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Provenance of middle to late Palaeozoic

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ISSN: 0020-6814 (Print) 1938-2839 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tigr20

Provenance of middle to late Palaeozoic

sediments in the northeastern Colombian Andes:
implications for Pangea reconstruction

A. Cardona, V.A. Valencia, A. Lotero, Y. Villafañez & G. Bayona

To cite this article: A. Cardona, V.A. Valencia, A. Lotero, Y. Villafañez & G. Bayona (2016):
Provenance of middle to late Palaeozoic sediments in the northeastern Colombian
Andes: implications for Pangea reconstruction, International Geology Review, DOI:
10.1080/00206814.2016.1190948

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 INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW, 2016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2016.1190948

Provenance of middle to late Palaeozoic sediments in the northeastern

Colombian Andes: implications for Pangea reconstruction
A. Cardonaa, V.A. Valenciab, A. Loteroc, Y. Villafañezd and G. Bayonad
a
Departamento de Procesos y Energía, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellín, Colombia; bSchool of Environment, Washington State
University, Pullman, USA; cDepartamento de Geociéncias y Medio Ambiente, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellín, Colombia;
d
Corporación Geológica Ares, Bogotá, Colombia

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Global-scale Palaeozoic plate tectonic reconstructions have suggested that Laurentia was obliquely Received 20 February 2016
approaching against the northwestern margin of Gondwana until the final agglutination of Pangea. In Accepted 14 May 2016
this contribution integrated petrographic analysis, heavy mineral analysis, and tourmaline geochemistry KEYWORDS
were done, and U–Pb detrital zircon geochronology was obtained, in late Palaeozoic sedimentary and provenance; Palaeozoic;
meta-sedimentary units from the Floresta and Santander Massifs in the Eastern Colombian Andes in U–Pb LA-ICP-MS
order to constrain their provenance and related it with the magmatic, sedimentary, and deformational geochronology; Pangea;
record of the Gondwana–Laurentia convergence until the late Carboniferous to Permian formation of Northern Andes
Downloaded by [Agustin Cardona] at 07:48 06 June 2016

Pangea. Late Devonian to early Carboniferous sandstones from the Floresta Massif changed from
sublithoarenites to lithoarenites, tracking the progressive uplift and unroofing of sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks, with associated volcanic activity. The U–Pb detrital zircon geochronology from
the sedimentary and metasedimentary of Floresta and Santander documents Mesoproterozoic and
Palaeoproterozoic sources, and younger Ordovician to Silurian age populations, that can be related to
the early to middle Palaeozoic plutonic rocks and the Amazon Craton. The limited Silurian to Early
Devonian detrital ages that contrast with the more significant Middle to Late Devonian zircons that
document the erosion of contemporaneous magmatic sources formed after a late Silurian to Early
Devonian reduction on the magmatic activity along the proto-Andean margin. These rocks were
apparently deformed and metamorphosed between the late Carboniferous and the early Permian. It
is suggested that the filling and deformation record of these rocks documented the changes in plate
convergence obliquity at the western margin of Gondwana associated with the migration of Laurentia
until its final position in Pangea. Between the late Carboniferous and the early Permian, peri-
Gondwanan continental terranes also collided with the continental margin. Over-imposed Mesozoic
tectonics have contributed to the final redistribution of these terranes to their current position.
Abbreviations:LA: laser ablation inductively couple mass spectrometer; CL: cathodoluminiscence

Introduction South America and Africa to form Pangea (Cawood 2005;

Nance et al. 2010; Torsvik and Cocks 2013). Farther south
Palaeozoic plate tectonic reconstructions of the north-
along the proto-Andean margin of Peru, convergence was
ern segment of the proto-Andean margin have sug-
still active and also punctuated by terrane-related accre-
gested the existence of an extensive proto-Andean
tionary events and/or the continuous subduction of the
Ordovician to Silurian magmatic continental arc linked
Pacific plate (Chew et al. 2008a; Cardona et al. 2009;
to the subduction of the Pacific plate under the South
Mišković et al. 2009; Ramos 2009; Romero et al. 2013).
American margin, that was interrupted by several ter-
Within the eastern segment of the Colombian Andes
rane-related collisional events and/or the switch of the
outcrop several discontinuous greenschist to amphibo-
subduction conditions from extension to compression
lite facies metamorphic units intruded by Ordovician to
(Ramos and Aleman 2000; Cawood 2005; Chew et al.
Silurian magmatic rocks, as well as Devonian to
2007; Cardona et al. 2009; Ramos 2009; Mantilla et al.
Carboniferous sedimentary sequences that locally over-
2012; Van der Lelij et al. 2016).
lie the crystalline rocks (Horton et al. 2010; Restrepo-
Between the Devonian and the Carboniferous,
Pace and Cediel 2010; Mantilla et al. 2012, 2013; Van der
Laurentia, which was dextrally moving with respect to
Lelij et al. 2016; Figure 1).
Gondwana, began its final collision with northeastern

CONTACT Agustin Cardona agcardonamo@unal.edu.co Departamento de Procesos y Energía, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellín, Colombia
Supplemental data for this article can be accessed here.
© 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
 2 A. CARDONA ET AL.
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Figure 1. a. Map of Paleozoic units from the Andes of Colombia and Peru (Modified from Ramos, 2009). b. Tectonostratigraphic
terranes from the Colombian Andes including Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks (Modified from Restrepo and Toussaint, 1988).
Their early to middle Palaeozoic magmatic and meta-
morphic record has been related to the aforementioned
convergent margin evolution (Ordoñez-Carmona et al.,
2006; Restrepo-Pace and Cediel 2010; Mantilla et al. 2012;
Van der Lelij et al. 2016). Whereas palaeontological consid-
erations of the Devonian and Carboniferous sequences
have suggested the existence of the proximity between
Gondwana and Laurentia at least in the Late Devonian
(Forero-Suarez 1990; Janvier and Villarroel 1998, 2000;
Berry et al. 2000; Young and Moody 2002; Burrow et al.
2003; Moreno-Sanchez 2004).
In spite of these major palaeogeographic considera-
tions, the palaeotectonic setting of the Devonian to
Carboniferous basins and the deformational record
within the framework of the late Palaeozoic proto-
Andean evolution and the agglutination of Pangea with
associated terrane accretionary events are still controver-
sial (Ordóñez-Carmona et al. 2006; Vinasco et al. 2006;
Ramos 2009; Horton et al. 2010; Nance et al. 2010;
Restrepo et al. 2011; Torsvik and Cocks 2013; Martens
et al. 2014). Moreover, precise constraints on protolith
ages and metamorphism of the Palaeozoic metamorphic
rocks from eastern Colombia are not fully resolved and
are commonly considered to be early Palaeozoic in age
(Restrepo-Pace and Cediel 2010; Mantilla et al. 2012; Van
der Lelij et al. 2016).
In this contribution we present new U–Pb LA-ICP-MS
geochronology from Palaeozoic metasedimentary rocks of
the Santander Massif, together with sandstone petrogra-
phy, heavy mineral analysis, tourmaline geochemistry, and
U–Pb detrital zircon geochronology from the Late
Devonian to Carboniferous siliciclastic rocks exposed in
the Floresta Massif, both within the Eastern Cordillera of
the Colombian Andes (Figure 1). These results have been
integrated to refine the timing and character of early to
middle Palaeozoic magmatism (Horton et al. 2010;
Restrepo-Pace and Cediel 2010; Mantilla et al. 2012; Van
der Lelij et al. 2016), and to evaluate the provenance and
palaeotectonic implications of the Devonian–Carboniferous
record within the tectonic evolution of the proto-Andean
margin.
The new provenance results from Palaeozoic sedimen-
tary and meta-sedimentary rocks from the Eastern
Colombian Andes document the transition from an
Ordovician–Early Devonian magmatic dominated margin
towards a margin characterized by more limited mag-
matic activity, the formation of several Devonian to
Carboniferous sedimentary basins, and the deformation

