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Reflections on Seven Decades of AS

History

(Water Pollution Control Federation, 1985)

Authors: James E. Alleman and T.B.S. Prakasam

I. INTRODUCTION

Although educated extensively in the technical details of activated sludge treatment, relatively few
contemporary environmental engineers are aware of its colorful historical development. On the one
hand, it might be argued that a knowledge of activated sludge history is superfluous to the task of its
practical application. And yet, for a process in which billons of dollars are currently invested,
professional curiosity alone should foster an interest in the origins and geneology of activated sludge.

Generally regarded as the conventional norm for wastewater treatment, the activated sludge process
has certainly drawn substantial engineering interest over the past seven decades. Just three years after
the phrase and concept was originally coined in 1914, Porter\ul\d compiled a remarkable bibliography
of 200 references dealing with activated sludge. And with his second edition in 1920, the number had
grown to 800\u2\d.

Subsequent authors (i.e. Ardern, 1917\u3\d; Martin, 1927\d\u4\d; Clark, 1930\u5\d; Mohlman,
1938\d\u6\d; and Greeley, 1945\d\u7\d) have, in succession, provided informative chronological
reviews covering the ever-expanding history of activated sludge treatment. The last in this series was
Sawyer's classic 1965 article on activated sludge milestones.\u8\d

In this context, the paper at hand will unavoidably retrace technical developments documented by
preceeding activated sludge historians. As a different slant on the topic, though, emphasis will be
placed on extracting the personal and/or professional interest items which embellish and enrich the
historical evolution of activated sludge treatment.

In order to understand the impact which activated sludge had on wastewater treatment technology,
one must first appreciate the relative infancy of the field which existed during the late 1800's and early
1900's. Biological treatment was unquestionably a primitive science in this era, having only recently
been elucidated through progressive European (i.e. Mueller, Frankland, Bailey-Denton, Dibdin) and
American (i.e. Mills, Hazen, Drown and Sedgwick of the Lawrence Experimental Station,
Massachusetts) filtration research.\u9\d The basic derivatives of their work included intermittent
filters, contact beds and trickling filters. Septic tanks were also popular during this era. However,
Cameron obtained a restrictive patent in 1896 and began to enforce substantial royalty charges despite
bitter public criticism.\ul0\d Although the popularity of septic tanks subsequently faded, alternative
anaerobic systems were soon available, including both the classic Imhoff Tank and its predecessor,
the Travis `Colloider' or `Hydrolytic' Tank.\u9\d Imhoff also patented his unit, but the associated
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royalty charges were considerably lower.\u11\d

Physical-chemical systems were perhaps somewhat more popular, including basic dilution,
sedimentation, chemical treatment, and electrolytic treatment (i.e. the so-called direct oxidation
process).\u9,12\d Overall, though, none of the available wastewater treatment technologies produced a
top quality effluent. With most of these systems encompassing anaerobic conditions in some fashion,
aesthetic factors alone fostered widespread dissatisfaction. In this context, municipalities were,
therefore, ripe for the announcement that activated sludge could produce an exceedingly clear, non-
odorous effluent.\u13\d

III. PRELIMINARY `BLOWING-AIR' RESEARCH

Searching for an improvement in sewage treatment, and with an intuitive inclination that aerobic
conditions would avoid undesirable, malodorous anaerobic results, several researchers began to
explore blowing air into sewage tanks. Dr. Angus Smith's work in 1882 is commonly referenced as
the original study, followed by Dibdin and Dupre', Hartland and Kaye-Parry, Drown, and Mason and
Hine.\u4,14\d For the most part, these early pioneers felt that oxygen presence `per se' would provide
the desired oxidation of wastewater contaminants. Experimental results, though, were nominal at best.
Although putrescence was typically delayed, the effort and expense of aeration seemed to lack
significant compensation in terms of improved treatment.

Somewhat greater success was obtained, however, in studies of artificially aerated filters conducted
by Waring, Lowcock, and at the Lawrence Experimental Station.\u4,9,14\d In hindsight, it is evident
that these latter fixed-film units were receptive to the stimulus of aeration because of their existing
biomass, whereas the earlier aeration tanks lacked a recycled biological population.

