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Elastomer - Engineering - Guide - Must Read PDF
Elastomer - Engineering - Guide - Must Read PDF
Elastomer types 7
Elastomer compounding 11
Manufacturing techniques 16
Material selection 25
Glossary of terms 39
General information 47
3
Introduction to elastomer engineering
This guide has been produced by A wide variety of synthetic rubbers have
James Walker to provide engineers since been developed, and in the early
Introduction to elastomer engineering
4
Introduction to elastomer engineering
Elastomers are arguably the most returns to its original configuration when occurs when the compound is subjected
versatile of engineering materials. They the stress is removed. As a result of to pressure and heat. Thermoplastic
5
Introduction to elastomer engineering
Elastomer products The inherent elastic properties of vibration or as a conduit to pass other
elastomers make them a natural choice hoses, pipes or wires.
and applications
Introduction to elastomer engineering
6
Elastomer types
Over the last century or so, a large Butadiene (BR) (polybutadiene) Chlorosulfonyl polyethylene (CSM)
number of basic and specialty
Elastomer types
elastomers have been developed to
CH2 CH CH CH2
meet a wide range of applications CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH CH2
n
and operating environments. Their x y z
CI SOCI
properties vary widely in terms of their Widely used in blends with natural
elasticity, temperature range, strength, rubber and styrene butadiene rubber Good resistance to oxygen, ozone and
hardness, compatibility, environmental for tyres, where it reduces heat build- light. Oil resistant and with low gas
resistance, etc, and there is also a large up and improves abrasion resistance. permeability. Its excellent UV stability
range in their costs. Low hysteresis, good flexibility at low makes it useful as roof sheeting and for
temperatures, high abrasion resistance pond liners, as well as wire and cable
The principal types of elastomers are in severe conditions. Also used in shoes, applications, coated fabrics and hoses.
outlined here. It should be noted that conveyor and transmission belts.
their basic properties can be substantially
modified by compound design Epichlorhydrin (CO/ECO)
(see section on Compounding on p11). Butyl (IIR)
(isobutylene-isoprene copolymer)
CH2 CH O
CH3 n
Thermoset elastomers CH2 CI
CH2 C CH2 CH CH CH2
Thermoset elastomers are vulcanised x y
High resistance to ageing, oxidation,
(cured) to produce a degree of cross- CH3 ozone and hot oil. Good resistance to
linking between the polymer chains. The hydrocarbon solvents, moderate low
cross-linking is irreversible, unlike with Low permeability to gases and hence temperature flexibility, poor electrical
thermoplastic elastomers which will soften used for inner tubes. High damping properties and abrasion resistance.
and flow above a given temperature. at ambient temperatures. Good Attacked by strong mineral and oxidising
ozone, weathering, heat and chemical agents and chlorine. Main use is in the
resistance but not oil resistant. Other automotive sector for seals, hoses,
Acrylic (ACM) uses include wire and cable applications, gaskets and ‘O’ rings.
(alkyl acrylate copolymer) pharmaceutical closures and vibration
isolation.
CH2 CH CH CH2 Ethylene propylene (EPM/EPDM)
x y
O=C O Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE)
+ diene monomer
O CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH in EPDM
CH2 CH CH2 CH2 x y z
Ethyl acrylate CH2 CH2 Chloroethyl CH3
(95%) vinyl ether (5%) x y
CH3 Cl CI
Excellent ozone/weathering resistance;
Outstanding resistance at normal and Good chemical resistance to hydrocarbon excellent hot water and steam resistance;
high temperatures to oil and oxygen. fluids and elevated temperatures. good resistance to inorganic and polar
Good weathering and ozone resistance. Poor mechanical strength: mechanical organic chemicals. Low resistance to
Poor resistance to moisture, acids and properties may deteriorate above 100°C. hydrocarbons. Typical temperature range:
bases. Commonly used in automotive Uses in the wire and cable industry, as -45°C to +150°C (-49°F to +302°F),
transmission seals and hoses. Also used well as for pond liners. up to +180°C (+356°F) in steam.
in adhesive formulations. Mineral oil/grease lubricants should not
be used to aid assembly.
Chlorobutyl (CIIR)
Bromobutyl (BIIR)
Butyl rubber modified by the introduction
Butyl rubber modified by the introduction of a small amount of chlorine, giving
of a small amount of bromine, giving improved ozone and environmental
improved ozone and environmental resistance, stability at high temperatures
resistance, stability at high temperatures and compatibility with other diene rubbers
and compatibility with other diene rubbers in blends. Also increased adhesion
in blends. Also increased adhesion to other rubbers and metals. Similar
to other rubbers and metals. Similar properties to bromobutyl.
properties to chlorobutyl.
7
Elastomer types
Fluorocarbon (FKM)
Common Natural
Elastomer types
Heat
Resistance
Maximum 75°C 85°C 130°C 95°C 130°C 100°C 150°C 150°C
Continuous
Maximum
Intermittent 105°C 115°C 150°C 125°C 160°C 130°C 180°C 180°C
Minimum -60°C -55°C -50°C -40°C -25°C -50°C to -5°C -20°C -40°C
Temperature
Hydrogenated nitrile (HNBR)
Table 1: Basic data for main elastomer types.
8
Elastomer types
Chloroprene (CR)
Common
Elastomer types
Epichlorohydrin Butyl Silicone HNBR Fluorocarbon Fluorosilicone Kalrez®
Name
CH2 CH C CH2
Cl n
Hydrogenated
Epichlorohydrin Polyisobutylene
Polysiloxane Nitrile
Fluorocarbon Fluorosilicone Perfluorocarbon Chemical
Rubber Rubber
Rubber
Rubber Rubber Rubber Name
Good weather and ozone resistance,
and fair resistance to inorganics.
Resistant to many chlorofluorocarbons.
ECO IIR Q HNBR FKM FQ FFKM Nomenclature Low cost. Moderate oil resistance and
limited temperature resistance. Typical
Relative temperature range: -40°C to +120°C
4 4 11 20 30 40 1000
Cost (-40°F to +248°F). Useful in pneumatic
applications.
40-85 40-85 40-80 50-95 50-95 40-80 65-90
Hardness
Range (IRHD)
C N C N C O C C O
H H H H H
CH2 CH CH CH2 CH2 CH CF2 CF2 CF2 CF CSM n
x y
CN O
Butadiene Acrylonitrile Very versatile, with good abrasion
CF3 resistance, high tensile and tear strength,
good resistance to aliphatic solvents and
Good aliphatic hydrocarbon oil/fuel Ultimate in performance regarding heat mineral oils, oxygen and ozone. Can be
resistance and resilience. Limited and chemical resistance. Very expensive. formulated to have high modulus with a
weathering resistance and only Some grades are suitable for continuous high filler content. Poor heat resistance
modest temperature resistance. Typical use at 327°C (620°F), with chemical and can have poor creep resistance,
temperature range: -30°C to +120°C resistance being almost universal. particularly in moist conditions. Uses in
(-22°F to +248°F). Widely used in sealing However, their moderate mechanical seals, metal forming dies, liners, rollers,
applications. Low temperature grades properties deteriorate rapidly at elevated wheels, conveyor belts, etc.
available down to -50°C (-58°F). As with temperatures, and at temperatures
hydrogenated nitrile, many properties can below 0°C.
be influenced by varying its acrylonitrile to
butadiene ratio.
9
Elastomer types
10
Elastomer compounding
Elastomer compounding
The basic properties of elastomers Polymers polymer in the same way as reinforcing
are highly dependent on the polymers fillers. They are mainly added to reduce
used in their manufacture. These The polymer, or blend of polymers, is the cost. Examples include soft clay, calcium
properties can be modified, however, fundamental component in determining carbonate, and talc.
through the appropriate addition of the properties of the compound. It is
compounding ingredients. Some are selected to optimise service performance Fine-ground natural silica is used to
added to accelerate cross-linking, and processing requirements while provide dimensional stability, improved
others improve processability, while also taking cost into account. Very thermal conductivity, and good electrical
others improve the properties of the high molecular weight polymers can insulation properties at low cost.
finished product. for example produce extremely tough
materials. They can however lead to
Some compounds are required to deliver problems with poor flow, poor joins and Accelerators
the highest levels of performance in the particularly backrinding.
end product, with cost being a secondary These speed up the cure. Modifications
issue. In this case compounding requires in their levels can control the cure speed
the use of materials selected to give and elastomer properties. It is common
the required characteristics without the to use more than one accelerator in a
inclusion of non-essential ingredients formulation. Peroxide cured materials
which could compromise performance. often use what is known as a co-agent
Fillers along with the peroxide which can act
In other applications, compounds may be like an accelerator or modify the physical
designed to minimise cost, with extenders Fillers are added primarily to provide properties.
and diluents being added to reduce the reinforcement and secondly to reduce
proportion of high priced components cost. They fall into two basic categories:
in the mix. This inevitably leads to reinforcing or semi-reinforcing, and
compromises in the mechanical and diluent (non-reinforcing, generally for
other properties, of course, but for certain cheapening).
applications this may be acceptable.
The most popular reinforcing and semi- Activators
Other important factors that affect the reinforcing fillers are carbon blacks, which
quality of the resulting elastomer include are categorised primarily by means of In most sulphur-cured rubbers, zinc
the quality of the raw ingredients, the particle size. Carbon blacks and non- oxide and stearic acid are added to help
style of mixer and the quality control black fillers become more reinforcing as initiate the cure. In other rubbers, different
in mixing. End product properties can particle size decreases. Highly reinforcing materials are added which assist the cure
also be influenced by the processing of fillers can make a compound tough, in an indirect way.
the compounded material into the final which can result in poor flow. Carbon
product shape. blacks are alkaline in nature and tend to Very fast cure systems can give problems
accelerate cure. with scorch/orange peel and backrinding.