of the basins between 300 and 250 Ma as a consequence
of major changes in plate convergence relations as
Laurentia approaches and collides against Gondwana to
form Pangea.
Geological setting
The Santander and Floresta Massifs are part of the
northern segment of the Eastern Cordillera of the
Colombian Andes, and together with the Upper and
the Lower Magdalena Valley, and the eastern flank of
the Central Cordillera have been included in the
Chibcha Terrane (Figure 1; Restrepo and Toussaint
1988). The Llanos and Amazon basins are separated
from the Chibcha Terrane and the Eastern Cordillera
by the Guaicaramo Fault system, which is currently an
active fault with thrust and strike slip components
(Restrepo y Toussaint, 1988; Veloza et al. 2013). Some
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authors considered that this terrane was accreted near
its actual position in the middle to late Palaeozoic
(Forero-Suarez 1990; Toussaint 1993), whereas palaeo-
magnetic data from younger Jurassic rocks have sug-
gested that during the middle and late Mesozoic there
have been significant latitudinal south to north trans-
fers of continental slivers, that placed parts of this
terrane near Peruvian and Ecuadorian latitudes
(Bayona et al. 2006; 2010).
To the west, the Central Cordillera includes Ordovician,
Permian, and Triassic magmatic and metamorphic rocks
grouped in a series of continental terranes whose accre-
tionary history is still highly debatable (Restrepo and
Toussaint 1988; Ordóñez-Carmona et al. 2006; Vinasco
et al. 2006; Martens et al. 2014), together with a series of
accreted Mesozoic oceanic terranes formed in the Pacific
that also extends to the Western Cordillera and the Pacific
region (Kerr et al. 1997; Villagómez et al. 2011, Figure 1).
The geological record of the Eastern Cordillera
includes Palaeozoic metamorphic, igneous, and sedimen-
tary rocks covered by extensive Mesozoic and Cenozoic
rocks that record the transition from marine to continen-
tal environments (Etayo-Serna et al. 1983; Cooper et al.
1995; Moreno-Sanchez 2004; Gómez et al. 2005a,2005b;
Santos et al. 2008; Horton et al. 2010). The changes from
Mesozoic extension to Cenozoic compression in the
Andean orogeny (Colleta et al. 1990; Dengo and Covey
1993; Cooper et al. 1995; Bayona et al. 2008; Parra et al.
2009; Mora et al. 2010) include several Palaeogene to
Neogene orogenic phases that caused the diachronous
uplift of different segments of the Colombian Andes
(Mora et al. 2008a; Bayona et al. 2008; 2012; Parra et al.
2009; Nie et al. 2010; Saylor et al. 2012).
The Santander and Floresta Massifs (Figure 1) are
related to a series of Palaeogene to Neogene reverse
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 3
faults that reactivated the Mesozoic extensional struc-
tures in the northern segment of the Eastern Cordillera
(Mojica and Villarroel 1984; Cooper et al. 1995; Kammer
and Sanchez 2006; Mora et al. 2010; Saylor et al. 2012).
The Santander Massif (Figure 2) records a transpres-
sional deformational style and is separated from the
Floresta Massif and the Eastern Cordillera by the dex-
tral Santa Marta–Bucaramanga Fault (Jimenez et al.
2015). Pre-Mesozoic rocks within this massif include
amphibolite facies rocks of possible Grenvillian age
(Ward et al. 1974; Restrepo-Pace et al. 1997; Cordani
et al. 2005), and a well-defined Ordovician to Silurian
plutonic belt (Ward et al. 1974; Restrepo-Pace and
Cediel 2010, Mantilla et al. 2012, 2013; Van der Lelij
et al. 2016). Metasedimentary rocks include greenschist
to amphibolite facies rocks of the Silgará Formation
that can be divided into at least three different groups.
(1) Micaceous schists that are tightly associated with
early Palaeozoic granitoids may include cordierite or
andalusite and sillimanite (Trumpy 1943; Radelli 1967;
Forero 1970a, 1970b). (2) Pelitic to semi-pelitic and
calcareous schists with middle pressure Barrovian
metamorphism (Ríos et al. 2003; Castellanos et al.
2004, 2008). (3) Very low grade metamorphic rocks
that were initially related to Silurian or Devonian pro-
toliths and referred to as the metamorphosed Floresta
Formation (Ward et al. 1974; Forero-Suarez 1990).
However, more calcareous lithofacies and their fossil
content were re-interpreted in terms of Carboniferous
age (Moreno-Sanchez et al. 2007).
Less deformed Late Devonian to Carboniferous sedi-
mentary units have also been recognized in the
Santander Massif. They are predominantly siliciclastic
with minor calcareous beds that overlie the igneous
and metamorphic basement considered to be early
Palaeozoic in age (Trumpy 1943; Radelli 1967; Forero
1970a, 1970b; Moreno-Sanchez 2004).
The Floresta Massif is a NNE–SSW elongated massif.
Major limits of the massif include the Soapaga Fault,
which separates the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks of
the Floresta Massif from Cenozoic sedimentary rocks
(Figure 3, Kimberley 1980; Bayona et al. 2008; Santos
et al. 2008; Saylor et al. 2012), and the Boyacá Fault,
which juxtaposes Jurassic red beds against the
Cretaceous sedimentary sequences (Mojica and
Villarroel 1984; Kammer and Sanchez 2006).
The Floresta Massif includes an Ordovician igneous
and metamorphic basement covered unconformably by
Devonian to Carboniferous sedimentary rocks (Botero
1950; Cediel 1969; Mojica and Villarroel 1984; Horton
et al. 2010).
Palaeomagnetic results have suggested that during
the Jurassic, the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks from
 4 A. CARDONA ET AL.
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Figure 2. Geological map of the Santander Massif (modified from Ward et al., 1974).
the Floresta Massif were located at southern latitudes,
probably between northern Ecuador and Southern
Colombia (Bayona et al. 2006).
Middle to late Palaeozoic stratigraphy of the
Floresta and Santander Massifs
Ordovician fossiliferous sedimentary rocks have been
found at the eastern flank of the Central Cordillera and
the Upper Magdalena Valley of Colombia, and are
included in the aforementioned Chibcha Terrane
(Toussaint 1993, Figure 1). However, their relation to
other Palaeozoic metamorphic and plutonic rocks are
not well defined, as they are characterized by predomi-
nantly faulted relations. U–Pb geochronological con-
straints from plutonic rocks in the Santander, Floresta,
and Quetame Massifs from the Eastern Cordillera have
shown that Ordovician to Silurian magmatism is widely
distributed, and record an apparent decrease in magmatic
activity at ca. 415 Ma (Horton et al. 2010; Restrepo-Pace
and Cediel 2010; Mantilla et al. 2012, 2013; Van der Lelij
et al. 2016).

