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Abstract
Two styles of bird locomotion, hovering and intermittent flight, have great potential to inform
future development of autonomous flying vehicles. Hummingbirds are the smallest flying
vertebrates, and they are the only birds that can sustain hovering. Their ability to hover is due
to their small size, high wingbeat frequency, relatively large margin of mass-specific power
available for flight and a suite of anatomical features that include proportionally massive major
flight muscles (pectoralis and supracoracoideus) and wing anatomy that enables them to leave
their wings extended yet turned over (supinated) during upstroke so that they can generate lift
to support their weight. Hummingbirds generate three times more lift during downstroke
compared with upstroke, with the disparity due to wing twist during upstroke. Much like
insects, hummingbirds exploit unsteady mechanisms during hovering including delayed stall
during wing translation that is manifest as a leading-edge vortex (LEV) on the wing and
rotational circulation at the end of each half stroke. Intermittent flight is common in small- and
medium-sized birds and consists of pauses during which the wings are flexed (bound) or
extended (glide). Flap-bounding appears to be an energy-saving style when flying relatively
fast, with the production of lift by the body and tail critical to this saving. Flap-gliding is
thought to be less costly than continuous flapping during flight at most speeds. Some species
are known to shift from flap-gliding at slow speeds to flap-bounding at fast speeds, but there is
an upper size limit for the ability to bound (∼0.3 kg) and small birds with rounded wings do
not use intermittent glides.
(Some figures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version)
(A)
(C)
(B)
(D) (E )
Figure 1. Wing kinematics during hovering in the rufous hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus). (A) Dorsal view of posture at mid-downstroke
and traces of the paths of wingtips (filled circles) and wrists (open circles) as obtained from 500 frames s−1 video. (B) Lateral view of
posture at upstroke–downstroke transition and traces of the paths of wingtips (filled circles) and wrists (open circles) that are synchronous
with paths in (A). (C) Chord angle relative to the frontal plane of the body during one wingbeat cycle. The shaded region indicates
downstroke. The dashed line represents wrist elevation relative to frontal plane. Values are means ± SD for five birds. (D) Mid-upstroke
wing posture showing wing supination and twist along the long axis. The mid-wing is illuminated by laser light used for particle-image
velocimetry. (E) Mid-downstroke wing posture revealing different wing camber and chord angle compared with upstroke. Laser light
illuminates the middle of the wing as in (D). From Warrick et al (2005) and Tobalske et al (2007).
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Bioinsp. Biomim. 5 (2010) 045004 B W Tobalske
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Bioinsp. Biomim. 5 (2010) 045004 B W Tobalske
Altitude (cm)
4
0
-4
-8
elevation (cm)
8
Wingtip
4
0
-4
-8
Muscle length
1.2
(L / Lrest)
1.1
1.0
0.9
1.5
EMG (mV)
Pectoralis
-1.5
0.0 0.25 0.50 0.75
Time (s)
Figure 5. Kinematics and muscle activity during zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata) flight at 12 m s−1 in a wind tunnel. Two bounds and
13 wingbeats are included in this interval of flight. Altitude is for the estimated center of mass relative to average altitude during the flight
interval. Muscle activity is measured using electromyography and muscle length is measured using sonomicrometry (Tobalske et al 2005).
reaching greater values when the tail is artificially extended. Regardless of the muscle being considered, the amplitude
Presumably other design criteria such as the need to minimize of electromyographic signals is always significantly less
drag or avoid damage to the tail function to limit tail length in during non-flapping phases compared with during flapping
flap-bounding birds. (Meyers 1993, Tobalske and Dial 1994, Tobalske 1995, 2001).
This indicates a reduction in motor unit recruitment, and is
3.2. Muscle activity consistent with a reduction in metabolic cost during fixed-
wing phases compared with flapping (Baudinette and Schmidt-
In all species studied to date, the pectoralis is inactive during Nielsen 1974). Because metabolic rates require time to
bounds and exhibits an isometric contraction during glides decrease following intense activity (Baker and Gleeson 1999,
(Meyers 1993, Tobalske 1995, 2001, Tobalske et al 1999, Borsheim and Bahr 2003), it is likely that any metabolic
figure 5). Sonomicrometry reveals that the pectoralis does savings during brief pauses is less than the reduction in cost
not change length during intermittent pauses (Tobalske et al associated with prolonged glides.
