materials

Article
Effect of Temperature on Material Properties of
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Tendons:
Experiments and Model Assessment
Fei Zhou 1 , Jiwen Zhang 1,2, *, Shoutan Song 1,2 , Dong Yang 1 and Chao Wang 1
1 School of Civil Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China; zhoufei0912@seu.edu.cn (F.Z.);
songshoutan@seu.edu.cn (S.S.); dongyang@seu.edu.cn (D.Y.); chao.wang.seu@gmail.com (C.W.)
2 Key Laboratory of Concrete and Prestressed Concrete Structures of the Ministry of Education,
Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
* Correspondence: jw.zhang.seu@outlook.com; Tel.: +86-139-5101-2494




Received: 5 March 2019; Accepted: 27 March 2019; Published: 28 March 2019


Abstract: Material properties at elevated temperatures are important factors in the fire safety design
and numerical analysis of concrete members strengthened with fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)
composites. Most of the previous research mainly focused on tensile strength and elastic modulus in
conventional steady state temperature tests. However, the transient state test method is more realistic
for strengthening concrete structures. At the same time, the coefficient of thermal expansion of FRP
composites is also one of the important factors affecting concrete members at elevated temperatures.
This paper presents a detailed experimental investigation on the longitudinal thermal expansion
deformation, and the mechanical properties of carbon FRP (CFRP) tendons with 8 mm diameter in the
steady state and transient state. The results indicate that longitudinal deformation of CFRP tendons is
negative at high temperature; in addition, the transient state test results of CFRP tendons are slightly
higher than the steady state test results. The final part of this paper assesses the accuracy of different
empirical models. Furthermore, a new equation calculating the properties of CFRP composites at
elevated temperatures is presented with the numerical fitting technique, which is in good agreement
with the experimental results.

Keywords: carbon fiber reinforced polymer; material properties; experimental tests; elevated
temperatures; modeling

1. Introduction
In recent years, the application of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites has increased
significantly in civil engineering structures around the world. It is mainly attributed to the fact
that FRP composites have many advantages compared with steel, such as high strength-to-weight
ratio, corrosion resistance, fatigue resistance, and non-magnetic properties. Although numerous
investigations have shown that FRP composites are effective materials for concrete members [1,2],
many challenges still exist in the increasing application of FRP composites. One of these challenges is
to fully understand the material properties of FRP composites at elevated temperatures. Due to the fact
that FRP composites are typically produced from the thermosetting polymer matrix, their mechanical
properties deteriorate severely when exposed to fire. Even though FRP composites embedded in the
concrete do not burn due to lack of oxygen, the resin will soften and decompose when the temperature
exceeds the glass transition temperature (Tg ) and the decomposition temperature (Td ). The softening
and decomposition of the resin not only reduces the strength of the resin itself, but also weakens the
bonding effect of fibers, resulting in the rapid reduction of the strength of FRP composites.

Materials 2019, 12, 1025; doi:10.3390/ma12071025 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2019, 12, 1025 2 of 12