Middle to late Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks are also
discontinuously exposed at the Eastern Andes of
Colombia (Figure 1) and include predominantly conti-
nental to transitional siliciclastic sequences (Toussaint
1993; Moreno-Sanchez 2004; Horton et al. 2010).
Middle Palaeozoic rocks of the Floresta Massif
include a Devonian siliciclastic sequence divided in the
El Tibet, Floresta, and Cuche Formations (Cediel 1969;
Mojica and Villarroel 1984; Moreno-Sanchez 2004;
Figure 3). The lower El Tibet Formation rests over ca.
482 Ma granitoids and associated cordierite and anda-
lusite micaceous schists that were thermally metamor-
phosed during the intrusion of the Ordovician
granitoids (Jimenez 2000; Horton et al. 2010). This unit
has a stratigraphic thickness from 30 to 700 m and
includes a lower segment of claystones and muddy
sandstones that grade to pebbly conglomerates and
sandstones.
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The presence of miaspores and stratigraphic charac-
teristics suggest an Emsian accumulation age and a
transgressive fluvial environment (Mojica and Villarroel
1984; Janvier and Villarroel 2000; Moreno-Sanchez
2004).
This unit is conformably covered by the Floresta
Formation, which includes 400–800 m of grey mud-
stones and black shales that grade towards the top to
quartz-rich lithic sandstones with interbedded muddy
sandstones (Moreno-Sanchez 2004). Fossil abundance is
remarkably high and includes brachiopods, corals, trilo-
bites, and fishes of Middle Devonian age (Caster 1939;
Royo and Gomez 1942; Morales 1965; Janvier and
Villarroel 1998). Environmental interpretations suggest
a depositional environment that evolved from relatively
Figure 3. Geological map of the Floresta Massif (modified from Ulloa et al. 1998).
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 5
deep marine conditions to a deltaic front (Moreno-
Sanchez 2004).
The top of the Palaeozoic sequence includes the
Cuche Formation with ca. 800 m of intercalated micac-
eous mudstones, sandy mudstones, and amalgamated
sandstones (Cediel 1969; Mojica and Villarroel 1984;
Moreno-Sanchez 2004). The Cuche Formation is charac-
terized by abundant flora remnants that suggest a Late
Devonian Frasnian to Famenian deposition within a
delta plain environment (Berry et al. 2000; Janvier and
Villarroel 2000; Burrow et al. 2003; Moreno-Sanchez
2004).
This Devonian sequence is discordantly covered by
middle Mesozoic red beds and conglomerates from the
Girón Formation (Cediel 1969).
Palaeontological studies including invertebrates,
vertebrates, and plants have suggested a close affi-
nity to the middle Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks from
the Floresta Massif with North American provinces,
although there are some endemic Gondwanan ele-
ments that suggest some kind of connection between
these two regions (Forero-Suarez 1990; Janvier and
Villarroel 1998, 2000; Berry et al. 2000; Moreno-
Sanchez 2004).
In the Santander Massif (Figure 2) a series of sand-
stones and mudstones of Devonian to Carboniferous
ages (Hubach in Trumpy 1943; Stibane and Forero
1969; Boinet et al. 1986; Royero 2001) have been corre-
lated with the Floresta and Cuche Formations from the
Floresta Massif as well as other siliciclastic units farther
north in the Perija Range.
These units overlie micaceous schists with cordier-
ite and granitoids assigned to the Silgará Formation
 6 A. CARDONA ET AL.
(Hubach and Trumpy 1943; Royero 2001), which also
resemble the Busbanza Schists and Otenga granitoid
intrusive relations found in the Floresta Massif.
Recently Moreno-Sanchez et al. (2007) have sug-
gested that some of the deformed low-grade meta-
morphic rocks with associated carbonaceous rocks of
the Santander Massif formerly considered to be
Silurian or Devonian in age and coined as the
Metamorphosed Floresta Formation, were accumu-
lated in the Carboniferous.
Methods
Sandstones petrography and heavy minerals
Modal compositional data of 18 sandstones were obtained
from standard petrographic analysis. Thin sections were
stained for potassium and calcium feldspar and 350 frame-
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work grains were point counted following the Gazzi–
Dickinson method (Dickinson 1985). Petrographic cate-
gories and recalculated modal data are listed in
Supplementary Table 1.
For heavy mineral analysis, sandstone samples were
crushed, sieved, and hydraulically concentrated in the
<400 μm fraction. Subsequently sodium polytungstate
(LST®) was used to obtained the >2.89 g/cc fraction.
Grains were mounted using the Meltmount® resin with
a refraction index of 1.539. Mineral identification of
around 300 translucent grains was carried out following
the ribbon-counting method (Mange and Maurer 1992).
Results are presented in Supplementary Table 2.
Tourmaline geochemistry
Tourmaline is a chemically complex boron-bearing
mineral commonly found as an accessory mineral in
granites, and metamorphic rocks formed over a wide
range of metamorphic grades (Henry and Guidotti
1985). The complex chemical variability of tourmaline
and its relationship with its formation environment
allows this mineral to be considered an effective indica-
tor for sediment provenance analysis (Biernacka 2012).
Between 1 and 13 grains from each of seven sand-
stone samples from the El Tibet Formation (4), Floresta
(1), and Cuche Formation (2) were considered for che-
mical analysis (Supplementary Table 3). The samples
were analysed using a CAMECA SX-50 electron microp-
robe at the Department of Lunar and Planetary Sciences
at the University of Arizona, USA. Analyses were per-
formed with a beam current of 20.0 nA and an accel-
erating voltage of 15 kV. Counting time was 10 s for
sodium and 20 s for the rest of the elements.
Microprobe analytical error varies roughly between
±0.01 and 0.04 wt% (1σ). Analytical results are pre-
sented in the supplementary data.
Data processing was performed using the software
TOURMAL (Yavuz, 1997). This program is designed for
the analysis of tourmaline composition. Recalculated
composition was plotted on the ternary diagrams Ca-
Fe (tot)-Mg and Al-Fe (tot)-Mg that discriminate tourma-
line formed in different rock environments (Henry and
Guidotti 1985).
U–Pb geochronology
Heavy mineral concentrates of the <350 µm fraction
were separated using traditional techniques at
ZirChron LLC. Zircons from the non-magnetic fraction
were handpicked under the microscope and mounted
in a 1-inch diameter epoxy puck and slightly ground
and polished to expose the surface and keep as much
material as possible for laser ablation analyses. After CL
imaging, the LA-ICP-MS U–Pb analyses were conducted
using a New Wave Nd:YAG UV 213 nm laser coupled to
a ThermoFinnigan Element 2 single collector, double-
focusing, magnetic sector ICP-MS. Operating procedures
and parameters are similar to those of Chang et al.
(2006). Laser spot size and repetition rate were 30 µm
and 10 Hz, respectively. U and Th concentrations were
monitored by comparing to NIST 610 trace element
glass. Two zircon standards were used: Plesovice, with
an age of 338 Ma (Slama et al. 2008) and FC-1, with an
age of 1099 Ma (Paces and Miller 1993). Uranium–lead
ages were calculated using Isoplot (Ludwig 2007).
For the detrital samples, probability plots were also
obtained with the ISOPLOT 3.62. Representative age popu-
lations were considered when more than three grains
overlapped in age (Gehrels et al. 2006). This statistical
assumption relies on the fact that individual grains may
sometimes represent lead-loss trajectories. Analytical
results are presented in Supplementary Table 4.
When possible, the youngest detrital zircon age was
determined from the weight average age of at least
three grains at the 1σ level; in other cases we have
considered the youngest available zircon age, which,
although not statistically robust and can be compro-
mised by lead-loss trends (Gehrels et al. 2006;
Dickinson and Gehrels 2009), can be reasonably used
with other biostratigraphic evidences.
Results
Sampling
Samples for provenance analysis from El Tibet, Cuche,
and Floresta Formations were obtained from two

