inlet and outlet air temperature of the
drying chamber were 50
43.39 °C and 43.14 °C, respectively. See Figure 12, the outlet air temperature of
drying chamber was occasionally higher than the inlet air temperature of the drying chamber, it was
Relative humidity (%)
not consistent with the research results of Rabha et al. [22], this is because the drying chamber type
Air temAerature (℃)

in this study is different from Rabha et al. [22]. The experimental results of this40study were similar to
those of Elkhadraoui et al. [10]. Furthermore, the average relative humidity of ambient air and drying
chamber inside were 40 45.14% and 17.36%, respectively.

Inlet temAerature of drying chamber Drying chamber inside relative humidity

Outlet temAerature of drying chamber Ambient air relative humidity
20
55 60

30
50
Relative humidity (%)

25 0
Air temAerature (℃)

40
8:30

13:10

18:00

13:10

18:00

13:10

18:00

Time (h)
40
Figure
Figure 12.
12. The
Thevariation
variationof
ofdifferent
different parts’
parts’ temperature
temperature and
and relative
relative humidity.
humidity.
20
Figure 13 shows the change of lemon slice moisture content. The moisture content of lemon slices
was reduced from initial moisture content (w.b) of 83.6 g g−1 to 10.3 g g−1 during the drying time of
30
27 h. The change trend of drying lemon slices was similar to that of other drying products such as red
pepper [47], thymus and mint [21], and rubber sheet [18].
Figure 14 represents
25 the change of drying chamber air temperature and thermal
0 efficiency. The air
temperature of the drying chamber varied from 29.2 C to 60.4 C with an average of 48.97 ◦ C. The
◦ ◦
8:30

13:10

18:00

13:10

18:00

13:10

18:00

maximum air temperature of the drying chamber can be controlled under 60 ◦ C. It was shown that the
operation of the system can effectively avoidTime (h)
the influence of high temperature on the quality of dry

Figure 12. The variation of different parts’ temperature and relative humidity.
 h. The change trend of drying lemon slices was similar to that of other drying products such as red
pepper [47], thymus and mint [21], and rubber sheet [18].

Energies
Energies2020,
2020,13,
13,x 350
FOR PEER REVIEW 16 16
of of
2323

Figure 13 shows the change of lemon slice moisture content. The moisture content of lemon slices
was reducedDimitrios
products. andmoisture
from initial Joachimcontent
[48] demonstrated
(w.b) of 83.6that
g g−1excessive
to 10.3 g drying temperature
g−1 during the dryingcan
timeresult
of 27in
h. The change trend of drying lemon slices was similar to that of other drying products such as redof
deteriorating the drying product’s color. Meanwhile, the thermal efficiency of collector was in range
2% to 69.52%
pepper with an
[47], thymus andaverage of 44.6%.
mint [21], and rubber sheet [18].

Figure 13. The variation of lemon slice moisture content.

Figure 14 represents the change of drying chamber air temperature and thermal efficiency. The
air temperature of the drying chamber varied from 29.2 °C to 60.4 °C with an average of 48.97 °C. The
maximum air temperature of the drying chamber can be controlled under 60 °C. It was shown that
the operation of the system can effectively avoid the influence of high temperature on the quality of
dry products. Dimitrios and Joachim [48] demonstrated that excessive drying temperature can result
in deteriorating the drying product’s color. Meanwhile, the thermal efficiency of collector was in
Figure
range of 2% to 69.52% with an13.
Figure 13.The
The
average variation
variationofoflemon
of 44.6%. lemonslice
slicemoisture
moisturecontent.
content.

Figure 14 represents the change of drying chamber air temperature and thermal efficiency. The
air temperature of the drying chamber varied from 29.2 °C to 60.4 °C with an average of 48.97 °C. The
maximum air temperature of the drying chamber can be controlled under 60 °C. It was shown that
the operation of the system can effectively avoid the influence of high temperature on the quality of
dry products. Dimitrios and Joachim [48] demonstrated that excessive drying temperature can result
in deteriorating the drying product’s color. Meanwhile, the thermal efficiency of collector was in
range of 2% to 69.52% with an average of 44.6%.

Figure
Figure 14.
14. The
Thechange
changeof
ofdrying
drying chamber
chamber air
air temperature
temperature and
and thermal
thermal efficiency.
efficiency.