Over the course of the next few years, the importance of a suspended precipitant for enhanced
biological treatment became more accepted. Studies conducted by Mather and Platt in 1893 revealed
that precipitated impurities which accumulated at the bottom of aeration tanks provided a marked
enhancement of available treatment.\u4\d In his presentation to the Royal Commission in 1905,
Adeney reinforced this belief that collected humus matters would accelerate the treatment
capacity.\u4,14\d Fowler's experiments on sewage aeration in 1897 also yielded a clear effluent with
rapid settling deposits of particulate matter.\u4\d However, Fowler conversely viewed the enhanced
deposition as a failure since he personally believed that sewage impurities were to be rendered soluble
or gasified for optimal treatment.

By 1910, the merits of aerating sewage in the presence of biological humus or slime were beginning
to find widespread acknowledgement. In their classic full-scale New York study, Black and Phelps
decided to abandon coarse rock media in favor of closely spaced, wooden laths in order to achieve a
higher surface area for desired slime accumulation.\u15\d In essence, their unit was an aerated version
of the prior Travis `Colloider' or `Hydrolytic' Tank (which had also used wood laths, but in an
anaerobic contact chamber).\u9,16\d

Clark and Gage also initiated similar laboratory studies at Lawrence in 1912, comparing aerated
treatment efficiencies of bottles inoculated with algal suspensions against that obtained in packed slate
beds.\u4,14\d The slate bed concept should, however, be attributed to Dibdin.\u17\d Having been
unsuccessful at simple aeration in 1884, Dibdin had successively studied intermittent filtration,
contact beds and serial contact beds before coming full circle to the notion of combining aeration with
biological treatment in a slate bed contactor.

IV. `BOMBSHELL' DISCOVERY

Given these concurrent studies at New York and Lawrence, it was, therefore, serendipitous that the
emminent Englishman, Gilbert John Fowler, was called to the United States to review the New York
Harbor pollution problem.\u4,14,16\d In conjuncton with this trip, Fowler had an opportunity to
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witness first-hand the Lawrence experiments in 1912. Fowler subsequently credited this visit as the
impetus for his "illuminating idea" regarding activated sludge, referring to Lawrence as the "Mecca of
sewage purification." \u18\d

Although disappointed with his prior aeration experiments, Fowler quickly seized upon the concept of
employing a suspended biomass culture and initiated several related experiments upon returning to
Manchester, England. One year after the Lawrence tour, Fowler and Mumford published their
successful results covering a suspended-culture aeration system inoculated with iron salts and a select
M-7 bacterial seed.\u19\d Their treatment scheme sequentially employed a `blowing tank' and
clarifier, but a lack of solids recycle necessitated continuous inoculation with the M-7 organisms.

At this point, 3l years had elapsed since Dr. Smith first

examined the aeration of sewage. However, the
seemingly simplistic notion of accumulating a
suspended biomass through solids recycle was still
unknown. Hence, the revelation by Fowler's students,
Ardern and Lockett, in May 1914 that these humus
solids should be saved rather than discarded proved to
be an unqualified "bombshell" (Fowler's description,
provided during an audience reply following
presentation of this paper).\u18\d Ever sensitive to the
fiscal realities of academic research, Ardern and Lockett gratefully acknowledged monetary support
provided by the Worshipful Company of Grocers.\u20\d

Using fill-and-draw cycling, these latter authors had provided the premier demonstration and
pronouncement of activated sludge treatment. Even when viewed in the context of our contemporary
operations, their initial experiments were remarkably advanced. Indeed, their presentation addressed
such topics such as energy conservation, sludge handling, and the sensitivity of nitrifying organisms
to temperature and pH, all of which are still debated in our contemporary literature. Perhaps more
importantly, the audience for Ardern and Lockett's presentation immediately recognized the
monumental value of their discovery.

V. PRAGMATIC ADVANCEMENT

Ardern and Lockett subsequently presented two further papers in 1914 and 1915 which provided
additional information on the following topics: performance capabilities during continuous-flow and
fill-and-draw operation, the detrimental impact of trade wastes, aeration levels using plain tubes and
porous tiles, required aeration intensities and biomass acclimation.\u20,21\d Even as their pioneer
research continued, though, the process was being tested on a full-scale basis. In fact, at the same
1914 meeting that Ardern and Lockett presented their second paper, Melling\u22\d announced that he
had successfully applied activated sludge treatment to an 80,000 gallon per day flow at Salford,
England.

