LESSON 3 MUSCULAR SYSTEM - The ear contains the smallest muscles

in the body alongside the smallest

Muscle bones. 
- Muscle is a band or bundle of fibrous - A muscle called the masseter in the
tissue in a human or animal body jaw is the strongest muscle by weight. 
that has the ability to
contract, producing movement in The Locomotion of Soft-Bodied Invertebrates 
or maintaining the position of parts • Pedal locomotion – move by means of
of the body. waves of activity in the muscular system that
applied to the substrate.
Types • Looping movement – arching movements
- Smooth are equivalent to the contraction of
 Spindle shaped longitudinal muscle.
 Nonstriated
 Uninucleated fibers Terrestrial Locomotion in Invertebrates:
 Occurs in walls of internal organs - Walking
 Involuntary •  Has flexible joints, tendons, and muscles
- Cardiac that attach rigid skeletal cuticle and form
 Striated limbs
• Examples: arthropods
 Branched
–Crabs : sideward
 Uninucleated fibers
–Lobsters, spider : forwards
 Occurs in walls of heart - Water Vascular System
 involuntary
 Star Fish: along each canal are
- Smooth reservoir ampullae and tube feet. The
 Striated tube feet extend by hydraulic pressure
 Tubular and can perform simple step-like
 Multinucleated fibers motions
 Attached to skeleton - Flight
 Voluntary  The physical properties of an arthropods
cuticle are such that true flight evolved for
Functions pterygote insects some 100 million years
- Mobility ago.
- Stability  The basic mechanism for flight has been
- Posture modified.
- Circulation  Present day insects exhibit a wide range
- Respiration of structural adaptations and mechanism
- Digestion for flight.
- Urination - Jumping
- Childbirth  Long legs increase the mechanical
- Vision advantage of the leg extensor
- Organ Protection muscle.
- Temperature Regulation
Other Facts Types of Non Muscular Movement
- Muscles make up approximately 40
percent of total weight.  AMOEBOID MOVEMENT
- The heart is the hardest-working - with the aid of PSEUDOPODIA (Gr.
muscle in the body.  Pseudes, false + podion, little foot) As
- The gluteus maximus is the body's the name suggests, it is first observed
largest muscle.  in amoebas.
 - The plasma membrane of an amoeba Types of Digestion
has adhesive properties since new  CHEMICAL DIGESTION:
pseudopodia attach to the substrate as Chemical breakdown of food using enzymes, bile,
they form by means of membrane hydrochloric acid.
adhesion  MECHANICAL DIGESTION:
 CILIARY AND FLAGELLAR Physical breakdown of food
MOVEMENT Chewing, grinding, and mixing food with mouth,
- With the exception of the arthropods, tongue, and teeth
locomotor cilia and flagella occur in
every animal phylum. Parts of Digestive System
- Cilia (L. “eyelashes”) and Flagella (L.  MAJOR PARTS:
“small whips) are structurally similar  Mouth
but cilia are shorter and more  Salivary glands
numerous whereas flagella are long  Pharynx
and occur singly or in pairs.  Esophagus
- Cilia (L. “eyelashes”) and Flagella (L.  Stomach
“small whips) are structurally similar  Small and Large Intestine
but cilia are shorter and more  Rectum
numerous whereas flagella are long  Anus
and occur singly or in pairs.  ACCESSORY PARTS
LESSON 4 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM  Teeth
 Tongue
Digestion  Gall Bladder
 It is the chemical breakdown of complex  Pancreas
biological molecules into their component  Liver
parts which are:
 Lipids to fatty acids Strategies to Obtain Food
 Proteins to individual amino acids  SUSPENSION FEEDERS:
 Carbohydrates into simple sugars • Sifts small food particles from the water
Nutrition • Whale, oysters, clams
 Processed by which organisms obtain and  SUBSTRATE FEEDERS:
utilize their food • Animals that live on their food source
Nutrients • Caterpillar, earthworms
 Substances that provide energy and  FLUID FEEDERS:
materials needed for growth, repair, and • Suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host
maintenance of the cell. • Mosquito, tick, flea
Macronutrients  BULK FEEDERS:
 Are the main nutrients that make up the • Eats relatively large pieces of food