different stratigraphic sections in the Floresta Massif
(Figure 3). We sampled the Potrero Rincón section,
which is widely known for its faunal and floral diversity
(Botero 1950; Mojica and Villarroel 1984; Moreno-
Sanchez 2004). Description of this section can be
found in Botero (1950) and Moreno-Sanchez (2004).
In this section (Figures 3 and 4(a)), the lowest part of
El Tibet Formation is 40 m thick and includes 10 m of
laminated yellowish claystones and muddy sandstones
followed by 30 m of pebble conglomerates and pebbly
sandstones. The Floresta Formation includes 485 m of
fine grain rocks that can be divided into around 120 m
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Figure 4. Stratigraphic columns of the Potrero Rincón and Otenga sections within the Floresta Massif (new data and modified from
Moreno-Sanchez 2004).
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 7
of laminated grey to yellowish fossiliferous mudstones,
followed by 220 m that only adds up to 340 m of
laminated black shales to yellow quartz rich muddy
sandstones.
The Cuche Formation is the uppermost unit, and is
characterized at the base by the appearance of reddish
sediments (Botero 1950; Moreno-Sanchez 2004). The
first 190 m includes micaceous reddish to yellowish
siltstones and muddy sandstones followed by 140 m
of amalgamated quartz-rich sandstones and 430 m of
lithic sandstones and intercalated siltstones and
claystones.
 8 A. CARDONA ET AL.
The other stratigraphic section that was reviewed
and measured is exposed along the road between
Otengá and Floresta (Figures 3 and 4(b)). This section
includes a basal sandy conglomerate of the El Tibet
Formation that disconformably rests over a deformed
K-feldspar biotite granite with hornblende and biotite
pervasively altered to chlorite and epidote. This unit
also includes 100 m of yellowish micaceous sandstones
and is followed by 220 m of grey shales and siltstones of
the Floresta Formation.
Metasedimentary rocks from the Silgará Formation
were sampled near the Pescadero Canyon in the
Santander Massif (Figure 2), where metamorphic rocks
are mainly pelitic to semi-pelitic, with few amphibolites
(Ríos et al. 2003). The metamorphic grade increases
towards the northeast from the biotite to the sillimanite
zone. Other samples were collected in the Motiscua
region (Figure 2), where pelites, semi-pelites, and
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Figure 5. Petrographic characterization of sandstones. A. Sandstone classification after Folk (1974). B. Lithic diagram. C. Provenance
discrimination diagram after Dickinson (1985).
carbonatic protoliths are common, and are character-
ized by greenschist to amphibolite facies metamorphic
conditions (Castellanos et al. 2004; Rios et al. 2008).
Sandstone petrography Floresta Massif
Sample locations from the El Tibet, Floresta, and Cuche
Formations as well as modal percentages are presented
in Figures 3 and 4 and Supplementary Table 1.
Sandstones from the El Tibet Formation are medium to
coarse-grained, with sub-angular to sub-rounded grains,
good sorting, and very low matrix content (<2%). They are
also characterized by concave–convex to sutured grain
contacts, and include silica overgrowth in some quartz
grains as well as ferruginous cement (approximately
<1%). Compositionally the sandstones can be classified
as sub-lithoarenites (Figure 5(a)). Quartz is predominantly
monocrystalline, whereas polycrystalline quartz includes

diffuse, sedimentary, and foliated varieties. Lithics include
micaceous metamorphic fragments and sedimentary frag-
ments such as mudstones and sandstones (Figure 5(b)).
Very low proportions of amphibole, zircon, opaque miner-
als, and muscovite are also common.
The Floresta Formation includes coarse-grained sand-
stones, with rounded to sub-rounded and angular
clasts, very low matrix content (<1%), and good sorting.
They are also characterized by concave–convex to
sutured grain contacts and ferruginous cement (<1%).
Lithics include micaceous metamorphic fragments and
sedimentary fragments such as mudstones. They
include predominantly monocrystalline quartz and dif-
fuse polycrystalline quartz, followed by sedimentary
quartz and foliated polycrystalline quartz. Very low pro-
portions of rutile, amphibole, opaque minerals, and
muscovite are also common. Compositionally the
Floresta Formation sandstones are also classified as
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sub-lithoarenites (Figure 5(a)).
Finally, sandstones from the Cuche Formation are
medium to fine grained, with sub-rounded to sub-angu-
lar grains, clay matrix (<2%) and good sorting. Grain
contacts include tangential, sutured, and longitudinal
relations. Ferruginous cement is also common, but in
low content (ca. <3%). Compositionally the sandstones
can be classified as lithoarenites (Figure 5(a)). Lithics
include micaceous schist fragments, mudstones, and
volcanic clasts (<5%, Figure 5(b)), which are character-
ized by small plagioclase crystals embedded in an apha-
nitic matrix. Quartz is predominantly monocrystalline,
whereas polycrystalline quartz includes diffuse, sedi-
mentary, and foliated types. Very low proportions of
rutile, amphibole, chlorite, apatite, zircon, tourmaline,
opaque minerals, and muscovite are also common, pla-
gioclase and K-feldspars are present in very low con-
tent (<2%).
Up-section compositional changes are well recorded
in the Dickinson (1985) provenance diagram, with the
increase in the lithic proportions recorded by the
change from transitional recycled towards the lithic
recycled between El Tibet in the Cuche Formation
(Figure 5(c)).
Heavy minerals
A total of 15 samples from the El Tibet (5), Floresta (3),
and Cuche Formations (7) were analysed. The strati-
graphic distribution of the samples is presented in the
stratigraphic columns and the geological map (Figures 3
and 4). Results are presented in Supplementary Table 2.
El Tibet Formation is characterized by a high content
of ultra-stable to stable heavy minerals such as zircon
(19–53%), muscovite (11–64%), and apatite (19%). Other
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 9
ultra-stable minerals including rutile and tourmaline are
less abundant (1–6% and 1–10%). Unstable minerals
include epidote (4–9%), chlorite (3%), and tremolite
(<3%) as well as andalusite and amphibole (<2% and
2–3%), which become more common at the top of the
formation (Figure 6).
The Floresta Formation also includes ultra-stable
and stable heavy minerals (Figure 6) such as muscovite
(11–48%), zircon (25–51%), and apatite (6–14%) with
lower contents of tourmaline (7–8%) and rutile (1–3%).
Unstable minerals are still common including epidote
(7–12%), chlorite (3%), and tremolite (<2%).
Within the Cuche Formation, zircon is the most
abundant heavy mineral (21–85%). Other stable and
ultra-stable phases such as muscovite (2–61%), apatite
(2–19%), tourmaline (4–8%), and rutile (<3%) are also
present. Epidote (2–9 %), biotite (<2%), and corundum
(<2%) are common at the middle of the section
(Figure 6).
Tourmaline geochemistry
Previous studies on tourmaline geochemistry have
shown that the chemical composition of tourmalines
does not have a clear relationship with the colour
seen in the microscope (Henry and Dutrow 1992;
Biernacka 2012), therefore we have randomly picked
tourmalines from different sandstone samples of the
three formations.
Tourmalines from the El Tibet Formation are green
to brown with broken or angular and rounded crys-
tals. They are characterized by high Al content
(Figure 7), high Al-Li-Elbaite (77-67%), and low
Schorl-Fe (20-10%) and Dravite-Mg (18% and 8%).
The Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratio varies widely between 0.68 and
0.37. Calcium values are low varying between 0.25%
and 0.03%.
Tourmalines from the Floresta Formation are predo-
minantly angular, with rounded to spherical forms and
mostly green to brown colours. They include high Al
values with Elbaite (78–56%), Dravite (28–1%), and
Schorl (22–3%) (Figure 7). Fe/(Fe+Mg) varies between
0.93 and 0.14. The concentrations of Ca are also
low (0.62%).
Tourmaline grains from the Cuche Formation are
angular and prismatic with rounded edges. Analysed
tourmaline grains present a high Al content (Figure 7)
with Elbaite (74–67%), Schorl (25–10%), and Dravite
(20–0.6%). Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratios vary between 0.89 and
0.36 and Ca concentrations also vary between 0.32%
and 0.01%.
Within the tourmaline chemical discrimination dia-
grams, grains from the three Devonian formations
 10 A. CARDONA ET AL.
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Figure 6. Distribution of heavy minerals in the Palaeozoic sandstones from the Floresta Massif.

can be related to tourmalines formed in Li-poor U–Pb detrital zircon geochronology

granitoids and Ca-poor and Al-saturated metapelites
Detrital zircons from four sandstone samples from the
(Figure 7). Some grains from the Floresta Formation
El Tibet, Floresta, and Cuche Formations were ana-
are also related to tourmalines derived from Ca-rich
lysed by LA-ICP-MS. Analytical results are presented
low-grade metamorphic rocks (Figure 7).
in Supplementary Table 4.
 INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 11