In quick succession, several full-scale English installations were placed into operation. The following
listing provides a chronological summary of these facilities:\u4,10,14\d

1914 - Salford, England - 80,000 gpd at fill-and-draw operation

- 12,000 gpd at continuous-flow operation

- both with diffused aeration

1915 - Davyhulme, England - 100,000 gpd (approx.) at fill-and-draw

operation
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- diffused aeration

1916 - Worcester, England - 2,000,000 gpd at continuous-flow

operation

- diffused aeration

1916 - Sheffield, England - 800,000 gpd at fill-and-draw

operation

- mechanical [i.e. Hayworth] aeration

1917 - Withington, England - 250,000 gpd at continuous-flow

operation

- diffused aeration

1917 - Stamford, England - 100,000 gpd at continuous-flow operation

- diffused aeration

1920 - Tunstall, England - 820,000 gpd at continuous-flow operation

- mechanical aeration

1920 - Sheffield, England - 354,000 gpd at continuous-flow

operation

- mechanical aeration

1921 - Davyhulme, England - 663,000 gpd at continuous-flow

operation

- diffused aeration

1921 - Bury, England - 360,000 gpd at continuous-flow operation

- mechanical (i.e. Simplex) aeration

In the United States, progression of the activated sludge process moved with similarly amazing speed.
Edward Bartow, a Professor at the University of Illinois, visited Fowler's group in Manchester in
August of 1914 and subsequently began his own bench and pilot-scale experiments along the lines
established by Fowler's group.\u4,14,23\d Within a period of several months, numerous other
American researchers initiated similar studies, including those by Hammond, Hendrick, Hurd, Frank,
Mohlman, Hatton and Pearse.\u4,10,11,14\d Full-scale U.S. installations began to appear to 1916,
according to the following listing:\u3,4,14\d

1916 - San Marcos, Texas - l20,000 gpd (approx.) at continuous-flow

operation

- diffused aeration
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1916 - Milwaukee, Wisconsin - 2 MGD at continuous-flow operation

(experimental)

- diffused aeration

1916 - Cleveland, Ohio - 1 MGD at continuous-flow operation

(experimental)

- diffused aeration

1917 - Houston, Texas North Facility - 5.5 MGD at continuous-flow

operation

- diffused aeration

1918 - Houston, Texas South Facility - 5.0 MGD at continuous-flow

operation

- diffused aeration

1922 - Des Plaines, Illinois - 5.5 MGD at continuous-flow operation

- diffused aeration

1922 - Calumet, Indiana - l.5 MGD at continuous-flow operation

- mechanical aeration

1925 - Milwaukee, Wisconsin - 45 MGD at continuous-flow operation

- diffused aeration

1927 - Chicago, Illinois North Side Facility - 175 MGD at

continuous-flow operation

- diffused aeration

1927 - Indianapolis, Indiana - 50 MGD at continuous-flow operation

- diffused aeration

Comparison of the English and American installations reveals several

points of uniqueness. In England, aeration tanks were generally designed for extended detention (i.e. 8
to 12 hours) and mechanical agitation (i.e. Simplex, Hartley, Sheffield, etc.). Segmented reaeration of
the recycled sludge stream was also commonplace in the belief that this assured a desired rejuvenation
of the biomass. Americans considered

this latter practice as an unnecessary step, particularly given the British emphasis on extended aeration
times. American aeration tanks usually provided much shorter retention (i.e. 3 - 6 hours) and were
typically equipped for diffused aeration. Overall size was another American hallmark, unquestionably
demonstrated by the Midwest installations.
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VI. PATENT LITIGATION

Perhaps the most remarkable fact is that a rudimental

bench-scale process could be transformed into multi-
MGD facilities in just a matter of years. Based on its
rapid growth during these first few years, it would
seem that activated sludge should have become the
preeminent wastewater treatment process virtually
overnight. However, despite this initial intensity,
activated sludge did not truly find widespread
application until the 1950's.

The cause for this delay is quite simple; namely, patent litigation curtailed most of the technical
momentum. Whereas Ardern and Lockett presented their research findings in May of 1914, Jones and
Attwood (i.e. Jones and Attwood, Ltd.) had previously filed four separate patent applications dealing
with "Improvements in Apparatus for the Purification of Sewage or other Impure Waters." These
patents, their filing dates, and general coverage are listed as follows.\u24-27\d

British Patent No. 19915, Filed 11 October 1913

Subject: Wastewater aeration device based on an airlift piping system.

British Patent No. 22952, Filed 11 October 1913

Subject: Wastewater aeration based on a porous diffuser.