foods we eat.  • Snake, lion, humans
 Carbs
 Proteins Four Types of Digestive System
 Fats • Monogastric (simple)- dogs, cats, Human
Micronutrients • Avian – Chicken, Birds. Ducks
 Are one of the major groups of nutrients your • Ruminants (polygastric) - Carabao, Goat,
body needs. They include vitamins and Cow
minerals. • Pseudo-ruminants – Rabbit, Horse, Camel
 Vitamins are necessary for energy
production, immune function, blood clotting Digestive System of Invertebrates
and other functions.  PORIFERA (sponges)
 • Rely on keeping up a constant water flow
through their bodies to obtain food and
oxygen
CNIDARIANS (jellyfish, corals, hydra)
• Extra cellaular digestion
• Uses gastrovascular cavity as mouth and
anus
PLATYHELMINTHES (Uses gastrovascular
• cavity as mouth and anus
ECHINODERMS (starfish, sea urchins)
• With a mouth, stomach, anusflatworms,
tapeworms)
• Extracellular digestion
ARTHROPODA (crabs, grasshoppers,) spiders
CHORDATA (sea squirts, lancelets, hagfish)
• Permits one way flow of ingested food
without mixing it with waste and food
• From mouth and ends in anus
MOLLUSCA (snails, octopus, squid)
NEMATODA (hookworms, roundworms)
• Permits one way flow of ingested food
without mixing it with waste and food
• From mouth and ends in anus
LESSON 5 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The Nature of Respiration
- All animals must supply their cells with
oxygen and rid their body of carbon
dioxide
RESPIRATION
- The physiological process by which an
animal exchanges oxygen and carbon
dioxide with its environment
Invertebrate Respiration
o Integumentray exchange
• Some invertebrates that live
in aquatic or damp
environments have no
respiratory organs;
• Gases diffuse across the
skin
o Gills
• Filamentous respiratory
organs that increase
surface area for gas
exchange in water
o Lungs
• Saclike respiratory organs
with branching tubes that
deliver air to a respiratory
surface
o Snails and slugs that spend some time on
land have a lung instead of, or in addition to,
gills
o Tracheal system
 insects and spiders with a hard
integument have branching tracheal
tubes that) d open to the surface
through spiracles (no respiratory
protein require).
o Book lungs
 Some spiders also have thin sheets
of respiratory tissue that exchange
oxygen with a respiratory pigment
(hemocyanin) in blood.
Gas Exchange in Invertebrates
* Gas exchange occurs across the body surface or
gills of aquatic invertebrates
* In large invertebrates on land, it occurs across a
moist, internal respiratory surface or at fluid-filled tips
of branching tubes that extend from the surface to
internal tissues
Vertebrate Respiration
* Fishes use gills to extract oxygen from water
Countercurrent flow aids exchange (blood flows
through gills in opposite direction of water flow)
* Amphibians exchange gases across their skin, and
at respiratory surfaces of paired lungs
* Larvae have external gills
* Reptiles, birds and mammals exchange gases
through paired lungs, ventilated by chest muscles
* Birds have the most efficient vertebrate lungs Air
sacs allow oxygen-rich air to pass respiratory
surfaces on both inhalation and exhalation
Human Respiratory System
- The human respiratory system
functions in gas exchange, sense of
smell, voice production, body
defenses, acid-base balance, and
temperature regulation
LESSON 6 INTERNAL TRANSPORT AND
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Functions
- Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport
- Nutrient and Waste Product Transport
- Disease Protection and Healing
- Hormone Delivery
- Regulates Blood Supply
- Body Temperature Regulation
- Generates Blood Pressure
3 Components
1. Heart: Pumps blood through the blood
vessels of the circulatory system
2. Blood Vessels
 ARTERIES– blood vessels that
carry blood away from the heart to
the other parts of the body.
 VEINS- blood vessels that carry
blood from the body back to the
heart.
 CAPILLARIES – tiny tubes that
carry blood from the arteries to the
body’s cells, and then back to the
veins.