Of the thermoplastic elastomers, styrenic Peroxide cures can give sticky flashlines
block copolymers are the only type that Non-black fillers tend to be acidic and can due to their inability to cure in the
is fully compoundable in a similar way retard cure as well as absorb moisture, presence of air. Very high levels of some
to conventional thermoset elastomers. which can result in blistering problems curatives can lead to fissuring/blistering
Although fillers such as carbon black can during the processing stage. Glycols help either in mould or during post cure.
be added to cheapen the material, they to overcome this retardation effect with
do not have a reinforcement effect in acidic fillers.
thermoplastic elastomers. Blowing agents
Nano-fillers such as super-fine clays
The description of ingredients that follows have a high surface area compared to Blowing agents are used in the
gives a basic guide to their uses and their volume and can produce better manufacture of sponge rubber. Sodium
properties. mechanical performance. Although they bicarbonate was the first commercially
are more expensive than conventional used blowing agent, which reacts with
fillers, the same weight of material goes stearic acid to produce carbon dioxide
further because the particles are so at vulcanisation temperatures. Today’s
much finer. commonly used blowing agents rely on
the formation of nitrogen as the
expansion agent.
11
Elastomer compounding
Most large volume elastomer products For a number of applications, it is Peptisers are substances that act as chain
are bonded composites, such as tyres, necessary to add a desiccant to remove terminating agents during mastication
hoses and belts. Bonding agents are traces of water introduced in fillers or of rubber. While natural rubber is usually
often added to the compound to increase produced from chemical reactions during masticated and can be peptised, this is
the bond strength between the different vulcanisation. Failure to remove this water unnecessary for most synthetic rubbers.
components. Agents include cobalt-based can result in uncontrolled porosity in the Peptisers may also act as pro-oxidants.
salts such as cobalt naphthenate or cobalt product and problems where the cure is They significantly reduce the time
stearate as well as proprietary materials sensitive to moisture. required to lower the viscosity of the
based on cobalt and boron complexes. rubber to a workable level, thereby cutting
The usual agent used for this purpose mixing time and energy.
is calcium oxide (quicklime). It is difficult
Co-agents to disperse in its dry powder form so it Although many materials, such as some
is usually offered in a variety of carrying accelerators, are known to possess
Co-agents are reactive substances media to ensure adequate dispersion and chemical peptising activity, in practice
which improve the effectiveness of help prevent moisture take up prior to the choice is limited due to additional
peroxide cross-linking. Most of them are incorporation in the compound. considerations such as health and safety,
methacrylates or derivatives containing effect on vulcanisation characteristics
allyls (H2C=CH-CH2-), but polymeric and price.
materials with a high content of vinyl Extenders
groups also react in a similar way. Sulphur
and sulphur donors can also be used. Extenders are compounding ingredients Pigments
Their effects may be explained by the that are added to the elastomer to reduce
co-agent suppressing undesirable side the cost of the compound. Although most rubber compounds are
reactions between the polymer radicals. black, due to the widespread use of
carbon black as a filler, coloured rubber
Flame retardants compounds are frequently required to add
Coupling agents appeal to consumer items. Colour coding
Most elastomers support combustion, of products is also often desirable.
Coupling agents provide a stable bond and the resulting by-products can be
between two otherwise poorly bonding extremely hazardous. To improve their Inorganic or organic pigments are
surfaces, for example, silanes added to flame resistance a number of products available. Inorganic pigments are often
mineral fillers to bond to polymers. may be added to the compound, either dull and in some cases too opaque
inorganic or organic. They include to provide the desired colour. They
antimony trioxide, zinc borate, aluminium are insoluble and thus cannot bloom.
Curatives hydroxide and chlorinated paraffins. Organic pigments generally give brighter
shades but are more sensitive to heat
Added to form cross-links, these vary and chemicals and are also relatively
according to the type of elastomer. In Odorants and deodorants expensive. They can also fade badly in
sulphur-cured rubbers, sulphur donors long-term exposure to sunlight.
as opposed to sulphur give better heat This class of compounding ingredient
stability as they tend to give single was more common in the days when
sulphur cross-links. Peroxide cures give natural rubber was the main rubber for
good thermal stability due to the short production. The early forms of natural Plasticisers/process aids
length of the cross-links between polymer rubber gave products with a distinct
chains. Fluorocarbons, along with some aroma and to overcome this a wide range Plasticisers need to be compatible with
other polymer types, can have their own of odorants was offered. Many of the the polymer. They reduce hardness with
specialised cure systems. synthetic rubbers have their own distinct a given level of filler, and can help with
aroma and often this has to be masked filler incorporation and dispersion.
to make the final product acceptable to Special types of plasticiser can improve
the user. the low temperature flexibility of some
rubber types (eg, nitrile and neoprene).
Process aids can also assist with filler
dispersion, although they are normally
added to improve processability
downstream.
12
Elastomer compounding
Elastomer compounding
knitting problems (flow marks and poor These materials are added to inhibit attack Tackifiers are compounding ingredients
joins) in the manufactured product. They by oxidation and ozone. Antidegradants introduced to enhance the surface tack of
can also create difficulties when bonding fall into two broad groups – amines uncured elastomers. They are usually
to metal. Excessive softening of the (staining) and phenolics (non-staining), low-molecular weight compounds.
compound can lead to air trapping in the with the latter able to be used in non-
mould. black compounds. Some anti-ozonants
(such as waxes) can bloom to the Other ingredients
Plasticisers can also cause problems surface and give similar problems to
when a product is subjected to thermal plasticisers/process aids. There are a range of other ingredients
cycling and/or certain solvents, as they that are sometimes added to compounds
can leach out at high temperatures and to achieve specific properties. These
adversely affect the low temperature Retarders range from the inclusion of iron powder
properties. to enable seal fragments in food to
Retarders are used to prevent premature be detected with a metal detector,
curing, or scorching, of compounds to radiation shielding for use in x-ray
Pre-dispersed ingredients during processing and storing. During environments. The effects on moulding
mixing and further processing in a vary enormously depending on the
Some types of ingredient that are calender, extruder or moulding press, ingredient.
difficult to disperse, for example, certain the elastomer is continuously subjected
accelerators and anti-oxidants can be to heat which can result in premature The selected ingredients are combined to
obtained pre-mixed in an inert polymer. curing, or pre-curing. To prevent this, produce a formulation for the mix. Table
The concentrations are normally 75 to retarders are mixed with the compound. 2 shows an example of a simple formula
80%. When in this form, the ingredients Excessive use of retarders results in designed to produce a 90 IRHD nitrile for
are more readily dispersed during a porosity in compounds and they are rarely an application involving contact with a
mix. Some powders such as peroxides used today. hydrocarbon fuel.
are supplied absorbed onto an inert
filler or dampened with oil which helps
dispersion, and health and safety.
Occasionally, liquids are used absorbed
Table 2: Example formulation for a 90 IRHD nitrile compound for fuel resistance.
onto a powder which aids handling, and
can give a faster incorporation into the
Nitrile rubber 41% ACN 100 High ACN content for fuel resistance
mix. In some cases these ingredients can
be dispersed into the polymer.
Zinc oxide 5 Cure activator
A process aid is an ingredient that is SRF carbon black 120 Semi-reinforcing filler to obtain hardness
added in a small dosage to an elastomer
compound to influence the performance Adipate plasticiser 6 To aid processing
of the compound in factory processes
or to enhance physical properties by Sulphur 2 Curative
aiding filler dispersion. Examples include
physical peptisers, lubricants, silicone Accelerator 1 To control cure rate
modified processing additives and anti-
stick agents. Anti-oxidant 1 To reduce the effects of ageing
13
Elastomer compounding
Elastomer compounds can be designed to the influence of the ACN as a plastic The mixing cycle is crucial in dispersing
for specific purposes by modifying their modifying the rubber influence of the the ingredients sufficiently so that the
characteristics through varying the butadiene. elastomer’s physical and fluid resistance
quantities of their constituents. This can properties can be optimised.
range from compounding using diluent Mixing
fillers and basic ingredients to keep costs In a conventional cycle the polymer is
down, through to the use of specific Three types of processes are used for added first and mixed for a short time
additives to produce properties such as mixing the compound ingredients. to ensure homogeneity and to soften
high tensile strength or wear resistance. sufficiently to accommodate the fillers.
Open mill. Here the rubber is banded The fillers are added in one or more
Varying quantities and the selection of around the front roll and the ingredients stages depending on their levels, with the
ingredients can heavily influence the end incorporated in the nip. ram being lowered after each addition to
properties of the compound, as illustrated ensure the material is fully compressed
in the following examples. into the chamber.
er
nt fill plasticisers are used they are usually
Dilue
nfo
14
Elastomer compounding
Elastomer compounding
The initial stage of quality checking to check that the correct levels of filler have
ensure the material meets the required been incorporated. The hardness should
standards normally includes the following normally fall within +5 and -4 IRHD of the
tests. specified value. The strict process and
quality control regimes in place at James
Walker manufacturing sites however,
Cure characteristics. How an elastomer ensures any variation in compound
cures over time is measured on a hardness is minimal and far below the
rheometer. As the compound cures industry standard range outlined here.
between the hot platens it becomes
stiffer. This is measured via a strain Details on the test procedure are given on
gauge connected to an oscillating rotor in page 20.
contact with the elastomer. The resistance
of the material to the oscillating motion is
plotted on a graph against time, known as Density. This is a measure of the weight
a rheograph, which enables the moulding per unit volume. It gives an indication
characteristics to be predicted. of whether the correct quantities of
ingredients have been added.