British Patent No. 729, Filed 10 January 1914

Subject: Wastewater treatment system based on a looped channel reactor with fluid rotation induced
through a diffused aeration unit mounted in a recessed, dip chamber. Intermittent operation was
employed to settle solids and decant clear top fluid, or a separate clarifier unit was used for solids
recycle during continuous-flow operation.

British Patent No. 19916, Filed 11 April 1914

Subject: Wastewater aeration system based on a bottom- mounted diffuser array.

Of these four, none actually employed the term `activated sludge'. Patent No. 729 conveys the basic
essence of the process, though, particularly because of its specific reference to solids recycle.
Furthermore, the reactor figures provided by this latter patent bear a striking similarity to
contemporary looped designs marketed by several proprietors.

Jones and Attwood must also be credited with much of the preliminary work towards establishing the
practical application of activated sludge. Several of the original full-scale facilities (e.g. Worcester
and Stamford) were, in fact, solely constructed at their expense and risk as a means to demonstrate its
pragmatic merit. In fact, the Worcester system was designed and installed under a performance-based
contract based on effluent quality.\u3,4,14\d

The patent situation for activated sludge became even more complex in 1915 when Leslie Frank, a
U.S. Public Health Officer, obtained an American Patent (#1,139,024) which covered much the same
material as the Jones and Attwood claims.\u28\d Frank, however, dedicated his patent for "activated
slude" (the misspelling reflects Frank's terminology) to all U.S. citizens. Hence, at this point, there
were two different patent entities dealing with activated sludge. Aside from these legal claims,
Fowler's own standing as the originator of activated sludge was also being disputed by Clark at
Lawrence.\u5,6,29\d However, despite this confusion regarding the legal status and origination of

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activated sludge, the American engineering community pushed ahead with its technical application.

In late 1914, Jones and Attwood, Ltd. intimated that American engineers and cities should use caution
regarding patent infringements.\u30\d And when American engineers took credit for certain
innovations which transgressed into their (i.e. Jones and Attwood, Ltd.) patented procedures (i.e.
Hurd's announcement of the spiral-flow aeration pattern being used at Indianapolis), they were
quickly rebuffed by the Jones and Attwood group.\u31,32\d But as more and more plants were built,
several concern towards patent problems and complications diminished.

This mood quickly changed, though, with a suit filed

by Activated Sludge, Ltd. (the licensed patentee for
Jones and Attwood, Ltd.) against Chicago in the late
1920's.\u33\d Additional suits against Milwaukee,
Cleveland, Indianapolis, and several smaller cities
soon followed. Legal rulings on all of these cases
took several years, during which time the sanitary
engineering profession seriously reassessed the
prospects for near-term activated sludge utilization.
In 1933, District Judge Geiger ruled that Milwaukee
had, indeed, violated patents held by Activated
Sludge, Ltd.\u34\d An appeal was submitted, but in October, 1934 the Supreme Court declined to rule
against this decision.\u35\d

In reflecting upon this outcome, Bloodgood\u36\d indicated a belief that the District Judge ruled
against Milwaukee moreso because of their outspoken lawyer than the involved legal details.
Whatever the case, the infringement ruling immediately rippled throughout the country. Several
existing plants quickly shut down to avoid monetary fines, including the original San Marcos, Texas
facility.\u37\d Many others elected to continue their use of the activated sludge process based on a
royalty fee of 25 cents per capita.\u38\d Amongst the 203 activated sludge facilities identified in a
1938 Engineering News-Record inventory of U.S. wastewater treatment plants,\u39\d Kappe\d\u38\d
reported that 150 were licensed by Activated Sludge, Ltd. As for the large number of communities
planning to install new activated sludge plants, most simply elected either to build an alternative
system (oftentimes a trickling filter) or to wait until the applicable patents expired (e.g. Washington,
D.C. was a prime example).\u40\d

Milwaukee and Chicago appear to have suffered

the largest losses with each being fined just under
one million dollars.\u13,41\d In Milwaukee's
case, these monies were secured from the
proceeds on a relatively new (i.e. since 1926)
sludge product, Milorganite, whose annual sales
in 1934 were estimated at 3 million dollars.\u41\d
In retrospect, Chicago most likely wishes it had
accepted the terms of an out-of-court settlement
offered by Activated Sludge, Ltd.\u13\d Indeed,
rather than paying for the imposed fine and
several years of legal involvement, they could
have reconciled their case with a $90,000
payment.