3. Blood
 ARTERIES– blood vessels that
carry blood away from the heart to
the other parts of the body.
 VEINS- blood vessels that carry
blood from the body back to the
heart.
 CAPILLARIES – tiny tubes that
carry blood from the arteries to the
body’s cells, and then back to the
veins.
Components of Blood
 Red Blood Cells– 45%
 White Blood Cells- > 1 %
 Plasma- 55%
 Red Blood Cells– carries oxygen from lungs
to all cells of the body; carries carbon dioxide
away from cells
 White Blood Cells- are the cells of the
immune system that are involved in protecting
the body against infection and foreign
invaders.
 Plasma- liquid portion of the blood composed
mostly of water.
Plasma transports nutrients, hormones, and
proteins to the parts of the body.
 Platelets- blood clotting and blood
coagulation.
Pathway of Blood through Heart and Lungs
1. Superior and Inferior Vena Cava
2. Right atrium
3. Tricuspid valve
4. Right ventricle
5. pulmonary semilunar valve
6. Pulmonary trunk
7. pulmonary arteries
8. Lungs
9. pulmonary veins
10. Left atrium
11. bicuspid valve
12. Left ventricle
13. aortic semilunar valve
14. Body
Open vs Closed Circulatory System
a) In closed circulatory systems, the heart
pumps blood through vessels that are
separate from the interstitial fluid of the body.
Most vertebrates and some invertebrates,
such as this annelid earthworm, have a
closed circulatory system.
b) In open circulatory systems, a fluid called
hemolymph is pumped through a blood
vessel that empties into the body cavity.
Hemolymph returns to the blood vessel
through openings called ostia. Arthropods,
such as this bee and most mollusks, have
open circulatory systems.
Single and Double Loop Circulation
 Fish are vertebrates that only have a single
loop circulatory system, unlike mammals that
have a double loop circulatory system.
 In a single loop system, blood only passes
through the heart one type on each
circuit through the body.
Double Loop Circulation
 The evolution of the second circulatory loop
allows more oxygen to be delivered to their
bodies
 In the circulatory loop that connects an
amphibian’s heart to its lungs there are blood
vessels called pulmonary veins
  Pulmonary veins are the vessels that carry
the oxygen-rich blood from the amphibian’s
lungs directly back to its heart
Vertebrates: All of the vertebrates have closed
circulatory systems and chambered hearts with
valves that prevents from backflow of the blood.
Circulatory System of Invertebrates
PORIFERA
- Sponges have no real circulatory system.
- Sponges have flagellated cells over the
surface of their bodies, these are cells that
have tails that wiggles.
- The collective effort of all these cells creates
a water current through the many porous
openings in the sponges body.
CNIDARIANS
- do not have a circulatory system simply
because it is not needed;
- all cells are in contact with the water, which
contains oxygen and nutrients.
- The cells undertake a process of diffusion to
transport the oxygen, nutrients and waste in
and out of the organism.
NEMATODES
- The Nematodes do not obtain a circulatory
system and are able to transfer the oxygen
and the necessary nutrients for themselves
by diffusion.
ANNELIDS
- Have a closed circulatory system
MOLLUSKS
- Have a open circulatory system
ANTHROPODS
- Have a open circulatory system
ECHINODERMS
- Have a open circulatory system
LESSON 7 TEMPERATURE AND BODY FLUID
REGULATION
Excretion
- (L. excretion, to eliminate)
- can be defined broadly as the elimination of
metabolic waste products from an animal’s
body
- These products include carbon dioxide and
water (which cellular respiration primarily
produces); excess nitrogen (which is
produced from the deamination of amino
acids); in the form of either ammonia, urea,
or uric acid and solutes.
 If the osmotic concentration of the body
fluids of an animal equals that of the medium
(the animals environment), the animal is an
osmoconformer.
 In contrast, an animal that maintains its body
fluids at a different osmotic concentration
from that of its surrounding environment is
an osmoregulator.
 Animals living in seawater have body fluids
with an osmotic concentration that is about
1/3 less (hypoosmotic) than the surrounding
seawater, and water tends to leave their
bodies continually.
