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F321
Isotopes - Atoms of the same element - same number of protons and electrons
- same chemical reactions (speed varies) Physical properties such as melting
point and density varies
(Relative atomic mass x Abundance) + (repeat) / 100
+ Protons relative mass 1
Neutrons relative mass 1
- Electrons 1/2000th the mass of a proton
Relative Atomic Mass is the weighted mean mass of an atom of an
element compared with 1/12 of the mass of an atom of Carbon 12
Relative Isotopic Mass is the mass of an atom of an isotope compared with1/12
of the mass of an atom of Carbon 12
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Equations
Mole the amount of any substance containing as many particles as there are
carbon atoms in exactly 12g of the carbon-12 isotope
Number of moles = Mass / Atomic Molecular Mass
Empirical Formula simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element
present in a compound
Mass / Atomic Mass = Moles / smallest number = Ratio
Molar mass Number of atoms of each element in a molecule
Molecular Mass / Empirical = Number of molecules
Molecular Formula Number of atoms of each element in a molecule
Avogadro's Law for any gas the number of particles is always the same
Volume of gas (cm3) / 24 (24000) = Number of moles
Concentration x Volume [cm3/1000] = Number of moles
1 Mole is equivalent to 6.023 x 10^23 (Avogadro's number) units of any
substance.
Acids
Acid + Metal > Salt + Hydrogen
Acid + Metal Oxide > Salt + Water
Acid + Carbonate > Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
Neutralisation H+(aq) + OH-(aq) > H2O (l)
Acid + Alkali > Salt + Water
Salt - The H+ ion in an acid has been replaced by a metal ion
Acids - HCl, H2SO4, HNO3 Alkalis (soluble base) - metal oxides, metal
hydroxides, ammonia Finding x in hydrated solutions
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Mass of solution - mass after heated - Use empirical formula method
Redox / Disproportionation
Oxidation The number of electrons an element uses to bond to other atoms
Uncombined elements - Ca, He, O2, Cl2 - Oxidation number of 0
Combined oxygen - H2O, CO2 - Oxidation number of -2
Combined hydrogen - HCl - Oxidation number = +1
Ions Li+ = +1, Ca2+ = +2, Cl- = -1 Oxidation number = depends on charge
of ion
Metals generally lose electrons and have an increase in oxidation number
to form positive ions - oxidised Non-metals generally gain electrons and have
a decrease in oxidation number to form negative ions - reduced
Oxidation Involves Loss Reduction Involves Gain of electrons
Oxidation is an increase in oxidation number
Reduction is a decrease in oxidation number
Electron Structure
An atomic orbital is a space within an atom that can hold up to two electrons
with an opposite spin S-Orbital 2e- P-Orbital 6e- D-Orbital 10 e- F-Orbital
14 e-
Degenerate Orbitals (P, D, F)
The first ionisation energy of an element is the energy required to remove one
mole of electrons from a mole of gaseous atoms to form a mole of 1+ ions
X(g) > X(g) + e-
Depends on -
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Atomic Radius (smaller nuclear attraction)
Electron Shielding (inner electrons repel outer)
Nuclear Charge (attraction increases)
Lowest available energy needs to be filled up first (Chromium & Copper are
exceptions) - In the case of degenerate orbitals, the electrons are filled in singly
with a parallel spin, then pairing starts - Hund's rule - Half full or completely
full configuration is more stable
1st shell < 2nd shell < 3rd shell < 4th shell
s<p<d<f
1s2 < 2s2 < 2p6 < 3s2 < 3p6 < 4s2 < 3d10 < 4s6 <5s2 <4d10 < 5p2
Ionic bonding
NaCl MgO Al2O3 Metal+Non-metal
Positive and negative ions have strong electrostatic forces of attraction
High melting and boiling point
Conducts electricity when melted or dissolved in water as particles are
now free to move
Crystalline solids at room temperatureMost are soluble in water as ions
can separate
Hard but brittle, not malleable
Bigger the charges the stronger the bonding
Covalent bonding
H2 CH4 CO 2 Non-metal+ non- metal
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Covalent bonds are formed by atoms sharing electrons to form molecules -
strong electrical forces of attraction, weak intermolecular forces
Low melting and boiling point
Does not conduct electricity as there are no ions, does in water (electrolysis)
Soluble in non-polar solutions
Gas at room temperature
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High melting From
and boiling point
Most are soluble in water as ions can separate
Insoluble
Solid at room temperature
Malleability and ductility result from layers of atoms sliding over each other
Silvery surface that may be easily tarnished. Alloys are a mixture not
compound.
Electronegativity
Electro-negativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons
Linear 180°
Trigonal 120°
Tetrahedral 109.5°
Trigonal Pyramid 107° 1 lone pair
Non-linear 104.5° 2 lone pairs
Trigonal by-pyramid 120°
Octahedral 90°
Lone pairs have a bigger repulsion, which makes the bond angles smaller
Lone + Lone > Lone + Bond > Bond + Bond
Polar covalent
2.55 C --- F 3.98
+ --|----> -
e.g. - NH3 HCl
Good conductors in molten state - ions a free
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High melting and boiling points
Soluble in Water
Non-polar
H2, Cl2 H2O CCl4
(Dipole moments cancel each other out)
Poor conductors - no mobile electrons or ions
Low melting and boiling points - weak molecular forces
Insoluble in Water
The smaller the atom, the larger the electronegativity - less shielding and small
radius
Ionic bonding ------- Polar covalent ------- Non-polar covalent
Full charges ------- Partial charges ------- Electronically symmetrical
Polar covalent - Intermolecular forces of attraction need to be overcome
Non-polar covalent - Weak intermolecular forcers and temporary dipoles
Wan der Waals forces are attractive forces between induced dipoles in
neighbouring molecules.
Atomic Radius Half the distance between two atomic nuclei - in a covalent
or metallic lattice
Across a period Increase in nuclear charge, reduction in radius, higher
attractive force
Down a group Addition of electron shells, more shielding effect, increase in
radius, lesser attractive forces
Group 2
Alkali Earth Metals
Beryllium (Be)
Magnesium (Mg)
Calcium (Ca)
Strontium (Sr)
Barium (Ba)
Radium (Ra)
2M + O2 > 2MO M + H2O > MO + H2 M + 2H2O > M(OH)2 + H2
Low densities High melting / boiling points Colourless states Oxidises Going
down the group
More reactive
More alkaline
More soluble
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More shells
Atomic radius increase
1st ionisation energy decreases
Group 7 Halogens
Fluorine (F)
Chlorine (Cl)
Bromine (Br)
Iodine (I)
Astatine (At)
Cl2 + 2Br- > 2Cl- + Br2 orange in water and cyclohexane
Cl2 + 2I- > 2Cl- + I2 brown in water and purple in cyclohexane
Br2 + 2I- > 2Br- + I2 brown in water and purple in cyclohexane
Ag+ + Cl- > AgCl white precipitate dissolves in dilute ammonia
Ag+ + Br- > AgBr cream precipitate dissolves in concentrated ammonia
Ag+ + I- > AgI yellow precipitate does not dissolve
Going down the group Less reactive
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