2005, Askew and Ellerby 2007). Neuromuscular activity is Formerly, it was hypothesized that flap-bounding flight
limited to the cranial portion of the pectoralis during glides was a mechanism for varying muscle work and power
in American kestrels (Falco sparverius, Meyers 1993). Some output without having to vary force or contractile velocity
larger birds that glide and soar extensively have a deep belly in the major downstroke muscle, the pectoralis (Rayner 1977,
of their pectoralis that consists of slow muscle fibers that 1985). This hypothesis might be particularly appealing for
are hypothesized to be particularly economical for sustaining the design of autonomous vehicles, but it does not appear
isometric contractions during gliding (Rosser and George to be correct for birds. Direct measures of muscle contractile
1986, Rosser et al 1994). In contrast, the main belly of the activity during flight may be obtained using electromyography
pectoralis consists of fast fibers in all flying birds (Rosser and sonomicrometry. Such experiments have revealed that
and George 1986), and, therefore, fast fibers appear adequate pectoralis motor-unit recruitment and contractile velocity vary
for intermittent gliding (Tobalske and Dial 1994, Meyers and significantly among flight speeds and flight modes in flap-
Mathias 1997). bounding birds (Tobalske et al 2005, Ellerby and Askew 2007).
The use of the supracoracoideus during intermittent Moreover, the variation in contractile velocity exhibited by
pauses is more variable. In budgerigars and European the flap-bounding zebra finch exceeds that exhibited by larger
starlings, the supracoracoideus is inactive during bounds, species that do not use flap-bounding flight (Tobalske et al
whereas it is active during bounds in black-billed magpies, 2005).
and it appears to be engaged in isometric contraction during
glides in various species (Meyers 1993, Tobalske and Dial
3.3. Predictions of energy saving from mathematical models
1994, Tobalske 1995, 2001). The isometric contraction of this
upstroke muscle during glides indicates its role in providing Flapping flight has the highest power requirement of any
stability at the shoulder joint (Tobalske and Biewener 2008). form of vertebrate locomotion (Schmidt-Nielsen 1972), and
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Bioinsp. Biomim. 5 (2010) 045004 B W Tobalske
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Bioinsp. Biomim. 5 (2010) 045004 B W Tobalske
Among the species that use both bounds and glides, there Altshuler et al 2010), increased glycolytic fiber content in
is a tendency to flap-glide at slow speeds and flap-bound during the pectoralis of woodpeckers (Tobalske 1996), or departures
faster flight (Tobalske and Dial 1994, Tobalske 1995, 1996, from dynamic similarity such as an increase in muscle strain
Bruderer et al 2001, figure 4(B)). This behavior is consistent as observed during take-off flight in pheasants and related
with seeking to minimize power output at any given speed species (Phasianidae, Tobalske and Dial 2000). Nonetheless,
(Rayner 1985). For these species, time spent flapping and the largest birds that can take advantage of an ability to turn
effective wingbeat frequency (total wingbeats per unit time) off their flight muscles and momentarily act like a projectile
varies according to an upwardly concave, U-shaped curve while still maintaining average altitude in the air are 0.3 kg.
(Bruderer et al 2001, Tobalske 2001). This behavior varies
with the goals of the animal. For example, Lewis’ woodpecker Acknowledgments
(Melanerpes lewis) slowly glides when foraging on the wing
for insects, but it shifts toward bounds when flying faster and I sincerely thank my collaborators who have contributed
more directly toward a destination (Tobalske 1996). In zebra greatly to my studies of hovering and intermittent flight. My
finch, a species that only flap-bounds, there is a decrease in research summarized in this paper was supported by grants
time spent flapping from 89% during brief hovering episodes from the Murdock Charitable Trust (99153 and 2001208)
to 55% during fast forward flight (14 m s−1 ). and the National Science Foundation (IBN-0327380 and IOB-
0615648).
4. Conclusions
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