Dust explosion - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

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Dust explosion
A dust explosion is the rapid combustion of fine particles suspended in the air within an
enclosed location. Dust explosions can occur where any dispersed powdered combustible material
is present in high-enough concentrations in the atmosphere or other oxidizing gaseous medium,
such as pure oxygen. In cases when fuel plays the role of a combustible material, the explosion is
known as a fuel-air explosion.

Dust explosions are a frequent hazard in coal mines, grain elevators, and other industrial
environments. They are also commonly used by special effects artists, filmmakers, and
pyrotechnicians, given their spectacular appearance and ability to be safely contained under
certain carefully controlled conditions.

Thermobaric weapons utilize this principle by rapidly saturating an area with an easily
combustible material and then igniting it to produce explosive force. These weapons are the most
powerful non-nuclear weapons in the world.[1] Lab demonstration with
burning lycopodium powder

Contents
Terminology
Conditions required
Sources of dust
Concentration
Oxidant
Sources of ignition
Mechanism
Effects
Protection and mitigation
Notable incidents
See also
References
External links

Terminology
If rapid combustion occurs in a confined space, enormous overpressures can build up, causing major structural damage and
flying debris. The sudden release of energy from a "detonation" can produce a shockwave, either in open air or in a confined
space. If the spread of flame is at subsonic speed, the phenomenon is sometimes called a "deflagration", although looser usage
calls both phenomena "explosions".

Dust explosions may be classified as being either "primary" or "secondary" in nature. Primary dust explosions may occur inside
process equipment or similar enclosures, and are generally controlled by pressure relief through purpose-built ducting to the
external atmosphere. Secondary dust explosions are the result of dust accumulation inside a building being disturbed and
ignited by the primary explosion, resulting in a much more dangerous uncontrolled explosion that can affect the entire
structure. Historically, fatalities from dust explosions have largely been the result of secondary dust explosions.[2]

Conditions required
There are five necessary conditions for a dust explosion:[3]

A combustible dust
The dust is dispersed in the air at a sufficiently high concentration

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There is an oxidant (typically atmospheric oxygen)

There is an ignition source
The area is confined—a building can be an enclosure

Sources of dust

Many common materials which are known to burn can generate a dust explosion, such as
coal and sawdust. In addition, many otherwise mundane organic materials can also be
dispersed into a dangerous dust cloud, such as grain, flour, starch, sugar, powdered milk,
cocoa, coffee, and pollen. Powdered metals (such as aluminum, magnesium, and titanium)
can form explosive suspensions in air, if finely divided. Diagram showing the five
requirements for a dust explosion
Explosive dust can arise from activities such as transporting grain, and grain silos have
often been demolished violently. Mining of coal leads to coal dust, and flour mills likewise
have large amounts of flour dust as a result of milling. A gigantic explosion of flour dust
destroyed a mill in Minnesota on May 2, 1878, killing 18 workers at the Washburn A Mill
and another four in adjacent buildings.[4] A similar problem occurs in sawmills and other
places dedicated to woodworking.

Since the advent of industrial production–scale metal powder–based additive

manufacturing (AM) in the 2010s, there is growing need for more information and
experience with preventing dust explosions and fires from the traces of excess metal
powder sometimes left over after laser sintering or other fusion methods.[5] For example, in 1878 stereograph rendering of the
machining operations downstream of the AM build, excess powder liberated from Great Mill Disaster
porosities in the support structures can be exposed to sparks from the cutting interface.[5]
Efforts are underway not only to build this knowledgebase within the industry but also to
share it with local fire departments, who do periodic fire-safety inspections of businesses in
their districts and who can expect to answer alarms at shops or plants where AM is now
part of the production mix.[5]

Although not strictly a dust, paper particles emitted during processing - especially rolling,
unrolling, calendaring/slitting, and sheet-cutting - are also known to pose an explosion
hazard. Enclosed paper mill areas subject to such dangers commonly maintain very high
air humidities to reduce the chance of airborne paper dust explosions.
Mount Mulligan mine disaster in
In special effects pyrotechnics, lycopodium powder[2] and non-dairy creamer[6] are two Australia 1921. These cable drums
common means of producing safe, controlled fire effects. were blown 50 feet (15 m) from their
foundations following a coal dust
To support rapid combustion, the dust must consist of very small particles with a high explosion.
surface area to volume ratio, thereby making the collective or combined surface area of all
the particles very large in comparison to a dust of larger particles. Dust is defined as
powders with particles less than about 500 micrometres in diameter, but finer dust will
present a much greater hazard than coarse particles by virtue of the larger total surface
area of all the particles.