• To compensate for this problem,
mechanisms evolved in these
animals to conserve water and
prevent dehydration.
 Freshwater animals have body fluids that are
hyperosmotic with respect to their
environment, and water tends to continually
enter their bodies.
• Mechanisms evolved in these
animals that excrete water and
prevent fluid accumulation.
Invertebrate Excretory Systems
 Generally, marine invertebrates have about
the same osmotic concentration as seawater
(i.e. they are osmoconformers).
• Most water and ions are gained
across the integument, via gills, by
drinking, and in food. Ions and
wastes are mostly lost by diffusion
via the integument, gills, or urine.
 Freshwater invertebrates are strong
osmoregulators because it is impossible to
be isoosmotic with dilute media. Any water
gain is usually eliminated as urine.
 The most successful terrestrial invertebrates
are the arthropods, particularly the insects,
spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, centipedes,
and millipedes.
• Overall, the water and ion balance
of terrestrial invertebrates is quite
different from that of aquatic
 animals because terrestrial
invertebrates face limited water
supplies and water loss by
evaporation from their integument.
1. Diffusion into the surrounding isosmotic
water
 Some protists and marine
invertebrates (e.g., sponges,
cnidarians, and echinoderms) do
not have specialized excretory
structures because wastes simply
diffuse into the surrounding
isoosmotic water.
2. Contractile Vacuoles
 Contractile vacuoles are energy-
requiring devices that expel excess
water from individual cells exposed
to hypoosmotic environments.
 Many freshwater protozoa and
sponges have contractile vacuoles
that pump out excess water.
3. Protonephridia
 Probably the earliest type of
nephridium to appear in the
evolution of animals was the
protonephridium.
4. Flame Cell Systems
 Flame-cell systems function
primarily in eliminating excess
water.
 Exhibited by some annelids , larval
mollusks, and flatworms that live in
freshwater.
5. Metaniphridia
 Exhibited by most annelids (such as
common earthworm, most
polychaetes and leeches) and a
variety of others invertebrates.
6. Antennal (Green) Glands
 The excretory organs in some
crustaceans (crayfish) because of
their location at the bases of the
second antennae and green color in
crayfish.
7. Maxillary Glands
 In other crustaceans( crabs,
shrimp, lobsters), the excretory
organs are near the maxillary
segments and are termed maxillary
glands.
8. Malphigian Tubules
 Insects have an excretory system
made up of the gut and malpighian
tubules attached to the gut.
 named after Marcello Malpighi,
Italian anatomist, 1628-1694
 Malphigian tubules end blindly in
the hemocoel and open to the gut
tract at the junction of the midgut
and hindgut.
9. Coxal Glands
 Coxal glands are paired, thin-
walled, spherical sacs bathed in the
blood of body sinuses. Nitrogenous
wastes are absorbed across the
wall of the sacs, transported in a
long, convoluted tubule, and
excreted through the excretory
pores on one to several pairs of
appendages near the proximal
segment (coxa) of the leg.
 common among arachnids (spiders,
scorpions, ticks, mites)
 Note: Other arachnids’ species
have Malpighian tubules instead of,
or in addition to, the coxal glands.
In some of these species, however,
Malpighian tubules seem to function
in silk production rather than in
excretion.
Vertebrates Excretory System
• Vertebrates face the same problems as
invertebrates in controlling water and ion
balance. Generally, water losses are
balanced precisely by water gains.
• Vertebrates gain water by
absorption from liquids and solids
foods in the small and large
intestines and by metabolic
reactions that yield water as an end
product.
• They lose water by evaporation,
sweating or panting, elimination in
feces and excretion by the urinary
system.
The major metabolic wastes that must be eliminated
are ammonia, urea, or uric acid.
• Vertebrates live in saltwater, freshwater, and
on land; each of these environments
 presents different water and solute problems * To ensure survival of species.
that vertebrates have solved in different Both male and female consist of primary and
ways. secondary sex organs and sex glands.