See also the Materials & product testing
section on page 20. Weight. This test checks the weight of the
compound after leaving the mixer
and compares it to the input weight of the
mix to confirm all the constituents have
been added.
10.00
8.00
Torque (in.lb)
6.00
2.00 4.00
0
TIME (min)
Figure 14: Typical rheometer trace showing progress of cure against time.
15
Manufacturing techniques
The manufacturing of products in the rubber sheet. This sheet is generally Hopper Barrel
elastomers involves a number of often then used either to stamp a shape for Exit
complex operations to turn the raw placing into a mould in the next process,
or to manufacture cross-linked elastomer Die
material sheets into a finished product
suitable for use. The operation can be sheeting from which gaskets or other Screw
spilt into three distinct areas of activity: finished products can be cut. Figure 16: Screw extruder.
Material preparation
Figure 17: Screw extruder producing
Elastomers extrusion for the manufacture of 'O' rings.
16
Manufacturing techniques
Manufacturing techniques
to be cross-linked to retain its shape. This,
for example, is the process used for the
manufacture of windscreen wiper blades.
For products manufactured using this
technique, the extrusion is cured either
as it exits the machine through a hot box,
or by other means following the extrusion
process, such as autoclaving.
Non-elastomeric components
Rubber blank
Lower mould half
Figure 20: Open mould (left) with elastomer blank placed in cavity, and (right) mould closed
forming the finished product profile.
1717
Manufacturing techniques
Tie Bar
Feed
Manufacturing techniques
Injection moulding In the case of liquid silicone rubber (LSR), grooves and a mat of material left in the
the injection machine can also be used transfer pot.
Injection moulding machines are either to mix the two LSR constituents before
vertically or horizontally run. An example of injection into the mould. The advantage of this process over
a horizontal machine is shown in Figure 21. conventional compression moulding is the
ability to form delicate parts and to mould
Injection moulding is a process where Transfer moulding parts having inserts requiring specific
heated elastomer is injected into a closed positioning within the product. It also has
cavity via a runner system. Uncured Transfer moulding is a combination of simpler blank requirements and faster
elastomer is fed into the injection cylinder injection moulding and compression cure times, since the elastomer heats up
where it is preheated and accurately moulding and takes place on a quickly as it is transferred from the pot to
metered into the mould. This is done by compression press. Elastomer of set the cavity.
controlling the pressure, injection time weight is placed in the transfer pot, and,
and temperature. as with compression moulding, the pot is The main disadvantages are the additional
closed by the press forcing the elastomer cost of the tooling, the additional waste
The advantages of injection moulding down the sprues and into the cavity. material due to the pot and sprue, and
are its suitability for moulding delicate A small amount of excess material difficulties that can be experienced
parts, shorter cycle times compared with flows out of the cavity through vents, with when transferring high hardness or high
compression moulding, the high levels of other excess material lying in the sprue molecular weight materials.
automation that can be introduced in the
process and lower levels of flash since
the mould is shut when the material is Top heated platen
injected.
Upper mould half
The main disadvantages of injection
moulding are the costs of the tool, the
longer changeover times resulting from
the more complex tooling and the waste Rubber blank
of material in the runner system where Transfer pot
a hot runner system is employed (for Sprue
thermoset materials). Material waste also Lower mould half
occurs when jobs are run sequentially
with either differing materials or different
Bottom heated platen
colours, which requires extensive purging
of the machine.
Figure 23: Transfer moulding process showing mould open (left) with the elastomer blank in
the transfer pot, and mould shut (right) with the elastomer injected into the cavity.
18
Manufacturing techniques
Manufacturing techniques
Following the moulding process a which generally uses steam to post-cure One of the final steps in the
number of operations may need to the components under pressure. An manufacturing process is finished part
be performed to finish the product. additional benefit of this type of post- inspection. This can be carried out by
These include post-curing, removal curing is that it provides a comprehensive hand, with an inspector visually examining
of flash and injection sprues, other ‘wash’ of the products and is often and measuring the products. Alternatively,
trimming requirements, testing, etching, used to finish products for food or for reasonably simple components,
inspecting and packaging the product. pharmaceutical applications. inspection can be performed by machine,
using a contact or non-contact system, in
Another use of autoclaves is to cure some cases working fully autonomously.
Trimming products (not to be confused with Autonomous measurement is particularly
post-curing, as in this instance it is the suited to high volume production runs for
Various trimming techniques are primary curing process) that are too products such as ‘O’ rings.
available depending on the size and big or unsuitable to be moulded.
shape of the component and the type of Examples of such products are extrusions
elastomer used. They include cryogenic, and sheetings.
where the part is cooled below its glass
transition temperature and tumbled and
blasted with beads to remove the flash, Product testing
buffing using abrasive wheels and belts,
cutting the finished shape using cutting In some cases the products manufactured
dies, formers, knives and in some need to be non-destructively tested
cases scissors, using lathes to trim and to ensure they meet the required
chamfer components, and rota finishing specifications. This normally takes the
where components are rotated amongst form of a hardness test.
abrasive stones or other abrasive media.
Destructive testing of representative
samples is also often carried out
(compression set and immersion testing).
Packaging
Post-curing Etching
For many heat resistant elastomers, For some applications, the elastomer
such as fluorocarbon and silicone product requires to be etched to provide
materials, it is necessary to supplement identification of its origin for branding
the press cure with an oven post-cure to purposes or other customer requirements.
eliminate residues from peroxides and
complete the curing process.
1919
Material & product testing
Material & product testing Hardness – BS ISO 48 Tensile strength – BS ISO 37
Material & product testing
The test methods and terminology used The hardness quoted for an elastomer This is a measure of the stress required
to characterise the physical properties usually refers to the result obtained from to rupture a standard test piece. Tensile
of elastomers can differ from those a “standard” test piece, see BS ISO 48. strength is a useful quality control tool
of other materials. The following is an Results obtained from a non-standard to monitor inter-batch consistency. It
overview of terms and methods. test piece e.g. seal, are normally referred does not however give any indication of
to as “apparent hardness”. The results extrusion resistance for example.
obtained from measuring the hardness
of a material batch, using a standard test Temperature has a marked effect on
Cure characteristics
piece, may differ from the results obtained the strength properties of elastomers,
from testing product manufactured from whether tensile, tear or compressive.
How a rubber cures over time is
the same batch. Room temperature testing rarely gives
measured on a rheometer. As the
an accurate indication of their strength
compound cures between the hot platens
at elevated temperatures: for example,
it becomes stiffer. This is measured via a
at 100°C (212°F) some elastomers retain
strain gauge connected to an oscillating
only 10 per cent of their room temperature
rotor in contact with the rubber. The
strength. To create a more meaningful
stiffness (resistance to torque) of the
result, tensile testing can be performed at
material is plotted on a graph against
elevated temperatures.
time, known as a rheograph (Figure 26).
This information predicts the moulding
characteristics, since the rheograph
shows the time available to load the press
(red box), the time of cure (blue box) and
the final state of cure (green box). Figure 27: Hardness machine.
Time
20
Material & product testing
50
ratio of stress to strain as this is a linear stiffening and ‘freezing’.
40
relationship). Modulus tends to increase 30
with hardness, with higher modulus Compression set, %
20
materials, in the main, being more 10
Time/Hours
(psi, MPa)
Met
er
stom
Ela
Modulus = stress Fluid resistance – BS ISO 1817
at any given strain
Figure 30: Example of compression
set apparatus. Immersion of samples in various fluids at
Strain, ε (ratio or %)
differing temperatures, followed by testing
Figure 29: Comparison of modulus for
Compression stress relaxation for volume change, tensile strength
elastomers and metals.
(CSR) testing change, hardness change, etc, will give
a reliable indication of how well the
Figure 1 – Volume expansion vs. temperature A compression stress relaxometer measures material will perform under similar service
Compressionfor
setvarious Elast-O-Lions
– BS ISO 815-1 & -2 the residual sealing force of elastomer conditions. Complications arising from
(reference volume of 1 at 73°F/23°C)
1.04 samples as they are held between parallel solubility parameters mean that this is an
In any
1.02 seal, at a constant temperature, a plates under a constant strain. important test, see page 27.
mechanically loaded elastomer will exhibit
Volume, relative
1
time0.98
dependent relaxation. If the seal is Compression jigs can be placed in
subsequently unloaded, the elastomer various environments, for example an
0.96
will recover towards its original shape oven. The jig is placed in the relaxometer,
0.94
to an extent defined by chemical and and a reading taken. After this the jig is
0.92
physical degradation. Such relaxation
–200–150–100–50 0 50100replaced in the conditioning environment,
and recovery phenomena are °Cdetermined
Temperature,
allowing changes in sealing force to be
primarily by the viscoelastic 101 nature
201 of
985
plotted over time.
elastomers and by the chemical reactions
that occur between the material and the
environment.
room 300
temperature. Compression set
is expressed
200
as the percentage of the
original deformation not recovered after
100
this recovery period: 0 per cent indicating
0
full recovery, 100 per cent indicating no
–25–20–15 –10–50
recovery. Temperature, °C
Thermogravimetric analysis
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is
another thermal analysis technique and
provides information complementary
Electrical testing to DSC. TGA continuously weighs the
sample to high accuracy as it is heated.
Elastomers are used extensively in During the heating, different components
electrical applications because they of the elastomer burn off at different
provide an excellent combination of temperatures and the loss in weight
flexibility and electrical properties. provides a precise indication of the
components present in the formulation.
The anti-static and conductive properties The technique is valuable for compound
of elastomers are determined by development, process control and failure
measuring their electrical resistance. analysis.