Concentration

Below a certain value, the lower explosive limit (LEL), there is insufficient dust to support
the combustion at the rate required for an explosion.[7] A combustible concentration at or
Aftermath of 2008 explosion at
below 25% of the LEL is considered safe.[8] Similarly, if the fuel to air ratio increases above Imperial Sugar in Port Wentworth,
the upper explosive limit (UEL), there is insufficient oxidant to permit combustion to Georgia, US
continue at the necessary rate.

Determining the minimum explosive concentration or maximum explosive concentration

of dusts in air is difficult, and consulting different sources can lead to quite different results. Typical explosive ranges in air are
from few dozens grams/m3 for the minimum limit, to few kg/m3 for the maximum limit. For example, the LEL for sawdust has
been determined to be between 40 and 50 grams/m3.[9] It depends on many factors including the type of material used.

Oxidant

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Typically, normal atmospheric oxygen can be sufficient to support a dust explosion if the other necessary conditions are also
present. High-oxygen or pure oxygen environments are considered to be especially hazardous, as are strong oxidizing gases
such as chlorine and fluorine. Also, particulate suspensions of compounds with a high oxidative potential, such as peroxides,
chlorates, nitrates, perchlorates, and dichromates, can increase risk of an explosion if combustible materials are also present.

Sources of ignition

There are many sources of ignition, and a naked flame need not be the only one: over one half of the dust explosions in
Germany in 2005 were from non-flame sources.[7] Common sources of ignition include:

electrostatic discharge (e.g. an improperly installed conveyor belt, which can act like a Van de Graaff generator)
friction
electrical arcing from machinery or other equipment
hot surfaces (e.g. overheated bearings)
fire
self-ignition

However, it is often difficult to determine the exact source of ignition when investigating after an explosion. When a source
cannot be found, ignition will often be attributed to static electricity. Static charges can be generated by external sources, or can
be internally generated by friction at the surfaces of particles themselves as they collide or move past one another.

Mechanism
Dusts have a very large surface area compared to their mass. Since burning can only occur at the surface of a solid or liquid,
where it can react with oxygen, this causes dusts to be much more flammable than bulk materials. For example, a 1 kilogram
(2.2 lb) sphere of a combustible material with a density of 1 g/cm3 would be about 12.4 centimetres (4.9 in) in diameter, and
have a surface area of 0.048 square metres (0.52 sq ft). However, if it were broken up into spherical dust particles 50 µm in
diameter (about the size of flour particles) it would have a surface area of 120 square metres (1,300 sq ft). This greatly-
increased surface area allows the material to burn much faster, and the extremely small mass of each particle allows them to
catch on fire with much less energy than the bulk material, as there is no heat loss to conduction within the material.

When this mixture of fuel and air is ignited, especially in a confined space such as a warehouse or silo, a significant increase in
pressure is created, often more than sufficient to demolish the structure. Even materials that are traditionally thought of as
nonflammable (such as aluminum), or slow burning (such as wood), can produce a powerful explosion when finely divided, and
can be ignited by even a small spark.

Demonstration of an open-air dust explosion

Experimental setup Finely-ground flour is Cloud of flour is ignited Fireball spreads rapidly
dispersed

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Aftermath of
Intense radiant heat Fireball and explosion, with
has nothing to ignite superheated gases rise unburned flour on the
here ground

Effects
A dust explosion can cause major damage to structures, equipment, and personnel from violent overpressure or shockwave
effects. Flying objects and debris can cause further damage. Intense radiant heat from a fireball can ignite the surroundings, or
cause severe skin burns in unprotected persons. In a tightly enclosed space, the sudden depletion of oxygen can cause
asphyxiation. Where the dust is carbon based (such as in a coal mine), incomplete combustion may cause large amounts of
carbon monoxide (the miners' after-damp) to be created. This can cause more deaths than the original explosion as well as
hindering rescue attempts.[10][11]

Protection and mitigation

Much research has been carried out in Europe and elsewhere to understand how to control these
dangers, but dust explosions still occur. The alternatives for making processes and plants safer
depend on the industry.

In the coal mining industry, a methane explosion can initiate a coal dust explosion, which can then
engulf an entire mine pit. As a precaution, incombustible stone dust may be spread along mine
roadways, or stored in trays hanging from the roof, to dilute the coal dust stirred up by a
shockwave to the point where it cannot burn. Mines may also be sprayed with water to inhibit
ignition.