Functions
How vertebrates achieve osmoregulation - To produce egg and sperm cells
• Vertebrates have a closed circulatory system - To transport and sustain these cells
containing blood that is under pressure. This - To nurture the developing offspring
pressure forces blood through a membrane -To produce hormones
filter in the kidney, where the following three
key functions take place: Male Reproductive System
 Filtration, in which blood passes  Penis
through a filter that retains blood  Scrotum
cell, proteins and other large  Urethra
solutes but let small molecules,  Vas Deferens and Seminal Vesicles
ions, and urea pass through.  Testes
 Reabsorption, in which selective  Epididymis
ions and molecules are taken back  Prostate Gland
into the bloodstream from the Female Reproductive System
filtrate.  Vagina
 Secretion, whereby select ions and  Cervix
end products of metabolism that are  Uterus
in the blood are added to the filtrate  Fallopian Tubes
for removal from the body.  Ovary

Kinds of Vertebrates Kidneys Asexual Reproduction

1. Pronephros - Requires only one parent
- appears only briefly in many vertebrate - Offspring have 100% same chromosomes as the
embryos, and not at all in mammalian parent. In other words the offspring are the exact
embryos “clone” of the parent.
2. Mesonephros - Most unicellular organisms
- replaces the pronephros - KINDS
- is the functioning embryonic kidney of o BINARY FISSION
AMNIOTE EMBRYO (embryo of reptiles,  Is a form of asexual reproduction
birds and mammals) and also adult Fishes where every organelle is copied
and amphibians and the organism divides into two.
- gives way to the development of  Examples : Bacteria and Protists
metanephros o MULTIPLE FISSION
3. Metanephros  By the means of splitting of a cell or
- the most advanced kidney organism into
- found in ADULT AMNIOTE (adult reptiles,  many cells or organism.
birds and mammals)
 Examples : flatworms and annelids
- The archinephric duct becomes the ductus
o BUDDING
deferens for carrying sperm. The kidney is
more compact and located more caudally in  Asexual reproduction whereby a
the body. new individual develops from an
outgrowth of a parent, splits off, and
LESSON 8 REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT lives independently.
 Example: Hydra
* The reproductive system is a collection of internal o FRAGMENTATION
and external organs — in both males and females —
that work together for the purpose of procreating.
  It is whereby a single parent
breaks into parts that regenerate
into whole new individuals.
 A new organism grows from a
fragment of a parent.
 Examples : Molds and Planaria
Parthenogenesis
- Can produce without sperm and normal
fertilazation.
- A spontaneous activation of a mature egg,
followed by normal egg divisions and
subsequent embryonic development.
Examples : some flatworms, rotifers, roundworms,
insects, lobsters, some lizards, and some fishes
o REGENERATION
 Regeneration occurs when a body
part has broken off and the
organism grows a new one.
 Common in multicellular creatures,
such as worms, sea stars or
geckos.
Sexual Reproduction
- Requires two parents that share each ½ of
the genetic information.
- Offspring share the characteristic of each
parent.
- All members of the animal kingdom
 Fish
 Mammals
 Amphibians
 Birds
 Reptiles
 Insects
 Crustaceans
LESSON 9 NERVOUS AND SENSORY SYSTEM
The Nervous System
- The Nervous System is the master
controlling and communicating system of the
body.
- It controls and coordinates all essential
functions of the body including all other body
systems allowing the body to maintain
homeostasis or its delicate balance.
Functions
1. Gathers information from both inside and outside
the body through our senses- Sensory Function
2. Transmits information to the processing areas of
the brain and spine.
3. Processes the information in the brain and spine,
Communication and Coordination.- Integration
Function
4. Sends information to the muscles, glands, and
organs so they can respond appropriately – Motor
Function
5. Controls all the body functions
Neuron
 Basic functional cell of nervous system
 Transmits impulses (up to 250 mph)
 Parts of Neuron
 Dendrite – receive stimulus and
carries it impulses toward the cell
body
 Cell Body with nucleus – nucleus &
most of cytoplasm
 Axon – fiber which carries impulses
away from cell body
 Schwann Cells- cells which produce
myelin or fat layer in the Peripheral
Nervous System
 Myelin sheath – dense lipid layer
which insulates the axon – makes
the axon look gray
 Node of Ranvier – gaps or nodes in
the myelin sheath
 Impulses travel from dendrite to cell
body to axon
 Parts of Neuron
 Sensory neurons – bring messages
to CNS, to brain and spinal cord.
