Combustibility and flammability - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Combustibility_and_flammability

Combustibility and flammability

A combustible material is something that can combust (burn) in air. Flammable
materials are combustible materials that ignite easily at ambient temperatures. In other
words, a combustible material ignites with some effort and a flammable material catches
fire immediately on exposure to flame.

The degree of flammability or combustibility in air depends largely upon the volatility of
the material - this is related to its composition-specific vapour pressure, which is
temperature dependent. The quantity of vapour produced can be enhanced by increasing
the surface area of the material forming a mist or dust. Take wood as an example. Finely
divided wood dust can undergo explosive combustion and produce a blast wave. A piece of DIN4102 Flammability Class B1
paper (made from wood) catches on fire quite easily. A heavy oak desk is much harder to Vertical Shaft Furnace at
ignite, even though the wood fibre is the same in all three materials. Technische Universität
Braunschweig, Germany
Common sense (and indeed scientific consensus until the mid-1700s) would seem to
suggest that material "disappears" when burned, as only the ash is left. In fact, there is an
increase in weight because the combustible material reacts (or combines) chemically with
oxygen, which also has mass. The original mass of combustible material and the mass of
the oxygen required for combustion equals the mass of the combustion products (ash,
water, carbon dioxide, and other gases). Antoine Lavoisier, one of the pioneers in these
early insights, stated that Nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed,
which would later be known as the law of conservation of mass. Lavoisier used the
experimental fact that some metals gained mass when they burned to support his ideas.

Sample Holder for DIN4102

Contents Flammability Class B1 Vertical Shaft
Furnace
Definitions
Flammability
Testing
Furniture flammability
Examples of flammable substances
Examples of nonflammable liquids
Classification of flammability
Codes
Flammability
Combustibility
Code definitions
Fire testing
The international pictogram for
Combustible dust flammable chemicals
Categorization of building materials
Important characteristics
Flash point
Vapor pressure
See also
Notes
References
External links

Definitions

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Historically, flammable, inflammable and combustible meant capable of burning.[1]

The word "inflammable" came through French from the Latin inflammāre = "to set fire
to," where the Latin preposition "in-"[2] means "in" as in "indoctrinate", rather than
"not" as in "invisible" and "ineligible".

The word "inflammable" may be erroneously thought to mean "non-flammable".[3] The

erroneous usage of the word "inflammable" is a significant safety hazard. Therefore,
since the 1950s, efforts to put forward the use of "flammable" in place of "inflammable"
were accepted by linguists, and it is now the accepted standard in American English
and British English.[4][5] Antonyms of "flammable" or "inflammable" include: non-
flammable, non-inflammable, incombustible, non-combustible, not flammable, and
fireproof.

Flammable applies to combustible materials that ignite easily and thus are more
dangerous and more highly regulated. Less easily ignited less-vigorously burning
materials are combustible. For example, in the United States flammable liquids, by
definition, have a flash point below 100 °F (38 °C)—where combustible liquids have a
flash point above 100 °F (38 °C). Flammable solids are solids that are readily
combustible, or may cause or contribute to fire through friction. Readily combustible
solids are powdered, granular, or pasty substances that easily ignite by brief contact German test apparatus for determining
with an ignition source, such as a burning match, and spread flame rapidly.[6] The combustibility at Technische Universität
technical definitions vary between countries so the United Nations created the Globally Braunschweig
Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals, which defines the
flash point temperature of flammable liquids as between 0 and 140 °F (60 °C) and
combustible liquids between 140 °F (60 °C) and 200 °F (93 °C).[6]

Flammability
Flammability is the ease with which a combustible substance can be ignited, causing fire or combustion or even an explosion.
The degree of difficulty required to cause the combustion of a substance is quantified through fire testing. Internationally, a
variety of test protocols exist to quantify flammability. The ratings achieved are used in building codes, insurance requirements,
fire codes and other regulations governing the use of building materials as well as the storage and handling of highly flammable
substances inside and outside of structures and in surface and air transportation. For instance, changing an occupancy by
altering the flammability of the contents requires the owner of a building to apply for a building permit to make sure that the
overall fire protection design basis of the facility can take the change into account.