Some industries exclude oxygen from dust-raising processes, a precaution known as "inerting".
Typically this uses nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or argon, which are incombustible gases which can
displace oxygen. The same method is also used in large storage tanks where flammable vapors can
accumulate. However, use of oxygen-free gases brings a risk of asphyxiation of the workers.
This American poster
Workers who need illumination in enclosed spaces where a dust explosion is a high risk often use
during World War I warned
lamps designed for underwater divers, as they have no risk of producing an open spark due to
about grain dust explosions
their sealed waterproof design.

Good housekeeping practices, such as eliminating build-up of combustible dust deposits that
could be disturbed and lead to a secondary explosion, also help mitigate the problem.

Best engineering control measures which can be found in the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Combustible Dust
Standards[12] include:

Wetting
Oxidant concentration reduction
Deflagration venting
Deflagration pressure containment
Deflagration suppression
Deflagration venting through a dust retention and flame-arresting device

Notable incidents
Dust clouds are a common source of explosions, causing an estimated 2,000 explosions annually in Europe.[13] The table lists
notable incidents worldwide.

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Source
Event Date Location Country Fatalities Injuries Notes
material

Destroyed the largest grain

mill in the world and leveled
five other mills, effectively
reducing the milling capacity
Washburn "A" Mill Minneapolis, United of Minneapolis by one-third
May 2, 1878 grain dust 22
explosion Minnesota States to one-half. Prompted mills
throughout the country to
install better ventilation
systems to prevent dust
build-up.

The blast was felt for miles

Feed
Milwaukee Works Milwaukee, United around and completely
May 20, 1919 grinding 3 4
explosion Wisconsin States leveled the plant owned by
plant
the company.

The blast was felt for miles

Cedar
Douglas Starch United around and completely
May 22, 1919 Rapids, corn starch 43 30
Works explosion States leveled the plant owned by
Iowa
the company.

Blast also destroyed the

Port Colborne Port
August 9, 1919 grain 10 16 steamer Quebec, which was
explosion Colborne Canada
near the grain elevator

Originated in basement of
Large terminal
Kansas City, United elevator, during a cleanup
grain elevator in September 13, 1919 14 10
Missouri States period, and travelled up
Kansas City
through the elevator shaft

The series of coal dust

explosions within a mine
Mount
Mount Mulligan rocked the close-knit
September 19, 1921 Mulligan, coal dust 75
mine disaster Australia township and was audible as
Queensland
far as 30 kilometres (19 mi)
away.

34% of the miners working

Benxihu Colliery Benxi, Manchukuo coal dust that day were killed. This is
April 26, 1942 1,549
explosion Liaoning (now and gas the world's worst-ever coal-
China) mining accident.

Westwego grain Westwego, United [14]

December 22, 1977 grain dust 36 13
elevator explosion Louisiana States

Galveston grain Galveston, United [14]

December 27, 1977 grain dust 20
elevator explosion Texas States

Bird's Custard United [13][15]

November 18, 1981 Banbury corn starch 9
factory explosion Kingdom

Metz malt factory France [16]

October 18, 1982 Metz barley dust 12 1
explosion

Harbin textile China [17]

March 17, 1987 Harbin flax dust 58 177
factory explosion

Explosion in a grain storage

facility at the Société
Blaye grain d’Exploitation Maritime
August 1997 Blaye France grain dust 11 1
explosion Blayaise killed 11 people in
nearby offices and injured
one.[13]

West
Kinston,
Pharmaceutical United polyethylene
January 29, 2003 North 6 38
Services States dust
Carolina
explosion

Port
Imperial Sugar United [13]
February 7, 2008 Wentworth, sugar dust 14 42
explosion States
Georgia

2014 Kunshan China metal

August 2, 2014 Kunshan 146 114
explosion powder

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Source
Event Date Location Country Fatalities Injuries Notes
material

Explosion when Holi-like

colored colored powder was released
Formosa Fun Taiwan
June 27, 2015 New Taipei starch 15 498 at an outdoor music and
Coast explosion
powder color festival at the Formosa
Fun Coast.

Bosley wood flour Bosley, United [18][19]