Figure 15 exhibits the variation of exergy flow, loss and efficiency. The exergy flow of the drying
cabinet inlet and outlet ranged from 6.46 W to 359.34 W and 0.68 W to 149.42 W, respectively, and the
change trend of exergy inflow and outflow was to increase first and then decrease. The maximum
value of exergy inflow and outflow occurred at 11:10, 11:20, respectively. Furthermore, the exergy loss
and efficiency varied from 3.42 W to 239.35 W and 39.38% to 71.7%, respectively, in the drying cabinet.
The maximum exergy efficiency appeared in the end of each drying day. Boulemtafes-Boukadoum
Figure 14. The change of drying chamber air temperature and thermal efficiency.
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 23
Figure 15 exhibits the variation of exergy flow, loss and efficiency. The exergy flow of the drying
Figure
cabinet inlet15
and exhibits
outlet the variation
ranged from of exergy
6.46 W to flow,
359.34loss and 0.68
W and efficiency. The exergy
W to 149.42 flow of theand
W, respectively, drying
the
cabinet inlet
change trendand outlet ranged
of exergy inflow from 6.46 W towas
and outflow 359.34 W and 0.68
to increase firstWand
to 149.42 W, respectively,
then decrease. and the
The maximum
change
Energiesof
value trend
2020, 13, of
exergy exergy and
350inflow inflow and outflow
outflow occurredwas to increase
at 11:10, 11:20,first and then Furthermore,
respectively. decrease. The the
maximum
17 of 23
exergy
valueand
loss of efficiency
exergy inflowvariedand outflow
from 3.42 W occurred at W
to 239.35 11:10,
and 11:20,
39.38% respectively. Furthermore,
to 71.7%, respectively, the drying
in the exergy
loss and efficiency varied from 3.42 W to 239.35 W and 39.38% to 71.7%, respectively,
cabinet. The maximum exergy efficiency appeared in the end of each drying day. Boulemtafes- in the drying
et al. [49], Sami et al. [50] and Kesavan et al. [51] found a similar research result for drying chamber
cabinet. The et
Boukadoum maximum exergy
al. [49], Sami efficiency
et al. [50] andappeared
Kesavanin et the end found
al. [51] of each drying research
a similar day. Boulemtafes-
result for
exergy analysis.
Boukadoum
drying chamber et al. [49], analysis.
exergy Sami et al. [50] and Kesavan et al. [51] found a similar research result for
drying chamber exergy analysis.

Figure 15. The variation of exergy flow, loss and efficiency.

Figure 15. The variation of exergy flow, loss and efficiency.
Figure 15. The variation of exergy flow, loss and efficiency.
Figure
Figure 16 16represents
representsthethe variation
variation of improvement
of improvement potentialpotential
(IP) and (IP) and theoretical
theoretical thermal
thermal efficiency
Figure
efficiency 16
of the represents
dryingThe the
cabinet. variation
The improvementof improvement
potential potential
rangecabinet (IP)
of drying and
cabinettheoretical
wasW from thermal
0.65 W
of the drying cabinet. improvement potential range of drying was from 0.65 to 85.56 W.
efficiency
to of the drying cabinet. The improvement potential range of drying cabinet was from 0.65 W
The change trend of improvement potential is to increase first and then decrease at each dryingeach
85.56 W. The change trend of improvement potential is to increase first and then decrease at day.
to 85.56day.
drying W. The change
Thissimilar
result wastrend of improvement
similar to thatet ofal.potential
Fudholi is to
et al. increase
[23]. first and then
The theoretical decrease
thermal at each
efficiency of
This result was to that of Fudholi [23]. The theoretical thermal efficiency of the drying
drying
the day.
dryingvaried This
chamberresult was
varied similar to that of Fudholi et al. [23]. The theoretical thermal efficiency of
chamber from 4.5%from
to 78% 4.5%
withto 78% with anof
an average average
36.47%. of It
36.47%.
can beItconcluded
can be concluded
that thethat the
drying
the drying
drying chamber varied from 4.5% to 78% with an average of 36.47%. It can be concluded that the
chamberchamber can be improved
can be improved by addingmeasures
by adding insulation insulation measures
[22,52]. [22,52]. Theparameters
The performance performance for
drying chamber
parameters for can lemon
drying be improved
slices are by adding insulation
summarized in Table measures
6. The [22,52].
specific energy The performance
consumption of
drying lemon slices are summarized in Table 6. The specific energy consumption of hybrid solar dryer
parameters
hybrid for drying
solar dryer lemon
is 4.05was slices
kW·h/kg, are
which summarized
was in Table 6. The specific energy consumption of
is 4.05 kW·h/kg, which lower than that oflower than
Fudholi et that of Fudholi
al. [53] et al. [53]
(5.26 kW·h/kg for(5.26 kW·h/kg
red chili), for
Rabha
hybrid
red solar dryeretisal.
4.05
[22]kW·h/kg, which was for lower than that of Fudholi et kW·h/kg
al. [53] (5.26
for kW·h/kg for
et al.chili), Rabha
[22] (18.72 kW·h/kg (18.72
for ghostkW·h/kg
chilli pepper ghost
andchilli
8.82 pepper
kW·h/kgand for8.82
ginger) and was ginger) and
higher than
red
was chili), Rabha et al. [22] (18.72 kW·h/kg for ghost chilli pepper and 8.82 kW·h/kg for ginger) and
that higher thanetthat
of Fudholi of Fudholi
al. [23] et al. [23]
(2.62 kW·h/kg for (2.62 kW·h/kg for
red seaweed). It canredbeseaweed).
concluded It that
can the
be concluded that
specific energy
wasspecific
the higher energy
than that of Fudholi et
consumption of al.
a [23] (2.62
drying kW·h/kg
system is for redbased
different seaweed).
on It can be
different concluded
drying products.that
consumption of a drying system is different based on different drying products.
the specific energy consumption of a drying system is different based on different drying products.