Testing

A fire test can be conducted to determine the degree of flammability. Test standards used to make this determination but are
not limited to the following:

Underwriters Laboratories UL 94 Flammability Testing (http://ulstandards.ul.com/standard/?id=94&edition=6&doctype=ulst

d)
International Electrotechnical Commission IEC 60707, 60695-11-10 and 60695-11-20
International Organization for Standardization ISO 9772 and 9773.
National Fire Protection Association NFPA 287 Standard Test Methods for Measurement of Flammability of Materials in
Cleanrooms Using a Fire Propagation Apparatus (FPA) (http://www.nfpa.org/aboutthecodes/AboutTheCodes.asp?DocNum
=287)
NFPA 701: Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Flame Propagation of Textiles and Films (http://www.nfpa.org/aboutthecodes
/AboutTheCodes.asp?DocNum=701)
NFPA 850: Recommended Practice for Fire Protection for Electric Generating Plants and High Voltage Direct Current
Converter Stations (http://www.nfpa.org/aboutthecodes/AboutTheCodes.asp?DocNum=850)

Furniture flammability

Flammability of furniture is of concern as cigarettes and candle accidents can trigger domestic fires. In 1975, California began
implementing Technical Bulletin 117 (TB 117), which required that materials such as polyurethane foam used to fill furniture be
able to withstand a small open flame, equivalent to a candle, for at least 12 seconds.[7] In polyurethane foam, furniture
manufacturers typically meet TB 117 with additive halogenated organic flame retardants. No other U.S. states had similar

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standards, but because California has such a large market, manufacturers meet TB 117 in products that they distribute across
the United States. The proliferation of flame retardants, and especially halogenated organic flame retardants, in furniture
across the United States is strongly linked to TB 117. When it became apparent that the risk-benefit ratio of this approach was
unfavorable and industry had used falsified documentation (i.e. see David Heimbach) for the use of flame retardants, California
modified TB 117 to require that fabric covering upholstered furniture meet a smolder test replacing the open flame test.[8] Gov.
Jerry Brown signed the modified TB117-2013, which became effective in 2014.[9]

Examples of flammable substances

Flammable substances include, but are not limited to:

Gasoline - Petrol / a complicated mixture of hydrocarbons that includes isomers of octane, C8H18
Ethanol / CH3CH2OH
Rubber
Isopropyl alcohol / CH3CH(OH)CH3
Methanol / CH3OH
Wood
Acetone / CH3COCH3
Paper
Nitromethane / CH3NO2

Examples of nonflammable liquids

Water
Carbon tetrachloride
Diesel fuel[10]

Classification of flammability

The US Government uses the Hazardous Materials Identification System (HMIS) standard for flammability ratings, as do many
US regulatory agencies, and also the US National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).

The ratings are as follows:

Rating Degree of flammability Examples

0 Materials that do not burn water

lubricating oils, cooking

1 Materials that must be preheated before they ignite
oils

Materials that must be moderately heated or exposed to relatively high ambient temperatures before they
2 diesel fuel
ignite

3 Liquids and solids that can ignite under almost all temperature conditions gasoline, acetone

Materials that rapidly vaporize at atmospheric pressure and normal temperatures, or readily disperse in air natural gas, propane,
4
and burn readily butane

Codes

Flammability

For existing buildings, fire codes focus on maintaining the occupancies as originally intended. In other words, if a portion of a
building were designed as an apartment, one could not suddenly load it with flammable liquids and turn it into a gas storage
facility, because the fire load and smoke development in that one apartment would be so immense as to overtax the active fire
protection as well as the passive fire protection means for the building. The handling and use of flammable substances inside a
building is subject to the local fire code, which is ordinarily enforced by the local fire prevention officer.

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Combustibility
Combustibility is a measure of how easily a substance bursts into flame, through fire or combustion. This is an important
property to consider when a substance is used for construction or is being stored. It is also important in processes that produce
combustible substances as a by-product. Special precautions are usually required for substances that are easily combustible.
These measures may include installation of fire sprinklers or storage remote from possible sources of ignition.

Substances with low combustibility may be selected for construction where the fire risk must be reduced, such as apartment
buildings, houses, or offices. If combustible resources are used there is greater chance of fire accidents and deaths. Fire
resistant substances are preferred for building materials and furnishings.

Code definitions

For an Authority Having Jurisdiction, combustibility is defined by the local code. In the National Building Code of Canada, it is
defined as follows:

Combustible: A material that fails to meet acceptance criteria of CAN/ULC-S114, Standard Method of Test for
Determination of Noncombustibility in Building Materials (https://web.archive.org/web/20061003193651/http://www.ulc.ca/A
bout_ulc/Publication_Notice_Detail.asp?PN_ID=31).