Figure 7. Tourmaline geochemical discrimination diagrams (Henry and Guidotti 1985). (a) Field 1: Li-rich granitoids, pegmatites and
aplites. Field 2: Li-poor granitoid pegmatite and aplites. Field 3: Hydrothermally altered granitic rocks. Field 4: aluminous metapelites
and metapsammites. 5: Al-poor metapelites and metapsammites. Field 6: Fe3+-rich quartz-tourmaline rocks, calcosilicates and
metapelites. Field 7: low-Ca ultramafic. Field 8: metacarbonates and metapyroxenites. (b) Field 1: Li-rich granitoids, pegmatites
and aplites. Field 2: Li-poor granitoids, pegmatites and aplites. Field 3: Ca-rich metapelites, metapsammites and calcsilicate. Field 4:
Ca-poor metapelites, metapsammites and quartz-tourmaline rocks. Field 5: metacarbonates. Field 6: metapyroxenites.
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One hundred and fourteen detrital zircon ages were
analysed from the El Tibet Formation (Sample 640052).
Older ages included Mesoproterozoic detrital zircons
that included 50% with age peaks at 1000 and
1502 Ma. Other Precambrian zircons were represented
by Palaeoproterozoic zircons (11%) that formed a ca.
1724 Ma age peak (Figure 8). Neoproterozoic zircons
represent 15% of the grains and include a 592 Ma age
peak, whereas Palaeozoic zircons were also common
(15%) and characterized by two main age peaks of 414
and 472 Ma (Figure 8). The 414 Ma age peak con-
strained a maximum early Devonian depositional age
for the El Tibet Formation.
One hundred and fourteen detrital zircons from
the Floresta Formation (Sample 640038) ages were
analysed. Detrital zircons included a Mesoproterozoic
age population that include 36% of the analysed
grains and was characterized by peaks at 1100 and
1508 Ma, whereas 10% of the zircon grains included
Palaeoproterozoic ages (Figure 8). Palaeozoic zircons
made up nearly half of the analysed zircons and
represented 43% of the grains, including age peaks
at 362, 398, and 448 Ma (Figure 8). The youngest
362 Ma peak suggested a maximum Late Devonian
depositional age.
Two hundred and thirty-six detrital zircon ages were
analysed in two samples from the Cuche Formation
(Samples 640095 and 640030). A prominent group of
zircon grains (46%) have early to middle Palaeozoic ages
with defined peaks at 419, 470, and 452 Ma in the two
samples (Figure 8). Around 15% of the older analysed
detrital grains were of Palaeoproterozoic age and
included peaks at 1600 and 1751 Ma (Figure 8), whereas
Mesoproterozoic ages were also significant and
included 30% of the analysed grains with peaks at
1211, 1006, 1300, and 1062 Ma (Figure 8). The young
409 Ma age peak constrained a maximum Early
Devonian age for accumulation.
Santander Massif
Silgará Formation
Metamorphic rocks from the Silgará Formation were
sampled for detrital zircon geochronology in two local-
ities where petrological studies have characterized
greenschist to amphibolite facies rocks with Barrovian-
type metamorphism (Ríos et al. 2003; Castellanos et al.
2004, 2008). Samples include three schists from the
Motiscua region and four from the Pescadero Canyon
(Figure 2).
One hundred and fifteen detrital zircons were ana-
lysed from a garnet + staurolite schist (Sample AMVO-
25) collected from the Motiscua region. The major det-
rital age population includes 50% of the analysed grains
and spans from the early Palaeozoic to the
Neoproterozoic, with age peaks at 414, 540, 625, and
1185 Ma, whereas older Mesoproterozoic to
Palaeoproterozoic ages between ca. 1500 and 2257 Ma
that represent 15% are also common (Figure 9). The
youngest and well-defined age population is Silurian
and is interpreted as a maximum 414 Ma depositional
age. Two single grains have yielded 305.9 ± 7.1 Ma and
310.4 ± 6.4 Ma ages, which, although statistically insuf-
ficient to defined a relatively robust detrital age popula-
tion (Gehrels et al. 2006), suggest that late
Carboniferous sources may be exposed.
One hundred and one zircons from an albite + mus-
covite schist (Sample AMVO-26) yielded Palaeozoic
(57%) and Proterozoic (43%) ages. Main age peaks
 12 A. CARDONA ET AL.
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Figure 8. U–Pb detrital zircons distribution diagrams from Palaeozoic rocks of the Floresta Massif.

included 368, 400, 481, 621, 1165, and 1500 Ma
(Figure 9).
The 368 Ma age peak and two single detrital zircon
ages of ca. 333 Ma suggest a maximum Late Devonian
and probably early Carboniferous age for protolith
formation.
Zircons from another muscovite + albite sample
(AMVO-27) were also analysed. From the 106 analyses,
36% of the grains yielded Silurian to Devonian ages with
two main peaks at 362 and 409 Ma. Thirty-eight percent
of the grains yielded Ordovician to Cambrian ages with
an age peak of 478 Ma. The other (less representative)

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Figure 9. U–Pb detrital zircons distribution diagrams from metasedimentary rocks of the Silgará Formation in the Motiscua region.
zircon populations yielded Precambrian ages with some
peaks at 1041 and 1152 Ma (Figure 10).
Six samples from the Pescadero Canyon were ana-
lysed for U–Pb detrital zircon geochronology. Ninety-
eight detrital zircons from a sericitic schist (Sample
AMVO-33) exposed at the highest topographic level
included detrital ages (94%) and age peaks of mainly
Mesoproterozoic with a less marked amount of
Palaeoproterozoic zircon grains. The age peaks are
932, 961, 1010, 1157, 1350, and 1543 Ma (Figure 10).
The 104 analysed detrital zircon grains from a garnet +
muscovite schist (Sample AMVO-37) yielded Proterozoic
ages with well-defined peaks at 1358, 1557, 1712, and
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 13
1960 Ma. Six zircon grains with younger ages between
566 and 1090 Ma were also obtained. U–Pb results from
107 zircon grains from a biotite + staurolite schist (AMVO-
40) yielded similar Proterozoic ages with age peaks at 936,
1025, and 1206 Ma and older 1348, 1564 Ma (Figure 10).
In contrast with the other samples, the 74 zircon
grains from the chlorite schist (Sample AMVO-41) yielded
early Palaeozoic to Neoproterozoic detrital zircons (11
grains) of ages between 489 and 634 Ma, and with a
defined age peak of 489 Ma and a single zircon grain
with a late Ordovician age of 457 ± 9.5 Ma (Figure 10).
The rest of the analysed grains were Mesoproterozoic to
Palaeopreoterozoic with age peak at 1815 Ma.
 14 A. CARDONA ET AL.
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Figure 10. U–Pb detrital zircons distribution diagrams from metasedimentary rocks of the Silgará Formation in the Pescadero region.

The 98 zircon grains from a muscovite schist with
retrograde chlorite (Sample AMVO-43) yielded mainly
Mesoproterozoic zircons ages (76% of the analysed
grains) with two peaks at 1348 and 1535 Ma
(Figure 10). Older Palaeoproterozoic zircons yielded
two peaks at 1604 and 1755 Ma. Two single zircon
grains also yielded younger ages of 512 and 550 Ma.
Finally 86 zircon grains were analysed from a coarse
grain micaceous schist (Sample AMVO-45) that was
intruded by granitic dikes. All but one of the grains