VII. ADDITIONAL CONTROVERSY

This era of legal controversy (circa 1915 to 1935) was also marked by two other topics of intense
technical debate. The first dealt with the choice of aeration systems and whether it be diffused or
mechanical in form. The second debate centered around the fundamental behavior of the process, in
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terms of physical-chemical versus biological mechanisms.

The aeration question was a significant concern from the very beginning and one which evoked bitter
debate. Even the earliest activated sludge researchers were keenly aware that the requisite energy
demand would play a dominant role in determining the cost-effectiveness of the process. On the one
hand, several investigators believed that all oxygen transport occurred at the liquid surface, such that
mechanical aeration served as the optimal gas transfer mechanisms (Buswell\u42\d, Peck\d\u43\d and
Kessener and Ribbius\d\u44\d ). This view was countered by another group which regarded diffused
aeration as the ideal system (Fowler and Chaterjee\u45\d, Roe\d\u46\d, Nordell\d\u47\d and
Keefer\d\u48\d). In a classic series of three articles published during 1936 and 1937, however,
Ridenour and Henderson\u49\d thoroughly explored each option and concluded that either had its
particular merits or demerits. Although they indicated that a mechanical unit might provide nominally
higher gas transport at an equivalent energy demand, the selection was judged to be a site-specific
factor.

The second major debate revolved around the fundamental activated sludge mechanism; whether it
was a physical-chemical operation or a biological process.\u48,50\d Baly theorized that differential
charging between sewage colloids and floc matrixes resulted in an electrostatic attraction and
consequent clarification.\u48\d Along similar lines, Theriault considered the activated sludge process
as a biozeolite mechanism.\u48\d Numerous other researchers believed that iron compounds played a
dominant role in the oxidation process\u48\d. This concept was likely stimulated by the original M-7
research conducted by Fowler and Mumford. Subsequent refinement to this premise held that the iron
functioned as an oxygen carrier to facilitate subsequent oxidation.\u51\d

In terms of the biological premise, enzyme activity was initially regarded by many investigators as the
primary mechanism (Harris et.al.,\u52\d Woolridge and Standfast,\u53\d Mohlman\d\u54\d).
Cramer\d\u55\d considered protozoan metabolism to be the fundamental agent, while Eisenberg
concluded that protozoa served mainly to indicate desirable activated sludge composition.\u48,50\d
Ardern\d\u56\d also regarded protozoa as a quality indicator, with an additional belief that they
facilitated improved effluent clarity. Buswell's\u50\d analogy for activated sludge is undoubtedly the
most pithy, though, comparing its activity to `hungry hogs'. By 1920, research conducted by Buswell
and Long\u57\d had essentially verified the biological mechanism behind activated sludge. However,
Mohlman's 1930 editorial\u58\d still expressed a serious lack of fundamental knowledge regarding the
activated sludge process.

VIII. PROGRESSIVE REFINEMENT

Over the years, several refinements and/or modifications to the activated sludge process have been
devised with the intent of promoting better performance. These improvements were oftentimes
developed to economize on the use of aeration. Jones and Attwood\u59\d probably initiated this latter
pursuit with their interesting patent in 1916 based on the use of intermittent aeration. Their design
employed a novel mechanical valve assembly which effected cyclic periods of on-off aeration, such
that the net aeration demand was reduced from that of a constant supply. This practice has,
coincidentally, been resurrected in recent years in an attempt to incorporate nitrification and
denitrification into a single-tank activated sludge system.\u60\d Further research on reducing the
aeration demand consequently led to tapered aeration in 1936,\u61\d step aeration in 1942,\u62\d and
modified aeration in 1943.\d\u63\d

Beginning in the late 1920's, another group sought to intensify the treatment capacity by coupling
attached biomass growth with the suspended-growth activated sludge process.\u9\d Generally known
as submerged contact aerators or aero-filters,these aerated systems provided additional wooden laths
or brushwood surfaces for the desired biofilm growth. These latter studies by Imhoff\u64\d and
Clark\d\u65\d were essentially a continuation of the classic Black and Phelps\u15\d research
previously conducted at New York. Perhaps the most widely used system of this kind was the Hays
Process.\u66\d Originally developed in the 1930's, the Hays design used corrugated asbestos-concrete
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sheets vertically stacked within the aeration tank.\u9\d Although employed extensively at U. S.
military installations in the 1940's,\u67\d popularity of the process faded during World War II.
Wartime material shortages required the substitution of flat sheets which were prone to buckling and
collapse.\u37\d