Measurements are obtained by placing
a disc of elastomer of known thickness
between two electrodes and measuring
the current flow. Electrical strength is
23
Material & product testing
Product testing RGD testing test vessel. After purging the vessel with
Although rapid gas decompression test gas to remove any air, the vessel is
Material & product testing
Environmental testing (RGD), also known as explosive heated and pressurised with test gas to
Environmental testing is used to predict decompression (ED), is generally found the chosen pressure and temperature
how products will behave in actual in the oil and gas industry, it can be and held for an exposure period.
conditions of use. Test pieces are placed experienced in any application where
in a controlled environment, such as there is a rapid drop in gas pressure. Decompression is then performed at a
low or high temperatures or pressures, RGD damage has been noted in sealing predetermined rate while maintaining the
and can be tested for properties such as applications ranging from paint guns and test temperature as constant as possible.
sealing performance. fire extinguishers to systems containing After a hold period at ambient pressure
refrigerants. the pressure cycling is repeated for
typically five to ten cycles.
RGD damage consists of structural failure
in the form of blistering, internal cracking The seals are then externally examined
and splits caused when the gas pressure, for visual appearance and cut into four
to which the seal is exposed, is rapidly radial sections. Magnification is used to
reduced. examine the cross-sections for internal
cracks, and the samples are rated for
The elastomeric components of a RGD damage according to the number
system are, to a greater or lesser extent, and lengths of any cracks found.
susceptible to the permeation and
diffusion of gases dissolving in their
surface. With time, these components will
become saturated with whatever gases
are in the system. Under these conditions
– as long as the internal gas pressure of
the elastomer remains at equilibrium with
Figure 35: Low temperature environment
chamber for testing sealing on static the ambient pressure – there is minimal
'O' rings. damage, if any, and no deterioration
in performance of the elastomeric
Specific application testing component occurs (unless caused by
It is important to replicate operating other factors such as chemical or thermal
conditions. One of the best ways to do degradation or by extrusion damage).
this in a controlled environment is to
replicate these conditions on specific test When the external gas pressure is
equipment. For example if the application removed or pressure fluctuations occur,
is rotary, testing can be conducted using large pressure gradients are created
different shaft speeds, pressures, shaft between the interior and the surface of
finishes, media, temperature, etc. the elastomeric component. This pressure
differential may be balanced by the gas
simply diffusing/permeating out of the
elastomer, especially if any external
constraints are not removed.
Figure 37: RGD test rigs.
However, if the physical properties of
the elastomeric compound cannot resist
crack and blister growth during the Load deflection testing
permeation process, then structural failure
is the inevitable result. The results of this test are highly
dependent upon sample dimensions,
RGD damage can manifest itself in due to the ‘shape factor’ effect when
Figure 36: Example of bespoke test various ways from internal splits that are testing elastomers. The ‘shape factor’ is
equipment for evaluating a rotary not visible on the surface of the seal to the ratio of the area of the test sample
cartridge assembly.
surface blisters, fractures and complete compared to the area of the sample that
fragmentation. is ‘free-to-bulge’.
24
Material selection
Material selection
When selecting elastomers for specific The important considerations when When elastomers are cooled to
applications, a number of criteria need selecting appropriate materials for sufficiently low temperatures they exhibit
to be considered, including the expected applications involving temperature are the characteristics of glass, including
service conditions, chemical compatibility to know the maximum and minimum hardness, stiffness and brittleness, and
with service fluids, physical factors such continuous operating temperatures, do not behave in the readily deformable
as temperature, life prediction and design intermittent maximum and minimum manner usually associated with
considerations. exposure temperatures and times, system elastomers. As temperatures are raised,
pressure for low temperature applications, the segments of the polymer chain gain
The main considerations can be broken whether there will be thermal cycling sufficient energy to rotate and vibrate. At
down as: and also environmental factors involving high enough temperatures full segmental
knowledge of the media to which the rotation is possible and the material
Static or dynamic: If there is movement,
elastomer will be exposed. behaves in the characteristic rubbery way.
is it rotary, linear, due to thermal
The usefulness of an elastomer at low
expansion or pressure cycling?
temperatures is dependent on whether
Temperature: Continuous, minimum, the material is above its glass transition
High temperature applications
maximum, thermal cycling, glass temperature (Tg), where it will still behave
transition temperature shift. elastically, or below its Tg, where the
The limit to the upper temperature at
Application: Clearance gaps, surface which an elastomer can be used is material will be hard and relatively brittle.
finish. generally determined by its chemical
Media: Chemical compatibility, solubility stability, and will vary for different Elastomers between their useful low
parameter. elastomers. Elastomers can be attacked temperature flexibility and brittle point go
by oxygen or other chemical species, and through a stage which is referred to as
Pressure: Continuous, maximum,
because the attack results in a chemical 'leathery' (see Figure 38).
fluctuations, rate of decompression.
reaction, their potency will increase with Br ittleness
Aesthetics: Colour, surface finish,
temperature.
Torsion modules, MPa or psi
“Leathery”
Cost: Primary consideration, trade off in Degradative chemical reactions are region
performance, cost of failure, total cost of generally of two types. The first are those
ownership (TCO). that cause breakage of the molecular Limit of full
Approvals and specifications: chains or cross-links, softening the rubber flexibility
International standards, such as ISO, because they weaken the network. The
industry standards or customer specific. second are those that result in additional
cross-linking, hardening the rubber, and Temperature
25
Material selection
constant at any particular temperature. the elastomer can often operate Fluids can affect elastomers in two ways:
This is why elastomers are generally at temperatures far below its physical interaction, such as swelling, and
considered incompressible: ie, their recommended minimum operating chemical interaction. The first is generally
volume will not change regardless of any temperature. reversible, while the other is not.
deforming force, although the shape will • Reducing the temperature of an
alter. It is here that conventional theory elastomer causes it to harden and lose
breaks down when considering high flexibility. This occurs gradually and Physical interaction
applied pressures, because the free the compound changes from flexible
volume can be reduced. to brittle, becoming progressively The degree and type of physical
more leathery. The leathery phase for interaction depend on a number of
This manifests itself as a Tg shift. Applying some compounds can span a broad factors, including the cross-link density
pressure to an elastomer in a hydraulic temperature range. and type, the filler level and type, the
or gas system results in an increase in Tg • Reducing the temperature of an polymer type, the type and viscosity of the
at a rate of approximately 1°C per 5.2MPa elastomer to its brittle point or below media and the solubility parameters of the
(1.8°F per 750psi). Hence a system has no detrimental effects on its polymer and media.
pressure of 103MPa (15,000 psi) will chemical resistance and its physical
reduce the low temperature limit of the properties will return to original values The effects of the physical interaction of
compound by approximately 20°C (36°F), once the temperature is returned to fluids (elastomers are fluids) are normally
ie, if the elastomer had a low temperature ambient. observed as the swelling of an elastomer
limit of -40°C (-40°F) at atmospheric through fluid absorption from its
• Subjecting an elastomer component to
pressure, at 103MPa (15,000 psi) it will environment. This is generally reversible.
changes in applied stress and strain,
have a low temperature limit of -20°C (-4°F). The magnitude of the effect depends on
shock loading or impact, when at or
The Tg shift can be seen in Figure 39. the environmental fluid, the elastomer
below the brittle point, can result in
and the temperature, and reflects the
Torsion modulus, MPa or psi
2626
Material selection
Material selection
of constituents within the elastomer Many chemical species cause
such as process aids, plasticisers and degradation to elastomeric compounds,
protective systems being leached out. either by attacking the polymer or
This is rare but can cause loss of seal some of its compounding ingredients.
interference, increase of hardness, system Degradation caused (for example) by
contamination, reduced low temperature water and amines is irreversible. It often
flexibility and a reduction in the ageing results in seal hardening or softening,
characteristics of the material. increased compression set, cracking,
and in extreme cases, dissolution. Such
degradation is often highly dependent
on exposure temperature, in terms of
both the reaction initiating in the first
place, and then the rate at which the
reaction proceeds. Laboratory tests may
Case history not provide a true indication of reaction
potential or elastomer compatibility,
An example of the dangers of unexpected solubility effects concerns a solubility particularly if performed at reduced
parameter analysis of a 70:30 mixture of iso-octane:methanol with low ACN nitrile. temperatures or exposure times.
A weighted average of the solubility factors for the mixture indicates an expected
volume swell of 20%. However, as Figure 40 shows, the volume swell in practice Examples of agents that can cause
was almost 60%. It can be seen from Table 3 that the solubility parameter for a chemical degradation are acids, bases,
low nitrile is 9.3, which matches the solubility parameter of the 70:30 mix of iso- water, hydrogen sulphide, zinc bromide,
octane:methanol. oxygen, ozone, mercaptans, free radicals
and biocides as well as ultraviolet and
70
ionising radiation.
60
50
∆Ⅴ,%
40
30
20
10
0
Iso-octane 100% 70:30 Methanol 100%
Figure 40: Variation of volume swell for low ACN nitrile in blends of iso-octane:methanol.