This leads to the definition of noncombustible:

Non-combustible: means that a material meets the acceptance criteria of CAN4-S114, "Standard Method of Test for
Determination of Non-Combustibility in Building Materials (https://web.archive.org/web/20061003193651/http://www.ulc.ca/
About_ulc/Publication_Notice_Detail.asp?PN_ID=31)".

BS 476-4:1970 defines a test for combustibility in which a technician heats three specimens of a material in a furnace. Non-
combustibile materials are those for which none of the three specimens either:

Makes the temperature reading from either of two thermocouples rise by 50 degrees Celsius or more above the initial
furnace temperature
Flame continuously for 10 seconds or more inside the furnace

Otherwise, the material is classified as combustible.

Fire testing

Various countries have tests for determining noncombustibility of materials. Most involve the heating of a specified quantity of
the test specimen for a set duration. Usually, the material must not support combustion and must not lose more than a certain
amount of mass. As a general rule of thumb, concrete, steel, and ceramics - in other words inorganic substances - pass these
tests, so building codes list them as suitable and sometimes even mandate their use in certain applications. In Canada, for
instance, firewalls must be made of concrete.

Combustible dust

A number of industrial processes produce combustible dust as a by-product. The most common being wood dust. Combustible
dust has been defined as: a solid material composed of distinct particles or pieces, regardless of size, shape, or chemical
composition, which presents a fire or deflagration hazard when suspended in air or some other oxidizing medium over a
range of concentrations.[11] In addition to wood, combustible dusts include metals, especially magnesium, titanium and
aluminum, as well as other carbon-based dusts.[11] There are at least a 140 known substances that produce combustible
dust.[12]:38[13] While the particles in a combustible dusts may be of any size, normally they have a diameter of less than
420 μm.[11][note 1] As of 2012, the United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration has yet to adopt a
comprehensive set of rules on combustible dust.[14]

When suspended in air (or any oxidizing environment), the fine particles of combustible dust present a potential for explosions.
Accumulated dust, even when not suspended in air, remains a fire hazard. The National Fire Protection Association (U.S.)
specifically addresses the prevention of fires and dust explosions in agricultural and food products facilities in NFPA Code
section 61,[15] and other industries in NFPA Code sections 651–664.[note 2] Collectors designed to reduce airborne dust account
for more than 40 percent of all dust explosions.[16] Other important processes are grinding and pulverizing, transporting

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powders, filing silos and containers (which produces powder), and the mixing and blending of powders.[17]

Investigation of 200 dust explosions and fires, between 1980 to 2005, indicated approximately 100 fatalities and 600 injuries.
[12]:105–106 In January 2003, a polyethylene powder explosion and fire at the West Pharmaceutical Services plant in Kinston,

North Carolina resulted in the deaths of six workers and injuries to 38 others.[12]:104 In February 2008 an explosion of sugar
dust rocked the Imperial Sugar Company's plant at Port Wentworth, Georgia,[18] resulting in thirteen deaths.[19]

Non-combustible material[20] – A non-combustible material is a substance that does not ignite, burn, support combustion,
or release flammable vapors when subject to fire or heat, in the form in which it is used and under conditions anticipated. Any
solid substance complying with either of two sets of passing criteria listed in Section 8 of ASTM E 136 when the substance is
tested in accordance with the procedure specified in ASTM E 136 is considered to be non-combustible.

Categorization of building materials

DIN4102 A1 DIN4102 A2 DIN 4102 B1 DIN 4102 B2: DIN 4102 B3:
noncombustible gypsum fireproofing (difficult to Timber, normal Polyurethane foam
rockwool plaster leavened ignite/often self- combustibility (easy to ignite =
with polystyrene extinguishing) many hydrocarbon
beads Silicone caulking bonds usually)
used as a
component in
firestopping piping
penetration

Materials can be tested for the degree of flammability and combustibility in accordance with the German DIN (http://www.din.
de/) 4102. DIN 4102, as well as its British cousin BS (http://www.bsi-global.com/) 476 include for testing of passive fire
protection systems, as well as some of its constituent materials.

The following are the categories in order of degree of combustibility and flammability:

Rating Degree of flammability Examples

A1 100% noncombustible (nicht brennbar)

A2 ≈98% noncombustible (nicht brennbar)

B1 Difficult to ignite (schwer entflammbar) intumescents and some high end silicones

B2 Normal combustibility wood

B3 Easily ignited (leicht entflammbar) polystyrene

A more recent industrial standard is the European EN 13501-1 - Fire classification of construction products and building
elements—which roughly replaces A2 with A2/B, B1 with C, B2 with D/E and B3 with F.