As with the intermittent aeration concept, this latter technology also has its contemporary offspring.
Philadelphia, for example, has successfully mated rotating biological contactors with their existing
activated sludge reactors.\u68\d And a currently marketed proprietary design, Cytox, essentially
provides much the same treatment scheme as the Hays process.\u69\d

Further innovations through the 1940's and earlier 50's resulted in the Kraus and biosorption
processes.\u7,8\d In 1944 alone, there were two further additions to this growing list of process
modifications, including high rate treatment\u70\d and the `Z' process.\d\u71\d Although the former
option is currently well recognized, the `Z' process has faded into obscurity, and for good reason.
With the intent of promoting enhanced floc sedimentation, the `Z' process continuously dosed the
aeration tank with asbestos fibers.

Pasveer's\u72\d documentation of an intermittent oxidation ditch system in 1954 proved to be a

significant revelation since fill-and-draw operation had not been used for a number of decades. In fact,
only six years before Pasveer's publication, Imhoff\u73\d vehemently denounced the use of
intermittent/fill-and-draw cycling as a thoroughly unsuitable procedure. In our contemporary
literature, however, the sequencing batch reactor concept proposed by Irvine\u74\d has now taken the
initiative towards periodic operation. Indeed, a study is now underway to explore the coupling of
intermittent aeration, fixed-film treatment, and batchwise processing in a multi-faceted resurrection of
yesteryear concepts.\u75\d

Despite Sawyer's\u8\d inference that the activated sludge process had been thoroughly covered,
ongoing research in the field has continued to make significant advancements over the past decade.
Process automation using advanced control instrumentation and analyzers has made, and will continue
to make, substantial progress in process optimization. And the subject of biological phosphorus
uptake, only recently transferred from the realm of black art to pragmatic reality,\u76\d will certainly
draw intense consideration in the coming years.

IX. SUMMARY

This inspection of the yesteryear literature on activated sludge will hopefully provide a beneficial
perspective on our current state-of-the-art. Once patented as activated "slude" and considered
analogous to hungry hogs, the activated sludge process has undergone seven decades of colorful
evolution since Fowler originally acquired his "illuminating idea" at Lawrence in November, 1912.
Perhaps the most enlightening conclusion which might be drawn in consideration of recent events is
the obvious reinforcement of an inescapable fact that history does repeat itself.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This paper was presented at the 55th Annual Conference of the Water Pollution Control Federation on
7 October 1983 in St. Louis, Missouri. Correspondence can be directed to J. E. Alleman, School of
Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907.

REFERENCES

Porter, J. E., \fIThe Activated Sludge Process of Sewage Treatment: A Biblography of the Subject.\fR
General Filtration Comp., Rochester, NY (1917).

Porter, J. E., \fIThe Activated Sludge Process of Sewage Treatment. A Bibliography of the Subject.\fR
2nd Editon. General Filtration Comp., Rochester, NY (1921).
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Ardern, E., "A Resume of the Present Position of the Activated Sludge Process of Sewage
Purificaion." \fIJour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 36,\fR 822 (1917).

Martin, A. J., \fIThe Activated Sludge Process,\fR MacDonald and Evans, London (1927).

Clark, A. W., "Past and Present Developments in Sewage Disposal and Purification." \fISew. Works
Jour., 2,\fR 561 (1930).

Mohlman, F. W., "Twenty-five Years of Activated Sludge." \fIModern Sewage Disposal,\fR (Editor:
L. Pearse), Federation of Sewage Works Associations (1938).

Greeley, S. A., "The Development of the Activated Sludge Method of Sewage Treatment." \fISewage
Works Jour., 17,\fR 1135 (1945).

Sawyer, C. N., "Milestones in the Development of the Activated Sludge Process," \fIJour. Water Poll.
Control Fed., 37,\fR 151 (1965).

Peters, R. W. and Alleman, J. E., "The History of Fixed-Film Wastewater Treatment Systems,"
Proceedings of the 1st International Conference of Fixed-Film Biological Processes.

Metcalf, L. and Eddy, H. P., \fIAmerican Sewerage Practice. Vol. III. Disposal of Sewage.\fR
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York (1916).

