Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

I.1. Significance and Relevance of Research on the Topic

Buddhism was founded in the sixth century B.C. by the Buddha

Śākyamuni. According to the Buddhist history, after leaving his palace
Siddhārtha travelled to the Ganges river area where he experienced the
religious life for six years and finally attained enlightenment under the
bodhi tree at Bodh-gaya, and became the Buddha. Buddhism in India has
produced outstanding thinkers, who have contributed not only to Indian
thought, but also to human thought.

The central concept of Buddhism is described as ‗being enlightened

to the impermanence of everything‘ and ‗discovering the path to freedom
from suffering‘, that is dharma or Buddha‘s teachings. As humankind is
always afflicted by various types of suffering, the fear of death is the most
basic. The Buddha described his experience in terms of dharma as
emptiness (śūnyatā), dependent origination (pratītya-samutpāda),
impermanence (anityatā), suffering (duḥkha), and non-self (anātman).
They are followed four principles of life which are birth (jāti), duration
(sthiti), decay (jarā), and impermanence or destruction (anityatā). So Lord
Buddha ceased to exist physically when he was eighty years old. His
declaration of enlightenment expressed his confidence that his mind had
realized eternal truths. The suffering which is present in all human
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existence has been a constant concern of mankind. The Buddha‘s reply to
this problem is a path of liberation from suffering, which is the most
universally appealing characteristic of Buddhism. More than any other
feature, it has enabled Buddhism to survive until the present.

The existence and development of Buddhism over 2500 years has

been known through two traditions of Buddhism, mainly, Hīnayāna
(lower vehicle) and Mahāyāna (greater vehicle).1 Among the Hīnayāna
there are Vaibhāṣika or Sarvāstivāda and Sautrāntika schools. The
Māhayāna tradition consists of two schools, 1) Mādhyamika (Śūnyavāda)
and 2) Vijñānavāda (Yogācāra). In Hīnayāna tradition, the
Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu is a work which occupies a prominent
role in Sarvāstivāda school, which is a complete and systematic account
of the abhidharma in Buddhist philosophy.

The Abhidharmakośa is a treasury of abhidharma, which is a key of

abhidharma text in verses written by Vasubandhu that summarizing
Sarvāstivādin tenets. The Abhidharmakośa consists of nine chapters
(kośasthānas). The first eight chapters with a total of about 600 verses
(kārikā) are the main text and the ninth chapter in prose is an additional
chapter as a kind of appendix. The verses are then commented on in the
accompanying bhāṣya or exposition. Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya is an auto-
commentary of Vasubandhu on Abhidharmakośa-kārikā which is based
on Sautrāntika and Vaibhāṣika. Therefore, the abhidharma in the
Abhidharmakośa is the combination of viewpoints from Sautrāntika and
summary the whole philosophical system of abhidharma in Sarvāstivāda
from Vaibhāṣika. The subjects covered in Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya
include all the main topics of abhidharma philosophy. Refutations of the

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These two traditions derived from Sthaviravāda (Pāli: Theravāda) and Mahāsāṅghika.

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views of the rival school of the Vaibhāṣikas are mentioned at many places
in the commentary. Along with the original Sanskrit text, there are
translations into Tibetan, Chinese, Mongolian, English and French.

The Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu is a well-known Buddhist

work for its harmonious synthesis of all great doctrines accepted in
general by all the contemporary schools of Buddhism. The text is looked
upon as an authoritative treatise of the Vaibhāṣikas, with three other
principal schools of Buddhism viz., the Sautrāntikas, the Yogācāras and
the Mādhyamikas who agree to accept it in spite of the difference in their
sectarian viewpoints.

The Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu occupies a very significant

place in the history of Buddhism for its systematic and exhaustive
treatment of the subject. It is also a key to understand the ancient
Buddhist views on ontology (science of reality), psychology, cosmology,
discipline and theory of salvation, mysticism, karma, dhātu, skandha and
the Buddhist doctrine of dharma etc.