yielded Proterozoic ages with early Neoproterozoic
peaks at 981 Ma and older Mesoproterozoic peaks at
1176, 1347, and 1637 Ma (Figure 10).
Discussion
Sedimentary accumulation and protolith ages
Palaeontological constraints from the late Palaeozoic
rocks of the Floresta Massif have suggested that sedi-
mentary accumulation extended from the Emsian to the
Famennian. The detrital zircon age peaks obtained in
this contribution from El Tibet, Floresta, and Cuche
Formations also confirmed their post-Silurian accumula-
tion. Whereas the youngest ca. 362 Ma age peak found
in the Floresta Formation, formerly considered as
Middle Devonian suggests that accumulation of both
the Floresta and Cuche Formation have a maximum
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Late Devonian age of accumulation.
Available age constraints for sedimentary protolith
formation and metamorphism of the Silgará Formation
have been based on local discordance relationships of
some of the metamorphic units with the overlain sedi-
mentary rocks Middle Devonian in age (Ward et al. 1974;
Boinet et al. 1986), and therefore sedimentation and
metamorphism have been considered as a pre-Middle
Devonian event. Some authors have used stable isoto-
pic techniques on metamorphosed carbonate rocks to
suggest that protolith formation is Neoproterozoic in
age (Silva et al. 2004).
Recent geochronological constraints from Palaeozoic
magmatic rocks that have been considered as closely
associated with the metamorphic rocks of the Silgará
Formation, have suggested that metamorphism may
extend between 479 and 439 Ma (Restrepo-Pace and
Cediel 2010; Mantilla et al. 2012; Van der Lelij et al.
2016).
The new detrital zircon geochronological results from
the studied localities in the Pescadero and Motiscua
regions suggest a more complex temporal framework
for the accumulation and metamorphism of the Silgará
Formation. (1) In the Pescadero Creek one sample has
yielded an Ordovician peak of 489 Ma and therefore
suggests that accumulation post-date the early
Ordovician (Figure 10). A statistically limited single
grain age of ca. 457 Ma may suggest that accumulation
and metamorphism may have taken place after the
middle Ordovician. (2) In the Motiscua region 368 and
414 Ma detrital zircon age peaks (Figure 9), and a single
grain with ca. 315 Ma from the Silgará Formation sug-
gest that their accumulation and metamorphism took
place after the Early Devonian and therefore meta-
morphism is also post-Devonian in age.
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 15
Although a detailed discrimination of the different
units that may include the Silgará Formation need a
detail cartographic analysis with associated geochrono-
logical results (Mantilla-Figueroa et al. 2016), the U–Pb
detrital geochronological results presented here and the
review of their geological characteristics, suggest the
existence of at least three different metamorphic units.
(1) The micaceous schists that may include andalusite
and cordierite (not sampled in this contribution), are
discordantly overlain by Devonian rocks or are closely
associated with the Ordovician to Silurian magmatic
rocks, probably record the early Palaeozoic (Ordovician
to Silurian) metamorphism associated with the mag-
matic evolution, and were also probably deposited in
the early Palaeozoic (Van der Lelij et al. 2016). (2) In the
Pescadero and Motiscua regions, the metamorphic
rocks are mainly pelitic to semi-pelitic with carbonates,
with a Barrovian metamorphism (Ríos et al. 2003;
Castellanos et al. 2004, 2008), and are characterized by
Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian zircons (this contri-
bution; Mantilla-Figueroa et al. 2016).
(3) The metasedimentary rocks formerly included as
the metamorphosed Floresta Formation within the
Santander Massif (Ward et al. 1974) and initially consid-
ered to be Silurian in age, have been recently inter-
preted based on regional lithofacies as Carboniferous
(Moreno-Sanchez et al. 2007).
Provenance
We will discuss the provenance of the Floresta Massif
including the integrated petrography, heavy minerals,
and U–Pb geochronology, whereas for the Silgará
Formation we will discuss from a U–Pb detrital zircon
geochronological perspective. Such an approach allows
tackling the age(s) of source areas and the identification
of nearly contemporaneous magmatic activity.
Floresta Massif
The presence of high quartz content and sedimentary
to metasedimentary lithics (Figure 5), as well as the
heavy mineral content marked by the abundance of
ultra-stable phases (Figure 6), suggests that the source
region for the Early Devonian El Tibet Formation within
the Floresta Massif includes recycled sedimentary and
metasedimentary rocks. Due to the limited presence of
greenschist or amphibolites in the Palaeozoic meta-
morphic sequence (Busbanza Schists, Jimenez 2000),
we related the presence of chlorite, tremolite, and epi-
dote (Figure 6) to granitoid rocks modified by hydro-
thermal alteration, such as is found in the underlying
Otenga Granitoid along the Otenga–Floresta road.
 16 A. CARDONA ET AL.
The sub-angular texture and the preservation of
labile sedimentary lithics (Figure 5) such as mudstones
and the presence of chlorite, tremolite, and hornblende
in the heavy mineral fraction suggest low residence
time in the source area and fast burial.
When the compositional characteristics of the El
Tibet Formation are compared with the overlying for-
mations, both the Floresta and Cuche Formations are
more immature and characterized by an increase in the
sedimentary and metamorphic lithics, as well as char-
acterized by the presence of feldspar and volcanic
lithics (Figure 5). Their heavy minerals contents also
include amphibole and epidote (Figure 6), which can
be related to the aforementioned plutonic source.
Tourmaline can resist multiple sedimentary cycles
(Mange and Morton 2007) and although it is not possi-
ble to discriminate whether it came from recycling or
from pristine crystalline rocks, the geochemical compo-
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sitions of the analysed tourmalines are also compatible
with the already recognized granitoid and metapelitic
provenance (Figure 7).
U–Pb detrital zircon geochronology from the late
Palaeozoic units of the Floresta Massif are characterized
by similar Palaeoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic, and
Ordovician to Silurian age peaks (Figure 8). Both the
Floresta and Cuche Formations show a relative increase
in the proportion of early to middle Palaeozoic zircons,
including Devonian zircons (Figure 8).
The Ordovician to Silurian zircons are characteristic of
the early Palaeozoic magmatic belt that characterized
the proto-Andean margin (Chew et al. 2007; Ramos
2009), and are also well represented by the early
Palaeozoic granitoid bodies found within the Floresta
Massif (Horton et al. 2010). The Late Devonian to early
Carboniferous zircons are close to the palaeontological
depositional ages (Janvier and Villarroel 1998, 2000;
Berry et al. 2000; Young and Moody 2002; Burrow
et al. 2003; Moreno-Sanchez 2004) and therefore sug-
gest that basin filling was accompanied by magmatic
activity.
Proterozoic 1750, 1600, 1300, and 1500 Ma together
with Grenvillian age peaks (1000–1100 Ma) are similar to
source ages from the western margin of the Amazon
Craton in the eastern Colombia sub-Andean region
(Ibañez-Mejia et al. 2011) and the Grenvillian-aged mas-
sifs that characterize the Northern Andes (Cordani et al.
2005; Cardona et al. 2010; Ibañez-Mejía et al., 2011).
Zircon crystallization ages between 1500 and 1600 Ma
are a major characteristic of the Amazon Craton and
therefore link the filling of this basin to a source area in
South America (Tassinari and Macambira 1999; Cordani
et al. 2005; Martens et al. 2014), precluding a derivation
of this domain from Laurentia.
These results together with the compositional trend of
sandstones suggest that basin filling in the Floresta
Massif included source areas in the western margin of
the Amazon Craton or a derived Palaeozoic terrane, with
a proximal source in the Ordovician to Silurian magmatic
and metamorphic basement of the Busbanza Schist and
Otenga Granitoid. The apparent increase of sandstone
immaturity as documented by the increase in the pre-
sence of sedimentary lithics and the appearance of vol-
canic sources in the Floresta and Cuche Formations, and
the presence of a more significant Ordovician to Silurian
sedimentary signature, as well as the Devonian to
Carboniferous detrital zircon basin filling recorded uplift
in the source area with associated magmatic activity,
which is a common known feature of a basin fill during
orogenic growth (Dickinson 1985).
Silgará Formation Santander Massif
Similar to the Palaeozoic units from the Floresta Massif,
the studied samples from the Silgará Complex are
characterized by abundant Mesoproterozoic and
Palaeoproterozoic age populations, as well as more
limited early Palaeozoic ages (Figures 10 and 11).
Silurian to Devonian aged zircons were found to the
east in schists from the Motiscua region (Figure 10).
As mentioned, the Mesoproterozoic and
Palaeoproterozoic detrital zircon ages are also similar
to source areas in the Amazon Craton and the Andean
Grenvillian inliers (Ibañez-Mejía et al. 2011) therefore
suggesting that accumulation took place in the western
margin of the Amazon Craton or a Palaeozoic terrane or
ribbon detached from the Amazon Craton.
The Ordovician ages are similar to the nearby gran-
itoids and indicate that the adjacent basement was a
major source area during accumulation of the protoliths
(Restrepo-Pace and Cediel 2010; Mantilla et al. 2012,
2013; Van der Lelij et al. 2016). In the Motiscua region
the presence of Devonian zircons suggests that at least
the Motiscua protoliths were formed in a basin source
by magmatic rocks of late Palaeozoic ages, also similar
to those found in the Floresta Massif.
Palaeotectonic considerations
Permo-Triassic palaeogeographic reconstructions of the
Northern Andes within Pangea supercontinent have
suggested that the continental fragments of southern
Mexico overlap with the tectonostratigraphic terranes
that formed the Northern Andes (Bullard et al. 1965;
Pindell and Dewey 1982; Pindell et al. 1988). This has
left a major ‘room’ problem commonly solved by the
redistribution of the Northern Andean and Mexican