Babbitt, H. E., \fISewerage and Sewage Treatment\fR. 3rd Edtn. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
York (1928).

Anonymous, "Electrolytic Sewage Treatment Not Established Process Yet." \fIEngrg. News-Record,
83,\fR (1919).

Activated Sludge, Inc., et al. v. Sanitary Dist. of Chicago. No. 4280, 64 Federal Supplement, 25, pg.
25, 26 January (1946).

Pearse, L., \fIModern Sewage Disposal,\fR Federation of Sewage Works Associations, New York,
N.Y. (1938).

Black E. B. and Phelps, E. B., "Brookyln Sewage Experiment Station." \fIEngrg. New-Record, 74,\fR
826 (1914).

Kinnicut, L. P., Winslow, C.-E. A. and Pratt, R. W., \fISewage Disposal\fR. John Wiley and
Sons,Inc., London (1919).

Dibdin, W. J., "The Slate Bed Treatment of Sewage." \fIJour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 32,\fR 55 (1913).

Ardern, E. and Lockett, W. T., "Experiments of the Oxidation of Sewage Without the Aid of Filters,"
\fIJour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 33,\fR 523 (1914).

Fowler, G. J. and Mumford, "The Bacterial Clarification of Sewage." \fISurveyor, 44,\fR 287 (1913).

Ardern, E. and Lockett, W., "The Oxidation of Sewage Without the Aid of Filters, Part II." \fIJour.
Soc. Chem. Ind., 33,\fR 1122 (1914).

Ardern, E. and Lockett, W., "The Oxidation of Sewage Without the Aid of Filters, Part III." \fIJour.
Soc. Chem. Ind., 34,\fR 937 (1915).

Melling, S. E., "The Purificaion of Salford Sewage Along the Lines of the Manchester Experiments."
\fIJour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 33,\fR 1124 (1914).
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Bartow, E. [and Mohlman, F. W.], "Purification of Sewage by Aeration in the Presence of Activated
Sludge," \fIJour. Ind. & Engrg. Chem., 7,\fR 318 (1915); \fI8\fR, 15, 17 & 646 (1916); and \fI9,\fR
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367 (1915).

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Anonymous, "Court Holds Milwaukee Infringes Sewage Plant." \fIEngrg. News-Record, 110,\fR 235
(1933).

Anonymous, "Sewage Patent Valid Says District Judge in Milwaukee Case." \fIEngrg. News-Record,
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Otts, L. S., Personal Communication, University of Maryland, College Park, MD (1982).

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Anonymous, "Inventory of Sewage Disposal Facilities - 1938." \fIEngrg. News-Record, 122,\fR 98

(1939).

Anonymous, "Activated Sludge Plans Discarded by Washington." \fIEngrg News-Record, 113,\fR

608 (1934).

Anonymous, "Bond Required of Milwaukee to Appeal Sludge Suit." \fIEngrg News-Record, 113,\fR
839 (1934).

Anonymous, "Importance of Oxygen and Stirring for Activated-Sludge Growth." \fIEngrg. News-
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Record, 90,\fR 835 (1923).

Peck, C. L., "Economics of the Activated Sludge Process. \fIEngrg. News-Record, 90,\fR 522 (1923).

Kessener, H. J. N. H. and Ribbius F. I., "Comparison of Aeration Systems for the Activated Sludge
Process." \fISew. Works Jour., 6,\fR 423 (1934).

Anonymous, "Activation of Sewage Mass Effected by Diffused Air." \fIEngrg. News-Record, 99,\fR
922 (1927).

Roe, F. C., "Activated Sludge-The Case for Air Diffusion." \fISew. Works Jour., 10,\fR 999 (1938).

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(1916).

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(1931).

Cramer, R., "The Role of Protozoa in Activated Sludge." \fIInd. & Engrg. Chem., 23,\fR 309 (1931).

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822 (1927).

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Record, 90,\fR 119 (1923).

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Setter, L. R. and Edwards, G. P., "Modified Sewage Aeration." \fISew. Works Jour., 15,\fR 629
(1943); \fI16,\fR 278 (1944).

Imhoff, K., "The History of Submerged Aerators." \fIEngrg News-Record, 97,\fR 948 (1926),
\fI101,\fR 580 (1928).

Clark, H. W., "Submerged Contact Aerator. Iron as a Carrier of Oxygen." \fIEngrg. News-Record,
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