AFFERENT
 Motor neurons - carry messages
from CNS, from brain and spinal
cord to body. EFRERENT
 Interneurons – between sensory &
motor neurons in the CNS (both)
Vertebrates: Nervous System
 Simplest Vertebrates: mammals, fish, birds,
reptiles and amphibians
 Nervous system is responsible for the
intelligence of the animal, for its awareness
of the surroundings and for the power of
learning.
  Nervous system regulates the actions of the
animal
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM contains:
 BRAIN- becomes much larger and more
complex
 SPINAL CORD- protected by vertebrae at
the dorsal (back of heart and gut)
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Transmits sensory and motor signals
between the CNS and the rest of the body
Vertebrates Begun as:
 Prosencephalon (forebrain)
 Mesencephalon (midbrain)
 Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
*They are all present in all vertebrates
*In more complex brains, they are further subdivided
for integration of complete tasks
Invertebrates: Nervous System
Invertebrates nervous systems have different
degrees of centralization, cephalization, and
specialization.
 CNIDARIANS- (jellyfish) have a simple nerve
net
 ECHINODERMATA- (starfish, sea urchin,
sea cuccumber) have a epidermal nerve net
 PLATYHELMINTHES and ANNELIDA- (flat
worms, earthworms) composed of
longitudinal nerve cords
 CEPHALOPOD MOLLUSKS- (octopus,
snails, scallops, cattle fish) the most
developed nervous system among all
invertebrates. Ganglia
 ANTROPODS- (spider, butterfly, scorpion,
crab) they have segmental ganglia
 NEMATODA- (round worm) they have nerve
ring
 PORIFERA- (sponges) they do not have true
nervous system but there is oscula.
LESSON 10: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- Chemical messengers are involved in
communication in maintaining homeostasis
in an animal’s body and in the body’s
response to various stimuli. One type of
chemical messenger is a hormone. Only
those cells that have specific receptors for a
hormone can respond to that hormone.
- The major endocrine glands of vertebrates
include the hypothalamus, pituitary, thymus,
pancreas and gonads. Various other tissues,
however , such as the kidneys, heart,
digestive system, and placenta also secrete
hormones.
Endocrine System of Invertebrates
 Neurosecretory Cells - specialized nerve
cells capable of synthesizing and secreting
hormones.
 Product - neurosecretions or neurosecretory
hormones which are discharged directly into
the circulation and serve as a crucial link
between the nervous and endocrine system.
 Most of the chemicals functioning as
hormones in invertebrates are
neurosecretions called neuropeptides which:
is produced by the secretory nervous tissue;
regulate many physiological processes
 Insect physiologists discovered that molting
and metamorphosis are controlled by the
interaction of two hormones:
 Molting Hormone or Ecdysone - It acts
directly as a gene regulatory protein to set in
motion changes that result in molting. Favors
growth differentation of adult structures.
 Juvenile Hormone - (produced by corpora
allata). Favors dev’t of juvenile
characteristics. Maintenance of larval or
nymphal characteristics during development.
Different Phyla and their Hormones
 Porifera (Sponges) – have no endocrine
glands; also do not have neurosecretory
cells.
 Cnidarians – nerve cells have growth
promoting hormone that stimulates
budding, regeneration and growth. For
example is hydra (“Head regeneration”).
 Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)- cells are
found in the cerebral ganglion and major
nerve cords. The neuropeptides function
in regeneration, asexual reproduction
and gonad maturation. Ex:
Neurosecretory cells in the scolex of
tapeworms can control shedding of
proglottids.
  Nemerteans – the neuropeptide that
this ganglia produces controls gonadal
development and water balance.
 Nematodes – neurosecretory cells are
associated with the central nervous
system. The neuropeptide that the nerve
cell produces controls ecdysis of the old
cuticle.
 Molluscs – the central nervous system
of molluscs are filled with
neurosecretory cells. Neuropeptides
produced from these cells help regulate
heart rate, kidney function and energy
metabolism.