Figure 11. Palaeogeographic reconstruction of the Santander and Floresta Massifs and other segments of the Colombian Andes
during the Jura–Cretaceous based on palaeomagnetic results (Bayona et al. 2006). F/B, Floresta Massif; SM, Santander Massif; SMM,
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Santa Marta Massif; SL, San Lucas Range; ECC, Eastern Central Cordillera.
continental terranes along the margin between Peru
and Venezuela (Restrepo-Pace et al. 1997; Martens
et al. 2014).
Palaeomagnetic results from the Mesozoic cover of
the Floresta Massif, and other segments of the
Colombian Andes have suggested that these crustal
segments were probably located in a southern latitude,
between northern Peru and southern Colombia (Bayona
et al. 2006, 2010), and therefore offered alternatives to
the spatial discrepancy.
The U–Pb detrital zircon geochronology from the sedi-
mentary and metasedimentary rocks of both the Floresta
and Santander Massif have shown their affinity to the
western margin of the Amazon Craton, with major simi-
larities to Proterozoic zircon crystallization ages found in
the Putumayo Orogen in southern Colombia. These,
together with their common Ordovician magmatic
record (Horton et al. 2010; Restrepo-Pace and Cediel
2010; Mantilla et al. 2012; Van der Lelij et al. 2016) and
correlation of middle Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks, place
their Palaeozoic record near the margin of the north-
western Amazon Craton.
However, the current spatial distribution has been
modified by a series of Meso-Cenozoic over-imposed
tectonic events. Following the discussion of palaeomag-
netic data by Bayona et al. (2006), it turns out that these
units may be placed in southernmost Colombia and
northern Ecuador during the Middle Jurassic, and that
they have been transported along the margin to the
north as a consequence of oblique subduction at least
until the Early Cretaceous (Figure 11). Subsequent
Cenozoic disruption of the Santander and Floresta
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 17
Massifs is associated with sinestral strike slip displace-
ment of the Santa Marta–Bucaramanga Fault (Jimenez
et al. 2015).
In the next section we will discuss the Palaeozoic
palaeotectonic setting of these units and their relation
with the growth of the proto-Andean margin from Peru
to Venezuela as they probably represent a common
continental margin (Figure 12).
Ordovician to Silurian magmatism and
metamorphism
Geochronological constraints from plutonic rocks in the
Santander, Floresta, and Quetame Massifs within the
Eastern Cordillera of Colombia (Horton et al. 2010;
Restrepo-Pace y Cediel, 2010; Mantilla et al. 2012; Van
der Lelij et al. 2016), the Merida Andes of Venezuela
(Van der Lelij et al. 2016), and the Eastern Cordillera of
the Peruvian Andes (Chew et al. 2007; Cardona et al.
2009) confirmed the wide distribution of Ordovician to
Silurian magmatism in the Northern Andes, and the
importance of Ordovician magmatism along the wes-
tern margin of Gondwana (Cawood 2005, Figure 13(a)).
The geochemical characters of the magmatic rocks
within the Santander Massif have been related to an arc
setting characterized by continuous magmatism until
ca. 430 Ma (Mantilla et al. 2012; Van der Lelij et al.
2016). This arc-related magmatism is well recognized
along most of the Andean chain including Argentina,
Bolivia, and Peru and is called the Famatinian arc due to
the well-constrained record of this arc in the Andes of
 18 A. CARDONA ET AL.
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Figure 12. Correlation of Palaeozoic terranes from the Colombian, Venezuela, and Peruvian Andes and the southern Mexican
Terranes (names of units and major events after Toussaint 1993; Moreno-Sanchez 2004; Ortega-Obregón et al., 2008; Laya and
Tucker, 2012; Van der Lelij et al. 2016).
Argentina, and has been linked to the subduction of the
Pacific Plate under the South American continent
(Pankhurst et al. 1998; Miller and Söllner 2005; Chew
et al. 2008a; Ramos 2009; Mišković et al. 2009; Mantilla
et al. 2012; Van der Lelij et al. 2016).
The early Palaeozoic metamorphic record of the
Silgará Formation within the Santander Massif have
also been associated with the continuous evolution of
the convergent margin, where the alternation of exten-
sional and compressional phases, that allow the open-
ing and closing the back-arc or intra-arc basin is
responsible for the formation of metamorphic belts
associated with the magmatic activity (Collins 2002;
Van der Lelij et al. 2016). This metamorphism is tempo-
rally constrained between 471 and 439 Ma (Mantilla
et al. 2012, 2013; Van der Lelij et al. 2016).
We suggest that this metamorphic evolution may be
restricted to the metamorphic rocks that are spatially
related to the granitoids and/or have closed stratigraphic
relations with overlying late Palaeozoic sediments.
Cordierite-bearing Busbanza Schist from the Floresta
Massif that is discordantly covered by the late
Palaeozoic sedimentary units is included within this
early Palaeozoic metamorphism.
Magmatic activity seems to have continued until the
late Silurian as indicated by plutonic crystallization and
detrital zircon age populations on the Devonian rocks.
Plutonic and metamorphic rocks were exposed after the
Silurian as they were covered by Devonian sedimentary
rocks, and therefore document a major exhumation
event at the end of the Silurian. Such an event has
been related either to the collision and accretion of a
continental terrane (Ordóñez-Carmona et al. 2006) or to
active subduction. Such a Silurian event has also been
identified in the Eastern Cordillera of the Peruvian
Andes (Cardona 2006).
Although results from this contribution do not allow
us to discriminate between collisional and subduction-
related models, global Palaeogeographic reconstruc-
tions suggest that Laurentia was moving closer to
 INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 19
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Figure 13. Palaeozoic palaeogeographic reconstructions modified from Torsvik and Cocks (2013). MT, Mexican Terranes; V,
Venezuelan Andes; S, Santander Massif; F, Floresta Massif; P, Peruvian Andes. (a) Silurian (440 Ma) reconstruction, (b) Middle
Devonian (370 Ma) reconstruction, (c) Mississippian (340 Ma) reconstruction, (d) Pennsylvanian (310 Ma) reconstruction.