Figure 16. The variation of improvement potential and theoretical thermal efficiency.
Figure
Figure 16.
16. The
Thevariation
variationof
ofimprovement
improvementpotential
potentialand
and theoretical
theoretical thermal
thermal efficiency.
efficiency.
Energies 2020, 13, 350 18 of 23

Table 6. Performance parameters of hybrid solar dryer for drying lemon slices.

Performance Parameters Value Unit

Initial mass (lemon slices) 4.12 kg
Final mass (lemon slices) 0.55 kg
Total drying time 27 h
Specific energy consumption 4.05 kW·h/kg
Initial moisture content (w.b) 83.6 %
Electrical consumption of fan 2.28 kW·h
Electrical consumption of pump 0.75 kW·h
Final moisture content (w.b) 10.3 %
Thermal efficiency of collector 2~69.52 %
Thermal efficiency of hybrid solar dryer 9.5 %
Exergy inflow of hybrid solar dryer 6.46~359.34 W
Exergy outflow of hybrid solar dryer 0.68~149.42 W
Exergy efficiency of hybrid solar dryer 39.38~71.7 %

4.3. Economic and Environment Analysis

The set of experiments data for analyzing economic and environment of hybrid solar dryer were
carried out on 1–3 June 2018. The economic analyses were carried out based on the current hybrid
solar dryer and china economic situation. The economic analysis results of the hybrid solar dryer are
listed in Table 7. The capital cost of the hybrid solar dryer is 5700 RMB. The drying capacity of the
hybrid solar dryer is 5 kg for lemon slices. The hybrid solar dryer can be used for 4 months according
to the local climate parameters. It can be concluded that the payback period was 3.63 years compared
to the lifetime of the hybrid solar dryer (5 years).

Table 7. The economic analysis results of the hybrid solar dryer.

Parameters Value Unit

Material cost (collector, fan, pipe etc.) 3500 RMB
Construction cost 2200 RMB
Maintenance cost 57 RMB
Electricity price 0.8 RMB/kW·h
Fresh lemon price 22.9 RMB/kg
Dried lemon price 169 RMB/kg
Lifetime 5 Year
Interest rate 5.63 %
Inflation rate 2.5 %
Pay-back period 3.63 Year
Annual cost calculation 1177 RMB
Cost per unit of drying materials 5.89 RMB/kg

The environmental analyses of the hybrid solar dryer were conducted based on a batch of dried
lemon products. By using Equation (36), the CO2 reduction per batch based on results of this experiment
was 21.79 kg/batch. The revenue of CO2 abatement per batch was 1.61 RMB/batch by using Equations
(37) and (38). The results show that the system has good economic and environmental benefits.