Fluids Polymers
• Iso-octane 6.9 • EPDM 8.2
• Hexane 7.3 • FEPM 9.0
•D
i-ethyl ether 7.7 • NBR (low) 9.3
•X
ylene 8.8 • NBR (high) 11.0
• Toluene 9.0 • HNBR - as NBR
• MEK 9.6 • FKM 10.7 to 11.5
• Ethanol 13.0
•M
ethanol 14.7
• Water 23.2
27
Material selection
Hydraulic fluids
fire resistent
ed
as
c
ar atic
ati
lb
ea tic
ol i c
dr le nd ynt l
im e l (g om c
om
s – iph
ra
Hy etab ils a – s era
)
Ch ul oil gr he
as ati
ve
se
ne
Ve one g oi – m ils
ine
os gly u ns
os ate ol b ions
bo
ter al
in
ic tin oils el o
ate ste ed
ts
ip
Ph – l em lsio
–m
Lu a d ats
es rs –
da
Di te a 0°C 0°C
en
Ke ded bon – al
ph e as
s
PE IAL
l
f
br ting die
u
olv
lut cid an
s
d
o ls
s
8
ate o m
Oi rina fluid
a ar s
ro p s
lo ic s
Am yd ol
Lu l oils s an
TY ER
Di r – p to
Ke rs ed s
W er – gen
Le oc on
W er in er e
s
eh coh
c
Lo e a s
i
W wa d
n
l
i
dr arb
Ch nes s
we lka
l in te
a
e oil
e
y
ate u
T
t
lu 8
he t
Ald al
Et ina
Hy nes
W r ox
Ph h
MA
Sil ica
Hy roc
Fu al
p
c
r
r
lor
i
br
to
o
at
i
at
Air
Acrylic ACM 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 4
Butyl IIR 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 1 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 1 3 4 4 4 4 1 2 2
Epichlorohydrin CO/ECO 2 1 2 3 2 2 4 1 4 4 4 3 4 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 4 2 2 2 4 4
Ethylene-propylene EPM/EPDM 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 4 3 1 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 1 3 4 4 4 4 1 1 2
Fluorocarbon FKM 1 1 3 1 2 4* 4* 4* 1 3* 4* 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1
Fluorosilicone FQ 1 1 2 3 2 1 4 4 2 3 4 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
Perfluorocarbon FFKM 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Natural NR 3 1 2 3 2 2 3 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4
Neoprene CR 1 1 2 3 1 1 3 2 4 4 4 2 4 3 2 2 3 2 3 1 3 3 4 4 4 3 4 4
Nitrile NBR 2 1 2 3 2 1 3 2 3 4 4 1 3 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 4 3 3 1 4 4
Polyurethane AU/EU/PU 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 2 4 2 4 2 2 2 3 2 4 1 2 1 4 4 4 4 4 4
Silicone Q 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 2 4 3 3 4 1 4 3 3 4 2 2 3
Key
1 Very good; 2 Good; 3 Fair; 4 Not recommended.
* Fluoroelastomer grades are available that offer resistance to these chemicals.
Note: These figures are for guidance only. Service life will depend on type of application, whether static or dynamic
specific pressure medium, temperature cycle, time of exposure, etc.
2828
Material selection
Material selection
The effect pressure can have on the low large pressure gradients are created Aesthetics need to be taken into account
temperature behaviour of elastomers between the interior and the surface of in applications where appearance is
and problems it can create with the elastomeric component. This pressure important, for example in consumer
extrusion, have already been discussed differential may be balanced by the gas products.
in this section. Another important simply diffusing/permeating out of the
consideration when discussing elastomer, especially if any external Thermoplastic elastomers lend
pressure is to understand the direction constraints are not removed. But if the themselves to producing products with
or directions it is applied from, its physical properties of the elastomeric high gloss and are readily available in a
magnitude and whether it fluctuates. compound cannot resist crack and blister variety of different colours.
The latter consideration can lead to growth during the permeation process,
significant elastomer damage if the structural failure is the inevitable result.
pressure is reduced rapidly. This is An example of an elastomer failing due
referred to as rapid gas decompression to RGD can be seen on page 37 in the Cost
(RGD), formerly known as explosive failure modes section.
decompression. Cost is almost invariably a primary
consideration. It usually needs to
be balanced against performance
requirements, taking into account the
Rapid gas decompression
total cost of ownership. A small reduction
in price can lead to a disproportionate
Although rapid gas decompression
deterioration in quality.
(RGD) is generally found in the oil and
gas industry, it can be considered a
possibility in any application where there
is a rapid drop in gas pressure above
50 bar.
Approvals and specifications
A variety of national and international
RGD damage is structural failure in the
standards organisations are responsible
form of blistering, internal cracking and
for preparing and issuing standards
splits caused when the gas pressure
relating to elastomers. These include
to which the elastomer is exposed is
the International Organisation for
rapidly reduced.
Figure 41: Cross-section of 'O' ring showing Standardisation (ISO), the British
RGD damage. Standards Institution (BSI), the American
The elastomeric components of a
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),
system are, to a greater or lesser extent,
the Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN),
susceptible to the permeation and
Factors that influence RGD resistance are: the European Association of Aerospace
diffusion of gases dissolving in their
Industries (AECMA) and the Association
surface. With time, these components • Polymer type
Français de Normalisation (AFNOR).
will become saturated with whatever • Compounding, mixing and processing
gases are in the system. Under these
• Gas type/mix The work of the international bodies
conditions, as long as the internal gas
• Temperature is supported by national standards
pressure of the elastomer remains at
organisations, who are in turn supported
equilibrium with the ambient pressure, • Pressure
by trade associations, companies,
there is minimal damage (if any) and • Rate of decompression government departments and local
no deterioration in performance of
• Levels of squeeze and groove fill authorities.
the elastomeric component occurs –
unless caused by other factors such as • Number of pressure cycles
chemical or thermal degradation or by • Seal cross-section.
extrusion damage.
29
Designing with elastomers
Designing elastomeric components Finite element analysis (FEA) is a Selection of an appropriate elastomer
used to be referred to as a black art, with computer-aided engineering technique material is obviously a crucial factor in
the unpredictable nature of elastomers that provides an indication of the satisfying the design requirements for a
often being blamed for difficulties in strength and/or deformation of a product product. A wide range of basic elastomer
assessing how the product would behave under loading that might typically be types are available and within these there
in service. With many modern tools now experienced in its operating environment. are an almost infinite number of variations
at the disposal of engineers and with The technique is commonly used at the of formulations that can be produced.
advances in machining capability and design stage for components but can
manufacturing techniques, the design of also be used to help determine why parts A number of criteria need to be
engineering solutions using elastomers is have failed. considered when selecting elastomers
now more of a predictable science. This for specific applications, including the
section explains the role of these tools FEA simulates the behaviour of a real expected service conditions, chemical
and the considerations required to ensure component with an idealised mathematical compatibility with service media,
the right design. model that includes the physical conditions physical factors such as temperature, life
in which it operates. The finite element prediction and design considerations.
model is then analysed by a finite element
analysis solver, which calculates data Descriptions of the main elastomer types
Advanced product quality reflecting the design behaviour to the are given on page 7.
planning (APQP) applied boundary conditions, and can help
to identify weaknesses or potential failures
in the design. Prototyping
Advanced product quality planning
(APQP) is a structured method of
After the initial design stage of product
defining and establishing the steps Finite element analysis of elastomer development it is useful to produce a
necessary to develop products that meet components is more complex than when prototype for assessment purposes. This
customer requirements. It originated in compared to thermoplastic or metallic assessment may consist of visual inspection
the automotive industry, but can equally parts, for example, since the composition as well as a variety of tests.
be applied to product design across all of elastomers makes their behaviour more
sectors. difficult to model.
30
Designing with elastomers
Prototyping is particularly appropriate close temperature control and timing of When making decisions on product
with elastomeric materials, since moulded cycles may also be necessary. design, the total cost of ownership
31
Designing with elastomers
CAD/CAM
Designing with elastomers
Figure 43: CAD/CAM images of mould When built up, the model can be
design, tool path simulation and finished part. visualised in three dimensions under
simulated operating conditions and with
the addition of any mating components.
32
Elastomer failure modes
33
Elastomer failure modes
Many elastomer compounds contain The effects of chemical degradation These effects are often the most obvious
ingredients that are designed to leach (unlike physical swell) are irreversible when analysing seal failure, and are
out over time, or that under certain and range from hardening or softening, usually the easiest to remedy. It is
conditions may be extracted or volatilised. surface crazing and large property important however not to confuse these
If this is not compensated for by volume change, to fracture, complete with rapid gas decompression damage,
swell, the resultant shrinkage may, for fragmentation or even dissolution. In as frequently happens.
example, cause a reduction or total loss of some instances, very low levels of a
seal interference. Failures caused this way chemical (fractions of a percent) can
are rare. cause gross chemical degradation. It is Extrusion damage
therefore important that full environmental
data are provided prior to material This occurs when housing clearances
Thermal expansion/contraction selection, regardless of the presumed are too large or when a seal that has no
insignificance of some components. or inadequate anti-extrusion elements
Like all materials, elastomers expand and is forced into or through a clearance. It
contract when exposed to temperature Radiation, free radicals and many manifests itself in various forms and is
changes to an extent governed by their chemical species can cause material normally evident on the low-pressure
coefficient of thermal expansion. This degradation. Common chemical species side unless swell, thermal expansion or
effect must be compensated for at the that cause elastomer degradation are: pressure trapping has occurred.
design stage. It should be noted that • Water
volumetric thermal expansion coefficients Classical extrusion into a small clearance
for elastomers are at least an order of • Oxygen
occurs over medium to long periods of
magnitude higher than those for steels. • Ozone time and results in lace-like debris – see
Figure 50. Extrusion may also happen
• Sour gases (H2S, CO2) catastrophically over a localised portion of
Compression fracture • Acids the seal due to sudden failure of portions of
any anti-extrusion device – see Figure 51.
If elastomers are over-compressed, due • Bases
to either poor product/housing design • Corrosion inhibitors (eg, amines)
or excessive volume swell/thermal
expansion, compressive fracture may • Mercaptans
occur in the plane parallel to the applied • Aromatic hydrocarbons
force. On occasions this failure mode may
be confused with certain types of rapid • Brines (especially heavy brines).
gas decompression failure. However,
compression fracture, as shown in Figures 48 & 49 illustrate the visible
Figure 47, is usually very rare. characteristics of some forms of
chemical degradation/attack.