In Buddhism, dharma is the doctrine, the universal truth common

to all individuals at all times, proclaimed by the Buddha. Lord Buddha,
dharma (his teachings), and the Saṅgha (community of believers) are the
three jewels (Triratna) to which Buddhists go for refuge. The term
dharma in the plural is used to describe the interrelated elements that
create the empirical world. Dharma is the teachings of the Buddha
(Buddhavacana), however, in the Abhidharmakośa, the dharma not only
described as the teachings of the Buddha such as; duty, law, doctrine,
events, and things, etc. but also described as phenomena, as well as states
operate to physical and psychology of human beings.

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 The first two chapters of Abhidharmakośa contain treatment of the
elements in relation to the dharma. The dharma is divided into seventy-
five dharmas. This dharma is the background of the Yogācāra/Vijñāna
school. Dharma is a fundamental concept in Buddhism, especially in
Sarvāstivāda and it is the foundation for the development of later
Buddhist schools such as Kosha school, Satyasiddhi school
Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi school in China and Japan. It plays an important
role in studying and understanding the Buddha‘s teachings.

Furthermore, the concept of dharma in Abhidharmakośa is also

attributed to the doctrine of śūnyatā of Śūnyatāvāda (Mādhyamika) with the
doctrine of vijñaptimātrā of Vijñānavāda (Yogācāra) are two main
philosophical systems of Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism. This teaching is also
considered as the skill to deny the concept of ātman and to explain the
concept of anātman in the light of pratītya-samutpāda doctrine in both
traditions of Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna Buddhism.

The main goal of my research is to focus on the Buddhist doctrines

of dharma in Abhidharmakośa. This study will not only include the
dharma thought in Abhidharmakośa which has been being paid attention
to study and practice by all kinds of people in our society, but also opens a
new aspect concerning our today‘s world.

Besides, the doctrine of dharma in the Abhidharmakośa

summarizes all systems of philosophy in Savāstivādins and it is a bridge
between Hinayāna and Mahāyāna Buddhism, i.e. development of
dharma in Yogācāra derived from Abhidharmakośa. In order to
understand the importance of the value of dharma in Abhidharmakośa as
well as its contribution to both Buddhist philosophy and psychology, it is
necessary to study the problems which have been so far considered. I am

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humbled to choose the topic which is entitled as ―A Critical Study of the
Concept of Dharma as Depicted in the Abhidharmakośa Śāstra‖ for my
research work.

I.2. Objectives of the Study

The aim and objective of the topic is to study and analyze the concept of
dharmas in Abhidharmakośa, as well as the practical implications to the
human life. The main objectives would be threefold:

1) To present a general survey of Abhidharmakośa and the position

of Abhidharmakośa in the abhidharma literature

2) To study and analyze the meaning of dharma as understood in

Buddhism

3) Finally, to show some achievements and limitations of studying

and understanding of the concept of dharma in other Buddhist
schools, i.e. Sautrāntika, Mādhyamika and Yogācāra school.

I.3. Review of related literature and research works

There are few researches which have been already conducted by different
scholars on the concept of dharma in Abhidharmakośa. In these works, the
aspect of dharma is presented fairly accomplished. However, still more or
less these studies are general type, and a complete and in-depth study on the
concept of dharma in Abhidharmakośa has not been done yet.

There are five books related to this topic. Let us have a brief
review of these books which will help to understand the subject.

1. Aruna Haldar (2001). Some Psychological Aspects of Early

Buddhist Philosophy Based on Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu, the
Asiatic Society publications, Kolkata.

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 This work is written by Dr. Mrs. Aruna Haldar, is one of the
reputed scholars in the field of Indian philosophy and applied psychology.
This book introduces us to the Psychology as well as the relation between
philosophy and psychology from the Buddhist point of view. In
Buddhism, there are many statements which fore-shadowed the findings
of modern scientists and philosophers. This work is a combination of
knowledge of ancient Indian texts with that of modern works on Buddhist
philosophy and psychology. Besides, the work gives an account of the
origin and development of Buddhism as well as the works of Vasubandhu
and reviews the abhidharma literature of Buddhism. This book also
thoroughly analyses the doctrine of Sarvāstivāda and the Buddhist
concepts of feeling, perception, consciousness and impression.