Western Gondwana, and therefore microcontinents or
continental blocks formed either during the break-up of
Rodina or during the Ordovician to Silurian extensional
phases of the convergent margin could have been re-
incorporated into the continental margin (Chew et al.
2008b; Torsvik and Cocks 2013; Shao et al. 2015) form-
ing the middle Palaeozoic orogenic events.
Within the Eastern Cordillera of the Peruvian Andes
outcrop, the Marañon Complex is considered a composite
tectonostratigraphic unit with a protracted Palaeozoic
record. It includes a major Ordovician magmatism
associated with a high-grade metamorphism, Pre-Silurian
sedimentation, and a ca. 420 Ma metamorphic event
(Cardona 2006; Chew et al. 2007, 2008a; Cardona et al.
2009; Mišković et al. 2009).
Mexican terranes with relatively well studied
Palaeozoic rocks include the Oaxaquia, Mixteca, and
Maya terranes (see reviews in Keppie et al. 2008;
Weber et al. 2008; Nance et al. 2009; Martens et al.
2010). Such terranes have been placed near the
Amazon Craton and western Gondwana, based on a
characteristic Mesoproterozoic Amazon Craton zircon
 20 A. CARDONA ET AL.
signature and early Palaeozoic Gondwanan faunas and
are also characterized by Ordovician magmatism.
(Keppie et al. 2008; Weber et al. 2008; Nance et al.
2009; Martens et al. 2010; Ibañez-Mejía et al. 2015).
Devonian to early Carboniferous basin and
magmatic evolution
It has long been suggested that after the Silurian a
period of magmatic quiescence characterized the con-
tinental margin of South America, north of Northern
Chile (Bahlburg and Hervé 1997; Chew et al. 2008a;
Bahlburg et al. 2009; Cardona et al. 2009; Mišković
et al. 2009; Van der Lelij et al. 2016). These authors
have suggested that the hiatus lasted from ca. 420
until 335 Ma in the Peruvian Andes, and until ca.
300 Ma in the Northern Andes of Colombia.
Downloaded by [Agustin Cardona] at 07:48 06 June 2016
The detrital zircon ages from the Devonian rocks of
the Floresta Formation, and those of the Silgará
Formation rocks near Motiscua, suggest that magmatic
activity was common in the Devonian, although the
magmatic volumes showed a decrease when compared
with the older record. Ibañez-Mejía et al. (2013) have
also suggested that Silurian to Devonian zircons have
been found in the Llanos Basin of Colombia and there-
fore confirmed the importance of this event.
We suggest that the change in the magmatic volumes
between the Ordovician–Silurian and the Devonian, may
be a response to the oblique convergence of the Pacific
and Rheic Ocean, as Laurentia was moving to the north-
east and the ocean that separated the two continental
masses was closed (Cocks and Torsvik 2002; Torsvik and
Cocks 2013; Domeier and Torsvik 2014; Figure 13(b, c)).
Palaeontological constraints from the Devonian sedimen-
tary rocks of the Floresta Massif show evidence for a
significant proximity with Laurentia as expected by the
approach of this continent to the South American Margin
to finally close the Rheic Ocean and form Pangea (Forero-
Suarez 1990; Janvier and Villarroel 1998, 2000; Berry et al.
2000; Young and Moody 2002; Burrow et al. 2003;
Moreno-Sanchez 2004).
It is therefore suggested that the transgressive basin-
filling recorded by the El Tibet Formation may be part of
this scenario of oblique convergence and migration of
Laurentia, which again became more compressive in the
Late Devonian and the early Carboniferous as sug-
gested by the provenance change in the Floresta and
Cuche Formations, the increase in sedimentary and
metamorphic lithics and the reappearance of a mag-
matic input.
Within the Merida Andes of Venezuela, magmatic
activity seems to have stopped until the Mesozoic,
which may reflect the collision with Laurentia that
start the final agglutination of Pangea (Figure 13(d)).
In the Peruvian Andes, a Devonian to Carboniferous arc
related setting extends between ca. 360 and 310 Ma and
was followed by a significant magmatic hiatus, whereas in
the Oaxaquia and Mixteco terranes, late Palaeozoic rocks
include Devonian to early Carboniferous detrital zircons
(340–390 Ma) that have been related to a poorly exposed
magmatic arc of such an age, and a high-pressure meta-
morphic unit of ca. 352 Ma in the Acatlan complex is
interpreted as related to a subduction setting (Review in
Estrada-Carmona et al. in press).
Although varying in some details, the active margin
setting is similar to the one recorded in Colombia.
Late Carboniferous to Permian metamorphism and
deformation
Stratigraphic relations in the Floresta Massif indicate
that late Palaeozoic units are in angular unconformity
with Early Jurassic red beds (Cediel 1969; Mojica and
Villarroel 1984). This relation suggests that a major
deformational event took place between the Late
Devonian and the Early Jurassic.
In some segments of the Santander Massif, and to
the southeast of the Eastern Cordillera, fossiliferous
Permian rocks are exposed and characterized by a pro-
minent calcareous sequences with intercalated mud-
stones that follow a clastic sandstone segment at the
base (Stibane and Forero 1969). These units overlie in
discordance the Devonian to Carboniferous sequences
similar to rocks from the Floresta Massif (Toussaint
1993). Such stratigraphic relationships, and the appar-
ent absence of late Carboniferous sedimentation, also
confirmed that a major deformational event may have
taken place between the late Carboniferous and the
Permian.
In the Motiscua region, detrital age peaks for the
Silgará Formation also suggest that accumulation may
have taken place after ca. 365 Ma and may be as young
as 311 Ma, whereas the presence of intrusive relations
with ca. 210 Ma undeformed granitoids suggest that
metamorphism took place in this time interval
(Mantilla et al. 2012; Van der Lelij et al. 2016).
Metamorphic constraints from the Silgará Formation
in the Motiscua region are characterized by middle-
pressure, Barrovian-type metamorphism, which can be
related to a collisional event (Castellanos et al. 2008).
In the Llanos Basin of Eastern Colombia, recent seis-
mic and well analyses have suggested that a major late
Palaeozoic, post-Devonian event was recorded in the
subsurface (Suárez Díaz and Solano 2012; Moreno-
López and Escalona 2015), and therefore confirmed

the importance of the late Palaeozoic event along the
Andean margin.
Devonian to Lower Pennsylvanian slates and quart-
zites of the Venezuelan Andes were apparently metamor-
phosed in the Late Pennsylvanian and subsequently
covered by a Middle Pennsylvanian fluvial succession
made of sandstones and conglomerates, which recorded
a regressive tectonic event (reviews in Laya and Tucker,
2012). In the Peruvian Andes and the Mexican Terranes a
late Carboniferous to early Permian deformational and/or
metamorphic event has been recorded (Cardona 2006;
Chew et al. 2007; Grodzicki et al. 2008; Cardona et al.
2009; Mišković et al., 2009). Some of these terranes were
subsequently affected by a middle to late Permian arc
magmatism that placed them in a Pacific position out-
side the core of the Pangean supercontinent and there-
fore suggest that this event may be related to more local
terrane related accretionary events.
Downloaded by [Agustin Cardona] at 07:48 06 June 2016
It is therefore suggested that this late Palaeozoic
event is related to the late stages of Pangea agglutina-
tion, which included the collision between Laurentia
and Gondwana, and the accretion of several continental
terranes and ribbons located both in the upper plate, or
transferred from the Pacific plate after the closure of the
Rheic Ocean (Figure 13(d)).
Although more precise temporal constraints are neces-
sary to understand these deformational and metamorphic
events, the Colombian, Mexican, and Venezuelan terranes
are covered by correlatable Permian Carbonates that also
share faunal affinities with North America (see review in
Laya and Tucker, 2012), and therefore reinforce the spatial
proximity of all these terranes.
Conclusions
New provenance constraints from the late Palaeozoic
sedimentary rocks from the Floresta Massif and metase-
dimentary rocks from the Santander Massif record
Devonian to Permian basin filling, magmatism and
deformation associated with the evolution of the con-
tinental margin before and during the final agglutina-
tion of Pangea. The tectonostratigraphic record within
these and other limitedly studied late Palaeozoic units
of the northern Andes offer a major picture on the
continuous palaeogeographic changes that affected
the continental margins and the ocean as Gondwana
and Laurentia achieved their positions within the
Pangea supercontinent.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Asociación Colombiana de Geólogos y Geofísicos
del Petróleo (ACGGP), for the ARES-CORRIGAN grants that
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 21
supported A. Lotero and Y. Villafañez. COLCIENCIAS and
Corporación Geológica ARES also provided a short term fellow-
ship support to Y. Villafañez, G. Cañizales and W. Echavarria for
their help with sample preparation. We also thank M. Ibañez
and O. Talavera for discussions during field work and for pro-
viding access to some petrographic samples. We thank S.
Zapata and K. Domanick for their help in LA-ICP-MS and
microprobe data acquisition. We thank J. S. Jaramillo, J. C.
Piedrahita and A. M. Patiño for their help with the editing of
the manuscript. We thank J. Vanegas for discussions and final
organization of the manuscript. We are enormously grateful to
two anonymous reviewers and the editorial care of R. Stern for
their comments and suggestions, which improved the
manuscript.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
We thank the Asociación Colombiana de Geólogos y
Geofísicos del Petróleo (ACGGP), for the ARES-CORRIGAN
grants, which supported A. Lotero and Y. Villafañez.
COLCIENCIAS and Corporación Geológica ARES also provided
a short-term fellowship support to Y. Villafañez.
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