4.4. Analysis of Hybrid Solar Dryer Operation Mode

The set of experimental data for studying hybrid solar dryer operation mode was gathered on
7 and 8 June 2018. Due to the fact that high drying temperature will affect the quality of the drying
sample [54], the working principle of hybrid solar dryer operation mode is to control the air temperature
inside chamber at less than 60 ◦ C. According to Figure 6, the maximum drying air temperature is
60.2 ◦ C in the cabinet, which meets the demand of the hybrid solar dryer operation working principle.
The variation of DF-FPSC air and water outlet temperature is shown in Figure 17. It can be found
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 23

Energies 2020, 13, 350 19 of 23

temperature is 60.2 °C in the cabinet, which meets the demand of the hybrid solar dryer operation
working principle. The variation of DF-FPSC air and water outlet temperature is shown in Figure 17.
It can
that thebeairfound that theof
temperature airthe
temperature of the
collector outlet collectorinstantly
decreases outlet decreases
while theinstantly while the water
water temperature rises.
temperature
The rises.of
start-up time The
thestart-up time of
water pump wasthe12:51,
water12:19,
pumprespectively,
was 12:51, 12:19,
for tworespectively,
days. This forwastwo days.
because
Thisdry
the was because
cabinet the dry cabinet
air temperature was air
highertemperature was higher
than the suitable productthandrying
the suitable product
temperature. drying
There are
temperature. There are two operation modes (only air cycle and air and water
two operation modes (only air cycle and air and water simultaneous cycle) in the process of DF-FPSC simultaneous cycle) in
the processAccording
operation. of DF-FPSC operation.(18)
to Equations According
and (19), tothe
Equations
average(18)solarand (19), the
collector averageunder
efficiency solar different
collector
efficiency under different operation mode was 42.9% (only air), 47.4% (air and
operation mode was 42.9% (only air), 47.4% (air and water simultaneous cycle) with the air flow rate ofwater simultaneous
cycle) m
28.125 with
3 /h the
andair
theflow
waterrate of 28.125
flow rate of m
3/h and
1.125 m3 /hthe
onwater flow
the first day;rate
theofaverage
1.125 msolar
3/h on the first day; the
collector efficiency
average solar collector efficiency under different operation mode was
under different operation mode was 39.2% (only air), 41.4% (air and water simultaneous 39.2% (only air), 41.4% (airwith
cycle) and
water simultaneous cycle) with the air flow rate of 28.125 m 3/h 3and water flow rate of 1.125 m3/h on
the air flow rate of 28.125 m /h and water flow rate of 1.125 m /h on the second day. Based on the
3
the second
analysis of theday. Based
above on the analysis
experimental results,ofthe
theexperimental
above experimental
results showresults, the experimental
the feasibility results
and validity of
show the feasibility and
the proposed hybrid solar dryer.validity of the proposed hybrid solar dryer.