 Annelids – same with their well
developed circulatory system, nervous
system and large coelom, their
endocrine system is also a well
developed system that is involved in
morphogenesis, development, growth,
regeneration and gonadal maturation.
 Arthropods – the endocrine system of
complex arthropods like insects and
crustacean regulate growth, maturation
and production.
2 Types of Glands of Vertebrates
 Exocrine Gland – Secrete Chemicals into
ducts that empty into body cavities or
Surfaces (mammary, Salivary and Sweat
glands)
 Endocrines Gland- have no ducts; Secrete
chemical messengers called hormones
instead directly into the tissue space next to
each endocrine cell.
3 Different Aspects of Endocrinology that relate to
species differences
1. Hormones (or neuropeptides) with the same
function in diff. species may not be
chemically identical.
2. Certain hormones are species-specific with
respect to their function; conversely, some
hormones produced in one species may be
completely functional in another species.
3. A hormone from one species may elicit a
different response in the same target cell or
tissue of a different species.
Glands
 Pineal Gland- produces melatonin; controls
variations in skin color. In Fishes and
Amphibians, it is located near the skin,
functions to detect light and is commonly
referred to as the third eye.
 Pituitary Gland- produces prolactin;
stimulates reproductive migrations in
animals, causes brooding behavior in fishes,
helps control water and salt balances, and is
essential for preparing certain saltwater
fishes to enter freshwater during spawning
runs.
 Thyroid Gland- in the neck on the ventral
side of the pharynx in all vertebrates; shape
varies among vertebrates: may be a single
structure (e.g. many fishes, reptiles and
some mammals) or it may have several
lobes.
- produces thyroxine (T4, contain 4 iodines)
and triiodothyronine (T3, contain 3 iodines)
which control the rate of metabolism, growth,
and tissue differentiation in vertebrates.
 Glucocorticoids (Cortisol) – regulates
metabolism and concentration of blood
sugar.
-Defense responses to infection or Tissue
injury.
 Aldosterone – Maintains concentration of
solutes.
-Major role in maintaining the homeostasis of
extracellular fluid.
 Sex Hormones - Weak male hormones:
Androgens, lesser amounts of female
hormones called Estrogens.
Adrenal Medulla
 Under Neural Control.
 During stress, excitement or emergency,
contributes to the overall mobilization of the
body through the sympathetic nervous
system.
 Responsible for the fight or flight responses.
 Neurosecretory cells : Epinephrine
(adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (noradreline)
– control heart rate and carbohydrate
metabolism.
PANCREAS
  Functions both as an Exocrine (to secrete
digestive enzymes) and Endocrine gland.
 As Endocrine Gland – synthesizes, stores
and secretes hormones from clusters of cells
called pancreatic cells.
 Pancreas contains 200,000 to 2,000,000
pancreatic islets scattered throughout the
gland.
 Each islet contains 4 special groups of cells:
Alpha, Beta, Delta and F cells.
GONADS
 Secrete hormones that help regulate
reproductive functions.
 Males:
 Testes – secrete Testosterone
(stimulate spermatogenesis ,
growth and maintenance of male
sex organs, promotes development
and maintenance of sexual
behavior and stimulates growth of
facial and pubic hair in humans,
and also enlargement of larynx).
 Females
 4 Major classes of Ovarian
Hormones that help regulate female
reproductive organs:
• Estrogen – regulate
menstrual and estrus cycle ;
development of mammary
glands and other female
secondary sexual
characteristics.
• Progestins – also regulate
menstrual and estrus cycle;
Development of mammary
glands and formation of
placenta during pregnancy.
• Relaxin – softens the
opening of the uterus at the
time of delivery.

Hormones not produced by the Endocrine Glands

1. The Right Atrium - secretes Atrial Natriuretic
Hormone (Stimulates the kidneys to secrete
salt and water in the urine).
2. The Kidneys – Secrete Erythropoeitin
(Stimulates the bone marrow to produce red
blood cells).
3. Adipose tissue, Liver, Stomach, Placenta
and Small Intestine also secrete hormones.