B3 or F rated materials may not be used in building unless combined with another material that reduces the flammability of
those materials.

Important characteristics

Flash point

A material's flash point is a metric of how easy it is to ignite the vapor of the material as it evaporates into the atmosphere. A

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lower flash point indicates higher flammability. Materials with flash points below 100 °F (38 °C) are regulated in the United
States by OSHA as potential workplace hazards.

Vapor pressure
The vapor pressure of a liquid, which varies with its temperature, is a measure of how much the vapor of the liquid tends to
concentrate in the surrounding atmosphere as the liquid evaporates. Vapor pressure is a major determinant of the flash
point, with higher vapor pressures leading to lower flash points and higher flammability.

See also
Explosive material
Fire
Fire test
Fire protection
Active fire protection
Passive fire protection
Flammable liquids
Flammable limit
Underwriters Laboratories

Notes
1. I.e. they can pass through a U.S. No. 40 standard sieve.
2. E.g. NFPA 651 (aluminium), NFPA 652 (magnesium), NFPA 655 (sulphur)

References
1. inflammable, a. (n.) 1. combustible a. and n. 1. Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 2009. CD-rom.
2. "flammable", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 5th ed. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing
Company. 2014. accessed 3/11/2015 (https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?id=F5165900)
3. Sherk, Bill. "fireproof", 500 Years of New Words. Toronto: Dundurn, 2004. 96. Print.
4. Garner, Bryan A., Garner's Modern American Usage. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2009. 357. Print.
5. "INFLAMMABLE" (http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/inflammable.html). Common Errors in English Usage. Washington
State University. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
6. "The Guide to The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS). Occupational Safety &
Health Administration, U.S. Department of Labor" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070702005153/http://www.osha.gov/dsg/h
azcom/ghs.html). Archived from the original (https://www.osha.gov/dsg/hazcom/ghs.html) on 2007-07-02. Retrieved
2015-03-12.
7. California Department of Consumer Affairs, Bureau of Home Furnishings (2000). Technical Bulletin 117: Requirements, test
procedure and apparatus for testing the flame retardance of resilient filling (https://web.archive.org/web/20140611110503/ht
tp://www.bhfti.ca.gov/industry/117.pdf) (PDF) (Report). pp. 1–8. Archived from the original (http://www.bhfti.ca.gov/industry/
117.pdf) (PDF) on 2014-06-11. Retrieved 2014-11-04.
8. "Notice of Proposed New Flammability Standards for Upholstered Furniture/Articles Exempt from Flammability Standards"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20130524025726/http://www.bhfti.ca.gov/about/laws/propregs.shtml). Department of
Consumer Affairs, Bureau of Electronic and Appliance Repair, Home Furnishings and Thermal Insulation. Archived from the
original (http://www.bhfti.ca.gov/about/laws/propregs.shtml) on 2013-05-24. Retrieved 2014-11-04.
9. "Calif. law change sparks debate over use of flame retardants in furniture" (https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/nation-jan-jun
e14-flame_01-01/). PBS Newshour. January 1, 2014. Retrieved November 1, 2014.
10. Martin Oil Safety Brochure (http://www.martinoilco.com/usr/SafetyBrochure.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2016
0804142119/http://www.martinoilco.com/usr/SafetyBrochure.pdf) 2016-08-04 at the Wayback Machine, subtitle: Gasoline is
Highly Flammable. Diesel Fuel is Combustible.
11. United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (2009) "Hazard Communication Guidance for Combustible
Dusts" (http://www.osha.gov/Publications/3371combustible-dust.html), OSHA 3371-08, Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, U.S. Department of Labor