Other forms may not be so obvious
and require identification by analytical Figure 50.
techniques such as infrared spectroscopy
(eg, hydrolysis of NBR or HNBR).
Figure 48.
Figure 47.
Figure 51.
Figure 49.
34
Elastomer failure modes
It can also be due to housing dilation at This can have serious effects on double Port damage
high pressures causing the clearance to acting seals, especially if dynamic. On a
Figure 56.
35
Elastomer failure modes
The modes of failure described under they may act as a grinding paste or
this heading are often a combination create an uneven contact area ultimately
of component design and mode of resulting in leakage.
application. The resultant effects may be
extrusion damage, abrasive wear or others. Figure 62 shows the effects of lubrication
While these may be the eventual causes of starvation in an ‘O’ ring. Figure 63 shows the
failure, it is the reasons behind them that Figure 60. short-stroke failure of a rubber/fabric seal.
need to be identified and remedied.
Air entrainment/dieseling
Figure 62.
A small amount of air may become
trapped in any closed system, although
this is most often encountered in
reciprocating applications. Severe
damage can occur when the air is Figure 61.
entrained near an elastomer.
On a lesser scale, air entrainment may
Additionally, air entrained in a cause delamination of the fabric plies in
hydrocarbon fluid in a rapidly cycling a double acting piston seal, as shown in
dynamic application may become highly Figure 61.
dangerous if no automatic venting is
Figure 63.
provided or if compression is rapid.
Short-stroke failure
Seal failure can occur in two ways: by For short-stroke applications, it is
rapid gas (air) decompression or by It is essential that contact faces of important to use shallow seals, even
dieseling. Dieseling is when a pocket dynamic seals are suitably lubricated. single element (unit) seals, as multi-lip
of air/oil mist self ignites when the rise In multi-lip reciprocating applications, packings can reduce seal life and cause
in pressure is fast enough to cause a this lubrication is effected by the relative premature failure.
significant increase in temperature and movement of the rod or cylinder across
hence create ignition. This can cause the seal. A short-stroke in this context
severe localised damage to a seal, and refers to the distance travelled as a ratio of Pressure trapping
can melt any plastic components. overall stack depth.
This can develop in the annular clearance
Figure 59 shows a schematic of a typical Practice has shown that a minimum between two double acting seals, where
case in an inclined cylinder where air may stroke length of 2 ½ times the stack depth inter-seal pressures many times system
become trapped adjacent to the piston is required to provide lubrication to all pressure may build up. It can cause seal
seal (and gland seal). Figure 60 shows contact lips, although the fluid mechanics failure, system lock-up or metalwork
the catastrophic effect that dieseling underlying this are unclear. fracture. Most modern squeeze seals and
may have on seals. It is important to ‘O’ rings can perform as double acting
eliminate this problem by ensuring that It is ironic that for more arduous, high seals. Extrusion of such seals into the
the minimum of air is present and that, if pressure applications the tendency has applied pressure can be seen in typical
possible, adequate venting is provided. been to increase the number of sealing cases as shown schematically in Figure 64.
rings and therefore the depth of the stack.
This is often seen in PBR seal stacks that
may be metres in length, and can result
in the stroke length being insufficient to
transport lubricant to the entire contact
area of the seal.
36
Elastomer failure modes
During multiple reversals, this type of Bunching Although there is no fixed rule, RGD
sealing arrangement can act as a pump, conditions, and therefore potential
37
Elastomer failure modes
Vulcanised elastomers will degrade if Wear or abrasion damage can be caused While thermal cycling can induce
stored under unsuitable conditions of by dynamic motion, or when the sealed mechanical damage, it may also cause
temperature, humidity, light and oxygen/ environment is intrinsically abrasive by-pass leakage with no damage to the
ozone. Such effects as hardening, and either passes across or impinges seal whatsoever. This generally happens
softening, cracking and crazing may upon the seal. Wear patterns created when seals are cycled from high to low
render the product unsuitable for use or by dynamic motion are generally in the temperatures, especially if pressure is
significantly reduce its service life. direction of the motion (ie, axial wear in cycled simultaneously.
reciprocating seals and circumferential
Careful choice of storage conditions wear in rotary seals). Figure 70 shows More often, by-pass leakage occurs in
should minimise these effects. Additionally, abrasive wear. seals made from thermoplastics and
components should be stored in a relaxed those with a tendency to high temperature
condition free from tension, compression flow. Such materials (eg, Aflas®) should
or other deformation. not be subjected to large thermal
transients or rapid thermal cycling.
Care should be taken to ensure that good Similar effects are noted if elastomers
handling and fitting practice is observed, are used below or approaching their limit
using correct tools and following Figure 70. of elastomeric flexibility (glass transition
manufacturer’s instructions whenever temperature, Tg) as they cannot respond,
possible. Figure 69 shows the level of seal The exception to this is lip cracking or at least only very slowly, to any system
damage that may result simply from poor in rotary applications. Damage here, change, such as the application of
fitting procedures. as shown in Figures 71 & 72, is pressure.
perpendicular to the direction of motion.
The damage frequency is a function of
material design, particularly modulus and Bonding failure
frictional characteristics. It happens due to
a wave being forced ahead of the motion, In rubber to metal bonding, the bond
which produces contact peaks and non- strength is generally greater than the
contact troughs (‘slip-stick’). It causes strength of the elastomer, so the failure
heat build-up at the contact bands which mode is usually within the elastomer.
ultimately leads to cracking. This effect is
known as a Schallamach wave. Bond failures are relatively rare, and
may be due, for example, to insufficient
degreasing of the metal or premature
curing of the bonding agent.
Figure 69.
38
Glossary of terms
Glossary of terms
Abrasion: The surface loss of a material
a deteriorating environment. This can resulting from the effects of ozone.
due to frictional forces applied to it.
include environments such as UV, oxygen
Anti-tack: Substance applied to the
Abrasion resistance: The ability to resist and those containing ozone gases.
surface of an elastomer to stop it adhering
mechanical wear. A material with a high Ageing can also refer to the controlled
either to itself or other elastomers.
abrasion resistance helps to maintain exposure of rubber samples to a variety
the material’s original appearance and of deteriorating influences to allow for Arrhenius principle: An empirical
structure. the evaluation of anti-oxidants and anti- relationship stating that the rate of a
ozonants. chemical reaction increases exponentially
Abrasion resistance index: A measure
with temperature.
of the abrasion resistance of a rubber Agglomerate: A cluster of particles of
relative to that of a standard rubber under one or more compounding materials ASTM: Abbreviation for American Society
the same specified conditions, expressed loosely held together. One of the primary for Testing and Materials.
as a percentage. roles of the mixing process is to break
down agglomerates and promote good Atmospheric cracking: Cracks on
Accelerated life test: The testing of a dispersion. the surface of a material as a result of
material by subjecting it to conditions in exposure to atmospheric conditions.
excess of its normal service parameters in Air traps: A rubber moulding defect This is usually as a result of sunlight
an effort to approximate, in a short time, that can occur either at the surface of and/or ozone.
the deteriorating effect of normal long- the moulding due to air being trapped
between the mould and the material, or AU: Abbreviation for polyester type
term service conditions.
within the moulding. The use of vacuum polyurethane rubbers.
Accelerator: A chemical which speeds up technology both at the extrusion and Autoclave: A vessel that vulcanises
the vulcanisation reaction. This allows the press stage can greatly reduce the risk of rubber products in a pressurised steam
rubber to cure in a shorter timeframe, at a air traps. environment.
lower temperature or both.
Amorphous: Having no definite shape; Axial squeeze: Compression applied to
Acid acceptors: Mostly used in non-crystalline. the top and bottom of a seal’s surface.
fluoroelastomers to absorb the acid
produced by the chemical reactions that Aniline point: The lowest temperature
take place during curing and to some at which equal parts of aniline and a test
degree during service. Acid acceptors are liquid (usually oil) will mix or blend. In B
usually metal oxides. general, the lower the aniline point of an Back-up ring: See Anti-extrusion ring.
oil, the more a given rubber compound
Acid resistance: The ability of a will swell, therefore the test indicates if an Backrinding: Tearing or distortion of a
material to resist attack as a result of oil is likely to damage an elastomer with moulded rubber product at the line of
exposure to acids. The degree of attack which it has come into contact. separation of the mould pieces. Factors
is both temperature and concentration which can have an influence on back-
dependant. ANSI: American National Standards rinding are blank weight, blank shape,
Institute. temperature, moulding pressure and
ACM: Abbreviation for acrylic rubbers.
Antidegradants: These are materials breathe cycles.
ACN: Abbreviation for acrylonitrile. added to a rubber compound to reduce Banbury mixer: The type of internal mixer
Activator: A substance, which by the effect of deterioration caused designed by FH Banbury.
chemical interaction promotes a chemical by oxidation, ozone, light and/or
action of a second substance. Most combinations of these. Bank: This term can relate to the amount
commonly used in elastomers to activate of rubber adjacent to the nip of the rolls
Anti-extrusion ring: A ring installed on on both mills and calenders.
accelerators. the low pressure side of a seal to stop the
Aftercure: The amount of cure received sealing material being extruded into the Barrel: That part of an extruder in which
after the termination of the cure clearance gap. The requirement for the the screw rotates or the ram moves.
proper. The term is also applied to the fitting of such devices is dependent on the Bias: The angle at which the textile
continuation of the curing effect that pressures, sealing materials and extrusion material is cut with respect to the running
results from exposure of the article to heat gap. edge of the fabric.
in use, or from accelerated ageing. See Antiflex cracking agent: A material
Post cure. Blank: A measured weight or dimension
added to a rubber compound to reduce of a rubber compound suitable to fill the
Age resistance: The ability of a given cracking caused by cyclic deformations. cavity of a compression or transfer mould.
material to resist deterioration of its Anti-oxidant: A material added to a Usually the blank weight/volume is slightly
properties caused by ageing. rubber compound to reduce deterioration higher than the finished component to
caused by oxidation. allow for full compression in the cavity.