2. Dr. Lata Bapat (1994). Abhidharmakośa: A Study with a New

Perspective, Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan publications, Delhi.

Like many others on Abhidharmakośa works; this book discusses

too pith abhidharma, based on very brief statements with further
commentary by the author and a special reference to perspectives on
―man‖ and ―his action‖. In this book, the author also made an attempt to
point out that, the significance and the relevance to the nature of man and
his action, suffering and the social stability and the welfare of the society,
according to Vasubandhu. However, the author just discusses the concept
of dharma in Abhidharmakośa is only covers the aspects of human nature
and human action.

3. Dr. Sukomal Chaudhuri (1976). Analytical Study of the

Abhidharmakośa, Published by Sanskrit College, Calcutta.

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 This book as the title suggest ―Analytical Study of the
Abhidharmakośa”, discussed with Abhidharmakośa, based on the original
work of Vasubandhu. In this book, the author has illuminated the large
picture that consists of eleven parts, which are mostly based on the nine
chapters of the original text. Then, it almost encloses the main idea of the
Abhidharmakośa with a general view of the meaning of the term dharma.
It may be mentioned that the author had a great command over the
language as well as the idea sources. Based on this work, my thesis will be
developing deeper analysis and appraisal of the concept of dharma in
Abhidharmakośa.

4. Indra Narain Singh (2010). An Introduction to Abhidharmakośa

Bhāṣyam, Vidyanidhi Prakashan publications, Delhi.

This work is very helpful as most of the text of the Abhidharmakośa

is either in Sanskrit and translated into English. It is also an impediment to
the students as well as to the scholars, who are interested in its learning.
The present text contains only the description of the first chapter of the
Abhidharmakośa and bhāṣyam, known as dhātunirdeśa. The chapter
begins with the salutation verse, which offers prayer to the Buddha, the
preacher of the ‗Supreme Truth‘; but in this work introduces only first two
chapters of Abhidharmakośa which is not enough to comprehend about
the conception of dharma as reflected in Abhidharmakośa.

5. Th. Stcherbatsky (1923, reprint 2003). The Central Conception of

Buddhism and the Meaning of the word Dharma, published by Asian
Educational Services, Delhi.

Stcherbatsky is one of the pioneering scholars of Buddhist Studies,

who wrote, edited and translated several works. In this work, the author

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has discussed tools, methods, and basic background of the conception of
dharma. In the appendix, the book introduces the thought of Vasubandhu,
the author of Abhidharmakośa, the fundamental principles of the
Sarvāstivāda school. Although this book is very famous in Buddhism, but
it only mentions about aspects of Buddhist teachings in general, it does
not analysis in-depth the conception of dharma as reflected in
Abhidharmakośa.

Thus, a thorough analysis and appraisal of the concept of dharma in

the Abhidharmakośa-śāstra and its relevance for the modern society have
not been done yet. Therefore, there is a need to undertake such study.
Nevertheless, no comprehensive research has been done on this topic so far.

I.4. Scope and Methodology of Research

I.4.1. The Scope and Source Materials

The scope of this research is restricted to the concept of dharma in the

Abhidharmakośa, with the range of reference to skandha, āyatana, dhātu
rūpa, citta, and the all phenomena dharmas in Sarvāstivāda which belong
to Hīnayāna Buddhism as well as Yogācāra in Mahāyāna Buddhism.
Attempt is made to treat the concepts in greater detail with regards to its
characteristics and functions. The material on which the present work is
based is the original Pāli and Sanskrit literature viz. Dīgha Nikāya,
Majjhima Nikāya, Dhammasaṅgaṇi, Kathāvatthu, Dīrgha Āgama,
Dhātukāya, Dharmaskandha texts etc.

The main source of this research is three books of the

Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu:

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 1) The Abhidharmakośa in Sanskrit (Devanāgari and Romanized
scripts) edited by V.V. Gokhale (published 1946) and Prahlad Prahan
(1967, reprint 1975).

2) The Abhidharmakośa in Chinese was translated into Chinese by

Paramārtha (563-567 A.D. Taishō 29; No. 1559) and Hsuan-tsang (651-
654 A.D. Taishō 29; No. 1558, 1560).