July 17, 2015 wood flour 4 4
mill explosion Cheshire Kingdom

See also
Air to fuel ratio
Thermobaric weapon

References
1. Harding, Luke (2007-09-11). "Russia unveils the 'father of all bombs' " (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/sep/12/rus
sia.lukeharding). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077). Retrieved 2019-01-19.
2. Eckhoff, Rolf K. (1997). Dust Explosions in the Process Industries (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3270-4.
3. "OSHA Fact Sheet: Hazard Alert: Combustible Dust Explosions" (https://www.osha.gov/OshDoc/data_General_Facts/OSH
Acombustibledust.pdf) (PDF). osha.gov. Retrieved 2018-01-23.
4. Nathanson, Iric. "The 1878 Washburn A Mill Explosion" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140408222412/http://www.mnopedi
a.org/event/1878-washburn-mill-explosion). MNopedia. Archived from the original (http://www.mnopedia.org/event/1878-wa
shburn-mill-explosion) on 2014-04-08. Retrieved 2014-04-08.
5. Simpson, Timothy W. (2017-08-17), "Will My AM Part Explode? Not if you're careful. Parts built from metallic powder
require extra precautions" (https://www.mmsonline.com/columns/will-my-am-part-explode), Modern Machine Shop.
6. "Detonation Films - Why Coffee Creamer?" (http://www.detonationfilms.com/Fireball_demo.htm). Retrieved March 20, 2011.
7. "Dust explosion protection" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061210052316/https://www.bartec.de/homepage/eng/downloads
/produkte/staubexschutz/Dust_Ex.pdf) (PDF). bartec.de. 2005. Archived from the original (http://bartec.de/homepage/eng/d
ownloads/produkte/staubexschutz/Dust_Ex.pdf) (PDF) on 2006-12-10.
8. NFPA 69 8.3.1
9. "Dust explosion concentration — Physical meaning and use in risk assessment of powder minimum explosive
concentration (MEC)" (https://powderprocess.net/Safety/Dust_Explosion_Concentration.html). PowderProcess.net.
10. Murray, Charles Edward Robertson; Wilberforce, Daniel; Ritchie, David (1903), Mount Kembla Colliery Disaster 31 July
1902 – Report of the Royal Commission, together with minutes of evidence and exhibits (https://ro.uow.edu.au/hcp/2/), New
South Wales Legislative Assembly, p. xxxvi, retrieved 19 May 2019
11. Roberts, H C W (September 1952), Report on the causes of, and circumstances attending, the explosion which occurred at
Easington Colliery, County Durham, on the 29th May, 1951., Cmd 8646, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, pp. 9,
39–40, hdl:1842/5365 (https://hdl.handle.net/1842%2F5365)
12. "List of NFPA Codes & Standards" (http://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-codes-and-sta
ndards). NFPA.org.
13. Hought, Julian (28 February 2011). "Dust to Dust" (http://www.hazardexonthenet.net/article/40288/Dust-to-Dust.aspx).
Retrieved 2015-07-02.
14. "Explosion suits settled". The Day. New London, Connecticut. 24 April 1980. p. 26.
15. "Corn Starch Dust Explosion at General Foods Ltd, Banbury, Oxfordshire – 18th November 1981". Great Britain: January
1983. Occupational Health & Safety Information Service, UK. ISBN 0-11-883673-0
16. Explosion dans un silo d'une malterie (http://www.aria.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/accident/8781/)(in French)
17. "47 Die, 179 Injured in Blast at Linen Mill in Northeast China" (http://articles.latimes.com/1987-03-17/news/mn-12499_1_lin
en-mill). Los Angeles Times. March 17, 1987. Retrieved 2015-07-02.
18. "Bosley explosion: Four missing in Wood Flour Mills blast" (https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-33566064). BBC News.
July 17, 2015. Retrieved 2015-12-02.
19. Pilling, Kim (July 27, 2015). "Bosley Wood flour mill explosion: Fourth body found in wreckage of building gutted by blast" (h
ttps://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/bosley-wood-flour-mill-explosion-6150258). Mirror Online. Retrieved 2015-12-02.

Barton, John, ed. (2002). Dust Explosion Prevention and Protection: A Practical Guide (https://books.google.com/books?id
=Y-EKRC-UW_AC). Institution of Chemical Engineers. ISBN 0-85295-410-7.
Eckhoff, Rolf K. (1997). Dust Explosions in the Process Industries (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3270-4.

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Price, David J. (1921). "A Disastrous Explosion of Starch Dust". American Miller and Processor. National Miller
Publications. 49 (1–6).

External links
Incidents in France and the US:

Combustible dust explosion investigation products (http://www.csb.gov/investigations/completed-investigations/?F_Accident

TypeId=1) from the Chemical Safety Board
Combustible Dust Policy Institute-ATEX (http://dustexplosions.blogspot.com/)
OSHA case studies of dust explosions (http://www.osha.gov/dts/shib/shib073105.html)

Protecting process plant and grain handling facilities from the risk of dust hazard explosions:

Hazard Monitoring Equipment - Selection, Installation and Maintenance (http://www.go4b.com/usa/technical-papers/hazard-

monitoring-paper-geaps.pdf)
Seminars for Combustible Dust Safety (https://web.archive.org/web/20130814224030/http://www.safedust.com/)
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsg103.htm - HSE (UK) advice on safe handling of combustible dust.

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