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12. United States Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board (17 November 2006), Investigation Report No. 2006-H-1,
Combustible Dust Hazard Study (https://web.archive.org/web/20161221025305/http://www.csb.gov/assets/1/19/Dust_Final
_Report_Website_11-17-06.pdf) (PDF), Washington, D.C.: U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board,
OCLC 246682805 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/246682805), archived from the original (http://www.csb.gov/assets/1/19/D
ust_Final_Report_Website_11-17-06.pdf) (PDF) on 21 December 2016, retrieved 21 August 2017
13. National Materials Advisory Board, Panel on Classification of Combustible Dusts of the Committee on Evaluation of
Industrial Hazards (1980) Classification of combustible dusts in accordance with the national electrical code Publication
NMAB 353-3, National Research Council (U.S.), Washington, D.C., OCLC 8391202 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/839120
2)
14. Smith, Sandy (7 February 2012) "Only OSHA Has Not Adopted Chemical Safety Board Recommendations Stemming from
Imperial Sugar Explosion" (http://ehstoday.com/standards/osha/csb-osha-combustible-dust/) EHS Today
15. "NFPA 61 Standard for the Prevention of Fires and Dust Explosions in Agricultural and Food Processing Facilities" (http://w
ww.nfpa.org/aboutthecodes/AboutTheCodes.asp?DocNum=61)
16. Zalosh, Robert et al. (April 2005) "Dust Explosion Scenarios and Case Histories in the CCPS Guidelines for Safe Handling
of Powders and Bulk Solids" (http://www.firexplo.com/images/Dust_Explosion_Scenario_Paper.pdf) 39th AIChE Loss
Prevention Symposium Session on Dust Explosions Atlanta, Georgia
17. O'Brien, Michael (2008) "Controlling Static Hazards is Key to Preventing Combustible Cloud Explosions" Newton Gale, Inc.
(http://www.newson-gale.com/Documents/Controlling%20Static%20Hazards%20is%20Key%20to%20Preventing%20Comb
ustible%20Cloud%20Explosions.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120507171204/http://www.newson-gale.com
/Documents/Controlling%20Static%20Hazards%20is%20Key%20to%20Preventing%20Combustible%20Cloud%20Explosio
ns.pdf) 2012-05-07 at the Wayback Machine
18. The chief executive, John C. Sheptor, said the probable cause of the explosion was sugar dust building up in storage
areas, which could have been ignited by static electricity or a spark. Dewan, Shaila (9 February 2008). "Lives and a
Georgia Community's Anchor Are Lost" (https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/09/us/09sugar.html?_r=1&adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1
214147101-FDxU4jy1oY6rejeUzZaMJg&oref=slogin). The New York Times. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
19. Chapman, Dan (13 April 2008). "Sugar refinery near Savannah determined to rebuild" (https://web.archive.org/web/201106
29033532/http://www.ajc.com/metro/content/business/stories/2008/04/12/sugar_0413.html). The Atlanta Journal-
Constitution. Archived from the original (http://www.ajc.com/metro/content/business/stories/2008/04/12/sugar_0413.html)
on June 29, 2011. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
20. "NCDOI OSFM Evaluation Services: Subject of White Paper: Classification of Building Materials According to
Combustibility" (http://www.ncdoi.com/OSFM/Engineering_and_Codes/Documents/whitepaper_2012/2012%20Non-Combu
stible%20Material_.pdf) (PDF). www.ncdoi.com. 8 September 2011. Retrieved 6 December 2018.

External links
Videos showing flammability of cables based on jacket rating (https://web.archive.org/web/20161122100250/http://www.l-co
m.com/multimedia/video_clips/video.aspx?ID=13100)
Fire Performance of Ageing Cable Compounds, NFPA Treatise by Dr. Perry Marteny (https://web.archive.org/web/2008021
6103933/http://www.nfpa.org/assets/files/PDF/Proceedings/Marteny_presentation.pdf)
Fire Testing Laboratory (https://web.archive.org/web/20160517142032/http://www.ntainc.com/testing/fire.html)
CAN4-S114 CAN/ULC-S114 Abstract (https://web.archive.org/web/20061003193651/http://www.ulc.ca/About_ulc/Publicatio
n_Notice_Detail.asp?PN_ID=31)
iBMB/TU Braunschweig Governmental Lab for Testing Building Materials (http://www.ibmb.tu-braunschweig.de/)
BAM Abstract and Picture of Noncombustibility Test in Progress (https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191600/http://www.
bam.de/de/geraete_objekte/fg73_nichtbrennbarkeitsofen.htm)
ASTM E136 Standard Test Method for Behavior of Materials in a Vertical Tube Furnace at 750°C abstract (http://www.astm.
org/Standards/E136.htm)
"Combustible Dust: Agricultural Related Fires and Explosions Increasing, but Preventable" (https://web.archive.org/web/201
20515210447/http://www.nclabor.com/osha/etta/hazard_alerts/combdust_agriculture.pdf) Division of Occupational Safety
and Health, N.C. Department of Labor
Combustible Dust: A Major Hot Work Hazard" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120515211048/http://www.nclabor.com/osha/
etta/hazard_alerts/combdust_hotwork.pdf) Division of Occupational Safety and Health, N.C. Department of Labor

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