3) The Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya in English which is a translation of

the French book by Louis De La Vallée Poussin (this book was published
from 1921 to 1931 ―L‟Abhidharmakośa de Vasubandhu‖), which is
translated from original Chinese book of Hsuan-Tsang. The French book
again translated into English by Dr. Subhadra (1983), Leo M. Pruden
(1986, reprint 1991), and recently is Lodrō Sangpo (2012).

In order to understand meaning and the function of dharma clearly,

the researcher has used Sanskrit and Chinese correspondings in the
footnote of this thesis. Moreover, in the thesis two appendices are included;
1) the table of 75 dharmas of Abhidharmakośa in comparison to 100
dharmas of Yogācāra, and 2) Abhidharmakośa-kārika in Sanskrit
(Romanized scripts).

I.4.2. Research Methodology

The researcher has used historical as well as analytical and critical method
to discuss the concept of dharma in Abhidharmakośa-śāstra.

I.4.3. Outline of the Thesis

The thesis consists of six chapters, including introduction and conclusion.

The first chapter deals with introduction of the subject of research

along with some explanations on the significance and relevance of the

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subject. It also contains a critical survey of the researches already done on
the topic fixing the scope of the present research. Methodology employed
in carrying out this research is also recorded. This chapter is a general
introduction about the importance of Abhidharmakośa-śāstra in
Buddhism, especially in Sarvāstivāda of Hīnayāna tradition. It also
contains a critical and exhaustive survey and comments in brief on some
of the important research works.

The second chapter introduces the concept of dharma in general, in

Buddhism. This chapter discusses the origin and significance of the word
dharma in Buddhism, especially in Theravāda, Sarvāstivāda,
Mādhyamika, and Yogācāra School. Dharma and abhidharma in Buddhist
literature and Abhidharmakośa, as well as different types of dharma in
Pāli and Sanskrit literature are also discussed in this chapter.

The third chapter deals with the concept of dharma in the

Abhidharmakośa-śāstra. In this chapter, biography of Vasubandhu and
overview of the Abhidharmakośa text is described with emphasis on the
place of the Abhidharmakośa in the Buddhist Philosophy. This chapter
also talks about the classification of dharma in both subjective and
objective manners.

The fourth chapter is an analysis of saṃskṛta and asaṃskṛta

dharmas. The saṃskṛta dharmas consist of seventy-two dharmas in
number; they are divided into four sub-groups, viz. rūpa (matter) which
consists of 11 dharmas, citta (mind) has 1 dharma, caitta (mental
functions) consists of 46 dharmas, and citta-viprayukta-saṃskāra
(conditions disjoined from mind) consists of 14 dharmas. The asaṃskṛta
dharmas are those which are not subject to cause or condition and they
are transcendental, unchanging, eternal, and inactive. There are three

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kinds of asaṃskṛta dharmas viz. ākāśa (space), pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha
(cessation through discrimination), and apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha
(cessation independent of discrimination).

The last section of this chapter deals with the relationship of

dharma between the Abhidharmakośa-śāstra and Yogācāra texts.

The fifth chapter deals with the Buddhist dharma and human life. In
this chapter, the philosophical significance of Buddhist theory of dharma,
religious life, and the relevance of the theory of dharma to hetu, pratyaya,
and phala are discussed. From this whole discussion, one can know the
contribution of the theory of dharma to philosophy and psychology. Finally
self transformation through the understanding of dharma is discussed in
this chapter.

The last chapter summarizes the previous chapters and offers

concluding remarks. This chapter, asserts the important role of the
concepts of dharma of Abhidharmakośa-śāstra in the Buddhist
philosophy, and gives suggestions for further study and proposals for a
modern view of Buddhist dharma and human life. Finally, an attempt is
made in this chapter to indicate how further research may be conducted in
order to fulfil a more complete picture of the dharma in early Buddhist
thought, especially in Sarvāstivāda school and Yogācāra school. This
study may further inspire to analyse dharma from Buddhist point of view.

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