39
Glossary of terms
Bleeding: The flow of a compounding Buna N: A general term for the copolymer Checking: Shallow, short cracks on the
material, often oils or lubricants, from the butadiene and acrylonitrile, also referred surface of a rubber, which is usually as a
Glossary of terms
40
Glossary of terms
Copolymer: A polymer composed from Cure time: The required amount of time Differential pressure: The difference in
two different monomers, for example an needed to complete the curing process pressure between the high-pressure and
Glossary of terms
NBR composed of polybutadiene and to a pre-determined level. The time taken low-pressure side of a sealing system.
acrylonitrile. to cure is dependent on the temperature,
Dimensional stability: The ability
material type and section of the rubber
CR: Abbreviation for chloroprene rubbers. of the elastomer to retain its original
profile.
shape and size having been exposed
Corrosion: Progressive wearing away of
Curing temperature: The temperature at to a combination of stresses and
a surface because of a chemical reaction.
which vulcanisation takes place. temperatures.
Cracking: Axial cracks on elastomeric
DIN: Abbreviation for Deutsches Institut
seals on the lip contact surface.
für Normung – German Institute for
D standardisation.
Crazing: The formation of shallow cracks
on the surface of a rubber. This can be as Damping: The property of a material
Dipping: A method of manufacturing
a result of exposure to UV light or certain or system that causes it to convert
rubber articles by dipping a former of the
chemicals. Although they look similar, mechanical energy to heat when
shape required into a rubber solution.
crazing differs from ozone cracking, as it subjected to deflection. In rubber, the
does not depend on the presence of an property is caused by hysteresis. Dispersion: The distribution of particles
externally applied strain. throughout a medium. For rubbers
Deflashing: The process of removing
this often refers to the distribution of
Creep: The time-dependent part of a excess material from the flash-line
compounding ingredients in rubber mix.
strain resulting from stress. resulting from the moulding process.
Also see Cold flow. Various methods exist, including buffing Dough: Rubber compounded and swollen
and cryogenic trimming. in solvent and worked on a ‘wet’ mill until
Cross-section: A section formed by a
it reaches the consistency of dough. It is
plane cutting through an object, usually at Degassing: The passing of a gas out of a
then applied behind the doctor blade of
right angles to an axis. rubber, normally generated by the volatile
a spreading machine through which the
ingredients in the rubber mix which are
Cross-linking (see also vulcanising): fabric to be coated is passing. Self-curing
activated at elevated temperatures.
The formation of chemical bonds doughs are used in the repair of rubber
between polymer chains to give a three- Delamination: The separation of layers of products (tyre tread cut-filling) and the
dimensional network structure. rubber (normally in a plied format) or the splicing of belting.
rubber separating from a surface to which
Cross-link density: A measure for the Durometer: An instrument for measuring
it is bonded.
relative number of cross-links in a given the relative hardness of rubber.
volume of elastomer. Demoulding: The operation of removing
Dynamic properties: The response in an
a vulcanised rubber product from the
Crumb rubber: Vulcanised waste or elastomer to forces applied to them.
mould in which it has been cured. This
scrap rubber which has been ground
can be done carefully by hand, but in Dynamic seal: A seal used in an
down to a known mesh size and can then
some cases pins or brushes can be environment that is subjected to any type
be added to new compound as a filler.
incorporated into the mould or press to of movement relative to its position and
Crystallinity: The orientation of the perform this function automatically. that of the contact / sealing surface.
disordered long-chain molecules of a
Density: The weight per unit volume of a
polymer into repeating ordered patterns.
substance.
Many rubber materials have a degree E
of crystallinity, and some will tend to Desiccant: A rubber compounding
Ebonite: ‘Hard rubbers’ which are formed
crystallise under certain conditions. The ingredient used to absorb moisture
when they are cured with high levels of
degree of crystallinity effects stiffness, irreversibly, particularly for the purpose
vulcanising agents.
hardness, low temperature flexibility and of minimising the risk of porosity and/or
heat resistance. blisters during vulcanisation. ECO: Epichlorohydrin copolymer with
ethylene oxide.
Curatives: The collective term for the Diametral clearance gap: The difference
chemicals involved in curing the rubber in diameters between two mating Efficient vulcanisation: A term applied to
material. These include, for example, surfaces. vulcanisation systems in which sulphur or
accelerators, vulcanising chemicals such a sulphur donor is used very efficiently for
Die: The shaped plate fitted in the head
as sulphur, and activators. cross-linking the rubber.
of an extruder designed to create a profile
Cure: Another term for 'vulcanisation'. suitable for the moulding process. Elasticity: The rapid recovery of
This process results in the cross-linking of a material to its initial shape after
Die swell: The change in dimensions of
polymer chains. deformation and release of an applied
an extruded rubber section as it exits the
force.
die. This swell is mainly due to the elastic
recovery of the material.
41
Glossary of terms
Elastomer (also known as rubber): FDA: Food and Drug Administration (USA). G
A general term used to describe
Glossary of terms
FEA: Abbreviation for finite element Gate: The point through which a rubber
both natural and synthetic polymers
analysis. is injected into the moulding cavity in
possessing the ability to return to their
original shape after the deforming force is both transfer and injection moulding
FEPM: Abbreviation for
removed. techniques.
tetrafluoroethylene/propylene dipolymers.
Elongation, per cent: The extension of a Gate mark: A witness mark left on the
FFKM: Abbreviation for
specimen as a result of an applied tensile moulding as a result of injecting rubber
perfluoroelastomers.
stress, expressed as a percentage of the through the gate. This can be either a
original length. Filler: A compounding ingredient which is raised or sunken mark on the surface of
added to a rubber usually in finely divided the moulding.
Elongation at break: The elongation form. There are into two main categories
measured at the point of rupture. A high Glass transition temperature (Tg):
of filler: reinforcing which adds strength
value is important if substantial stretching The point at which the material loses its
to the elastomer (see Reinforcing fillers)
is required during fitting of the product. flexibility at low temperature. This point is
and extending, which has the function of
affected by system pressure and varies for
cheapening the elastomer (see Extender).
EPM: Abbreviation for ethylene-propylene different polymers.
rubber. Finite element analysis: A mathematical
Green strength: The strength of a rubber
technique developed to predict the stress-
EPR: Abbreviation for ethylene-propylene in the uncured state.
strain behaviour of objects which do not
rubber.
lend themselves to simple analysis. Groove: The machined glandular recess
EU: Abbreviation for polyether urethane. into which an ‘O’ ring is fitted.
Fire retardant: An additive used in rubber
Explosive decompression: compounding to reduce the fire hazard. Gough-Joule effect: When rubber is
See Rapid gas decompression. stretched adiabatically (without heat
FKM: Abbreviation for fluorocarbon
entering or leaving the system) heat is
Extender: A material added to a rubber rubber.
generated by the material. The effect was
compound which is designed to reduce
Flame resistance: The resistance to originally discovered by Gough in 1805
the cost of the compound without
burning of a rubber material. and re-discovered by Joule in 1859.
imparting any enhanced physical
properties. Flash: The excess material resulting
from the moulding operation found at the
Extensometer: A device used to H
mould split lines.
determine the elongation of a specimen
Hardness: Measurement of the resistance
as it is strained under testing conditions. Flex cracking: Repeated flexing of a
to indentation. The most common units
Often these machines can also record the rubber resulting in the material cracking.
are Shore A and IRHD. See IRHD and
tensile strength and modulus values of a
Flex life: The number of cycles required Shore A.
given material.
to produce a specified state of failure
Heat ageing: A test for the reduction in
Extrudate (also referred to as extrusion): in a rubber specimen. The test uses a
physical properties of an elastomer as a
The profiled material which results from prescribed method of flexing, such as
result of exposure to temperature.
the extrusion process. shear or bending.
Heat history: The total heat which has
Extruder: A machine designed to create Flexural strength: Ability of an elastomer
been received by the rubber compound
a profiled rubber shape by forcing the to flex without permanent distortion or
(mixing, milling, extruding, calendering),
rubber through a die which has a shape damage.
particularly the temperatures reached by
similar to that of the required profile.
Flow marks: Marks present on the the rubber and the time it has been held
The two most common types are screw
surface of a moulding caused by at these temperatures.
and ram.
insufficient or improper flow of the
Heat resistance: A rubber’s ability to
Extrusion (seal): The distortion, under material in the moulding cavity.
undergo exposure to some specified level
pressure, of some of the sealing element
FMQ: Abbreviation for fluoro methyl of elevated temperature and retain a high
into the clearance between mating parts.
silicone. level of its original properties.
Formula: A list of the ingredients and Heteropolymer: A polymer composed of
F their amounts used in the preparation of a differing monomers.
compound.
Fatigue: The weakening of an elastomer HNBR: Abbreviation for hydrogenated
during repeated deformation, strain or FPM: Abbreviation for fluorocarbon nitrile rubber.
compression. rubber.
Homopolymer: A polymer formed from a
Fatigue life: The number of deformations FSA: Food Standards Agency (UK). single monomer.
required to produce a specified state of
fatigue in a test specimen. FVMQ: Abbreviation for fluoro vinyl methyl
silicone.