Figure 17. The variation of DF-FPSC air and water outlet temperature.
Figure 17. The variation of DF-FPSC air and water outlet temperature.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
A new hybrid solar dryer with DF-FPSC was designed and constructed in this study; and drying
A new hybrid
experiments solarslices
for lemon dryer(initial
with DF-FPSC
moisturewas designed
content 82.8%and on constructed
a wet basis)in this carried
were study; and
out drying
under
experiments
hybrid for lemon
solar dryer and OSD slices (initial moisture
conditions. The dryingcontent 82.8% on aand
characteristics wetoperational
basis) wereperformance
carried out under
of the
hybrid solar
hybrid solardryer
dryerfor
and OSD lemon
drying conditions.
slicesThe
havedrying characteristics
been analyzed. From and operational
the above studies,performance
the following of
the hybrid solar dryer
conclusions have been reached: for drying lemon slices have been analyzed. From the above studies, the
following conclusions have been reached:
• Under the same drying time condition, the drying capacity of the hybrid solar dryer is better than
 OSD.UnderMeanwhile,
the same dryingit was time
found condition, the drying
that the Two term model capacity
andof the hybrid
Wang solarmodel
and Singh dryerwere
is better
the
than OSD. Meanwhile, it was found that the Two term model and Wang and
best suitable models to describe the lemon slices drying characteristics for hybrid solar dryer. The Singh model were
the best
Two termsuitable
model models
was only tothe
describe the lemon
best model slices drying characteristics for hybrid solar dryer.
for OSD.
• The efficiency
The Two term rangemodelofwas only thewas
DF-FPSC bestfrom
model2%for OSD. with an average of 44.6%. The exergy
to 69.52%
 flowThe efficiency range of DF-FPSC was from
of the drying cabinet inlet and outlet ranged from 2% to 69.52% 6.46with an359.34
W to average
W of
and44.6%.
0.68 WThe
to exergy
149.42
flow of the drying cabinet inlet and outlet ranged from 6.46 W
W, respectively. The exergy efficiency range of the drying cabinet was from 39.38% to to 359.34 W and 0.68 W to 71.7%,
149.42
W, respectively.
respectively. The exergy efficiency
The improvement potentialrange
rangeof of the
the drying cabinet was
drying cabinet was from
from0.65
39.38%
W toto85.56
71.7%,
W.
respectively. The improvement potential range of the drying
It can be concluded that the outlet of the drying chamber lost considerable energy. cabinet was from 0.65 W to 85.56
• ItW.was
It can be concluded
found that theperiod
that the pay-back outlet was
of the drying
3.63 years.chamber
The COlost considerable energy.
2 reduction per batch based on the
 results
It was found that the pay-back period was 3.63 years. The CO 2 reduction per batch based on the
of this experiment was 21.79 kg/batch. The revenue of CO2 abatement per batch was 1.61
results of this
RMB/batch. Theexperiment
system has was 21.79
good kg/batch.
economic andThe revenue of CO
environmental 2 abatement per batch was 1.61
benefits.
RMB/batch. The system has good economic and environmental benefits.
• During the period of hybrid solar dryer operation, the maximum drying air temperature can be
 During the period of hybrid solar dryer operation, the maximum drying air temperature can be
controlled under 60.2 ◦ C in the cabinet. The start-up time of the water pump was 12:51, 12:19,
controlled under 60.2 °C in the cabinet. The start-up time of the water pump was 12:51, 12:19,
respectively, for two days. This was because the dry cabinet air temperature was higher than the
Energies 2020, 13, 350 20 of 23

suitable product drying temperature. The experimental results showed the feasibility and validity
of the proposed hybrid solar dryer with DF-FPSC.

Author Contributions: W.H. developed systematic idea and wrote manuscript; S.L. and B.M. did experimental
test; Y.L. reviewed the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51476093).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
Nomenclature
Wd Final mass of products (g)
Md,0 Initial moisture content on dry basis (g g−1 )
w Uncertainty
IP Improvement potential (W)
M Moisture content (g g−1 )
i Year
Wt Evaporate quantity of water at t time (g)
Me Equilibrium moisture content (g g−1 )
MR Moisture ratio
R2 Regression coefficient
Ex Exergy (W)
SEC Specify energy consumption (kW·h/kg)
DR Drying rate of products (g g−1 s−1 )
Ct Capital cost (RMB)
RMSE Root mean square error
a,b,k,n,k0 ,k1 Constant used in models
m Mass flow (m3 /h)
Qu Useful energy (J)
I(t) Solar radiation intensity (W/m2 )
Ac Collector area (m2 )
Mw,0 Initial moisture content on wet basis (g g−1 )
Cm Material cost (RMB)
Cc Construction cost (RMB)
Ca Annual cost (RMB)
t Time (s)
PBP Payback period (year)
P Cost per unit of drying materials (RMB/kg)
R CO2 reductions (kg CO2 )
EM CO2 emission (kg CO2 )
CP International carbon price (RMB/ton)
Y Renue of CO2 abatement (RMB)
Cp Specific heat capacity (kJ/(kg ◦ C))
T Temperature (◦ C)
Greek symbols
δ Saving-time percentage of drying
ψco2 Average CO2 equivalent intensity for electricity generation from coal (kg CO2 /kW·h)
α Absorptivity
τ Transmissivity
φ Relative humidity (%)
η Thermal efficiency of collector
Energies 2020, 13, 350 21 of 23

Subscripts and abbreviations

0 Initial time
a Air
mp Moisture of product
exp Experimental
pre Predicted
sat Saturated
w Water
i Number
ou Outlet
in Inlet
ev Evaporate
th Theoretical thermal efficiency
dc Drying chamber
ref Reference value
c Collector
f Final time

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