42
Glossary of terms
Hooke’s law: Within the limits of elasticity K Mineral oils: Petroleum and other
of a material, tension is proportional to hydrocarbons oils obtained from mineral
Glossary of terms
elongation, or strain is proportional to the Knit line (also known as weld line): A sources. In rubber compounds they act
stress producing it. line present in a moulding as a result of as softeners and extenders.
opposing flow fronts during the forming of
Hysteresis: The difference between the the rubber material in a mould not knitting Mixer: A machine with a closed chamber
energy input and output under elastic together. A knit line is an area weakness in which specially shaped rotors masticate
deformation in a rubber is known as in the moulding. the rubber and incorporate compounding
hysteresis. The loss of energy results in materials through the action of
heat build-up. mechanical work (shear) with the aim of
L creating a homogenised finished material.
Hysteresis loss: The loss of mechanical
energy due to hysteresis. Latex: A stable dispersion of a polymeric Modulus: In elastomer technology this is
substance in an aqueous medium. defined as the stress at a particular strain
or elongation. Modulus tends to increase
I Leaching: See Bleeding. with hardness, with higher modulus
Leakage rate: The rate at which a fluid materials, in the main, being more
ID: Inside diameter. resistant to deformation and extrusion.
passes through or around a seal.
Immediate set: The deformation found by Modulus of elasticity: The ratio of stress
measuring immediately after removal of Life test: A test of the amount and
duration of a product’s resistance to to strain in an elastic material.
the force causing deformation.
destructive forces. Molecular weight: The weight of a
Impact resistance: The resistance to molecule of a substance.
fracture under a quickly applied load. Liquid silicone rubber: High purity
platinum cured silicone with low Mould cavity: Profiled shape cut into a
Impact strength: A measure of the compression set, great stability and ability mould within which the rubber is cured to
toughness of the material to rapidly to resist extreme temperatures of heat and produce the product.
applied loads. It is often represented as cold.
the energy required to break a specimen Mould marks: An imperfection transferred
with a single swinging blow. Low temperature flexibility: The ability of to a moulded product from corresponding
an elastomeric product to be flexed at low marks present on the mould surface.
Inhibitor: A compounding ingredient temperatures without cracking.
which is added to a mix to suppress a Mould release: A substance applied to
chemical reaction such as the curing of a Litharge: Lead monoxide, PbO, formerly the surface of a mould cavity to aid the
rubber material. used as an inorganic accelerator but now release of the rubber product after curing.
mainly used as a vulcanising agent in
Injection moulding: Moulding process some polychloroprene rubbers. Mould shrinkage: Dimensional loss in
where preheated rubber is injected under a moulded rubber product that occurs
pressure through a series of runners and during cooling after it has been removed
into a closed mould cavity. M from the mould.
Insert: Normally a metal or plastic Make-up: Uncured elastomer that is cut
component to which rubber is chemically to a profile, weight and/or length prior to N
and/or physically bonded during the placing in a mould.
moulding process. NBR: Abbreviation for nitrile-butadiene
Master batch: A homogeneous mixture rubber.
Internally lubricated rubber: A rubber of polymer and one or more materials in
containing lubricating additives designed known proportions. Nerve: The toughness and elasticity of
to reduce the material’s coefficient of unvulcanised, unmasticated rubber.
friction. Mastication: The breakdown or softening
of raw rubber by the combined action Nibbling: Normally observed when
IRHD: Abbreviation for International of mechanical work (shear). This can be pressure cycling occurs. When system
Rubber Hardness Degrees. This is a accelerated by the use of a peptiser. pressure is applied the housing lifts or dilates,
method of measuring rubber hardness. causing the clearance to increase. A nub of
IRHD is similar to Shore A durometer Memory: Ability of a rubber to return to its rubber extrudes into this clearance and is
units, but uses different test method and original shape after deformation. subsequently ‘nibbled’ off when the pressure
apparatus. Microwave curing: Vulcanisation of is dropped and the clearance is reduced.
ISO: International Organisation for rubbers by heat produced by high Nip: The radial distance between the rolls
Standardisation. frequency radiation. on a mill or calender, measured at the line
Mill: A machine with two counter-rotating of centres.
rolls used for rubber mastication, mixing Non-fill: A defect in a rubber product
or sheeting. caused by the rubber failing to completely
fill the mould.
43
Glossary of terms
Non-sulphur vulcanisation: The process Permanent set: Amount of deformation in the rubber to rapidly expand. If the force
of vulcanisation without the use of sulphur. a rubber after the distorting load has been of the expanding gas is greater than
Glossary of terms
44
Glossary of terms
Glossary of terms
significant loss of physical properties. Visco-elasticity: A combination of
Terpolymer: A polymer formed from three viscous and elastic properties in a
Shore hardness: The relative hardness monomer species. material.
of an elastomer measured on a Shore
Thermal degradation: An irreversible Viscosity: Resistance to flow.
durometer instrument.
change in the properties of a material due
Shrinkage: The reduction in size upon to exposure to heat. VMQ: Abbreviation for vinyl methyl
cooling of a moulded rubber part. silicone.
Thermal expansion: Linear or volumetric
Solubility: The degree to which one expansion caused by temperature Vulcanisation: Heat induced process
substance will dissolve in another. increase. whereby the long chains of the rubber
molecules become cross-linked by
Sponge rubber: One type of cellular Thermoplastic: Applied to high polymers a vulcanising agent to form three
rubber. Conventional sponge rubber has which soften by the application of heat dimensional elastic structures.
a porous structure, the cells being open and which may be resoftened by heating,
and intercommunicating; it shows very provided chemical decomposition does Vulcanising agent: A compounding
high absorption of water. not take place. material that produces cross-linking in
rubbers.
Spreading: Coating, normally a fabric, Thermoplastic elastomer (TPE): A
with rubber. diverse family of rubber-like materials that,
unlike conventional vulcanised rubbers, W
Sprue: Channel through which the
can be processed and recycled like
elastomer enters the mould cavity; also Water absorption: The amount of water
thermoplastic materials.
the cured elastomer remaining in this absorbed by a material under specified
channel. Transfer moulding: The process of test conditions.
moulding a material by forcing rubber
Squeeze: The amount of radial or axial Weathering: The tendency of rubbers
from a reservoir chamber through a
compression of a seal between two to surface crack on exposure to
gate into the moulding cavity of a closed
surfaces when installed. atmospheres containing ozone and other
mould.
Stabiliser: A substance added to a pollutants.
Thermoset: Materials that undergo
rubber to maintain properties at or near Weld line: See Knit line.
chemical cross-linking of their molecules
their initial values during its production,
when processed, and cannot be softened
processing and storage.
and reshaped following further application
Staining: Change of colour of a rubber of heat. X
when exposed to light or change of colour XNBR: Abbreviation for carboxylated
TR-10: A measure of the low-temperature
in a material in contact with, or adjacent nitrile rubber.
capability of an elastomer. It is the
to, a rubber.
temperature at which a stretched and
State of cure: The degree of frozen specimen has retracted 10% of
vulcanisation of a rubber compound. the stretched amount. TR stands for
'temperature retraction'.
Static seal: A seal between parts that
have no relative motion.
Sulphur: An agent responsible for the U
vulcanisation of some rubbers.
Ultimate elongation: The percentage a
specimen was stretched at the point of
rupture.
T
Under-cure: A condition where rubber
Tack: The property that causes contacting has not been cured to its optimum state
surfaces of unvulcanised rubbers to stick and will exhibit a reduction in its physical
to each other. properties.
Tackifier: A compounding material that Unsaturation: In organic compounds
enhances the ability of vulcanised rubber the linking of some of the atoms of the
to adhere to itself or another material. molecule by more than one valency bond,
Tear resistance: Resistance to the growth ie, double or triple bonds.
of a nick or cut in a rubber specimen UV absorber: A compounding material
when tension is applied. that retards the deterioration caused by
Tear strength: The maximum force sunlight and other UV light sources.
required to tear a specified test specimen.
45
About James Walker
46
General
Glossary
information
of terms
Free copies of these technical brochures and white papers can be requested from your local James walker company or downloaded
from the website at;
www.jameswalker.biz/pdf_docs
• Rod/gland seals
● High-efficiency lip seals for • Piston seals
rotary duties • Wipers & scrapers
● Proven long-term bearing • Bearing strips
protection • ‘O’ rings
● Many standard sizes ex-stock
● Unlimited diameters to order
● Custom-designed specials
● Also V-ring and metal cased
lip seals
High Performance Sealing Technology High Performance Sealing Technology High Performance Sealing Technology
• General & high performance materials • Seals, gaskets, clamps & packings
• Housing design & tolerances • Custom-moulded parts
• Cords, kits & lubricants
EPDM materials for the Low temperature sealing RGD resistance and
pharmaceutical and capability of o-rings
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performance
Trademarks
4747
James Walker worldwide sales and customer support
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Health warning: If PTFE or fluoroelastomer (eg, FKM, FFKM, FEPM) products are heated to elevated temperatures, fumes will be produced which may give unpleasant
effects, if inhaled. Whilst some fumes are emitted below 250°C from fluoroelastomers or below 300°C from PTFE, the effect at these temperatures is negligible. Care
should be taken to avoid contaminating tobacco with particles of PTFE or fluoroelastomer, or with PTFE dispersion, which may remain on hands or clothing. Material
Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) are available on request.
Information in this publication and otherwise supplied to users is based on our general experience and is given in good faith, but because of factors which are outside
our knowledge and control and affect the use of products, no warranty is given or is to be implied with respect to such information. Unless governed by type approval
or contract, specifications are subject to change without notice. Statements of operating limits quoted in this publication are not an indication that these values can be
applied simultaneously.
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