The research conducted by Yu Bai [3,4], has indicated that the mechanical properties of FRP
composites are affected significantly by their thermal properties when subjected to elevated and high
temperatures. Furthermore, the thermo–mechanical behavior of FRP composites depends mainly
on the states (glassy, leathery, rubbery, and decomposed) of the polymer resin at high temperature.
In the experimental study of glass FRP (GFRP) composites, it was also confirmed that the elastic
modulus and strength decreased significantly at raised temperatures, which reached the range of
glass transition and decomposition temperatures [5]. Similarly, Yu Baolin [6] tested two types of near
surface mounted (NSM) carbon FRP (CFRP) composites. It was found that the strength of both CFRP
strip and rod dropped dramatically when the temperature reached and exceeded Tg (around 80 ◦ C)
and Td (around 300 ◦ C). Since the low Tg of resin is the greater shortcoming of FRP composites at
elevated temperatures, an improved resin with a higher Tg was tested by Zhu [7]. After improving
the Tg of basalt FRP (BFRP) composites, the concrete beams strengthened with near surface mounted
(NSM) BFRP bars exhibited better fire resistance. Therefore, the comprehensive study of the high
temperature characteristics of FRP composites can greatly improve the fire resistance of concrete
members strengthened with FRP composites.
In order to further understand the inherent properties of FRP composites at high temperature,
Saafi M [8] suggested constitutive models for the mechanical properties of aramid FRP (AFRP) rebars,
CFRP rebars, and glass FRP (GFRP) rebars linearly decreasing with temperature according to the
experimental results of Blontrok [9]. However, a large amount of experimental research has shown
that the tensile strength and elasticity modulus of FRP composites do not deteriorate linearly with
temperature [10–12]. Therefore, Bisby [13] proposed a hyperbolic tangent function model based on the
experimental data of relevant literature. The fitting coefficients were obtained by least square regression
analysis. In order to fully reveal the influence of thermo–physical responses on thermo–mechanical
properties, Gibson [14] successfully applied the glass transition temperature (Tg ) and remaining resin
content (RRC) criteria to the hyperbolic tangent function model. Subsequently, the Gibson’s model was
modified by Yu [6] and Chowdhury [11], respectively. It is considered that Tg in Gibson’s model can be
the critical temperature or the temperature around which the curve is nearly symmetrical rather than
the glass transition temperature. Yu [6] carried out experimental testing of CFRP bars and CFRP slabs,
and fitted the obtained results with the hyperbolic tangent function model. Nevertheless, with the
improvement of the measurement methods, the curve of the mechanical properties was more and more
similar to that of thermo–physical state of FRP composites at high temperatures [15,16]. Yu Bai [3]
believed at any specific temperature, a composite material could be considered to be a mixture of
materials in different states, with different mechanical properties. Wang [17] also confirmed Bai’s
theory by testing the mechanical properties of GFRP bars at high temperature. The exponential function
model was proposed for the deterioration of ultimate tensile strength. However, the elastic modulus
of GFRP bars decreased with temperature, which did not meet with Wang’s model. From the previous
research it can be seen that the fitting model based on the material properties of FRP composites at
high temperature still needs further discussion. A unified expression with better fitting accuracy can
greatly facilitate the numerical analysis of strengthened structures.
In addition, most of the previous research mainly focused on tensile strength and elastic modulus
in conventional steady state temperature tests. However, the transient state test method is more realistic
for application. At the same time, the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) for FRP composites is also
one of the important factors affecting reinforced concrete members at high temperatures. Therefore,
this paper presents a detailed experimental investigation on the longitudinal thermal expansion
deformation, and the mechanical properties of CFRP tendons with 8 mm diameter in the steady state
and transient state. Subsequently, a new constitutive model of CFRP tendons at high temperature is
proposed based on the analysis of thermophysical properties.
Materials 2019, 12, 1025 3 of 12

2. Experimental Program
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 12
2.1. Material Characteristics and Specimen Details
In the current research, CFRP tendons with 8 mm diameter and smooth surface from Jiangsu
In the current research, CFRP tendons with 8 mm diameter and smooth surface from Jiangsu
Hengshen Co. Ltd. (Zhenjiang, China) were tested. They were made of T700 continuous carbon fibers
Hengshen Co. Ltd. (Zhenjiang, China) were tested. They were made of T700 continuous carbon fibers
impregnated in thermosetting epoxy resin with a fiber content of 65%. The average tensile strength
impregnated in thermosetting epoxy resin with a fiber content of 65%. The average tensile strength and
and modulus of CFRP tendons were 2070 MPa and 156 GPa, respectively, at room temperatures.
modulus of CFRP tendons were 2070 MPa and 156 GPa, respectively, at room temperatures. According
According to E1356-08 [18], The Tg value is usually the midpoint temperature of resin glass transition.
to E1356-08 [18], The Tg value is usually the midpoint temperature of resin glass transition. The Td
The Td value can be considered as the temperature point where the weight loss of CFRP composites
value can be considered as the temperature point where the weight loss of CFRP composites reaches
reaches the peak (the peak point of DTG curve) [19]. Based on the previous experimental study, the
the peak (the peak point of DTG curve) [19]. Based on the previous experimental study, the Tg and Td
Tg and Td of epoxy resins from the same batches were 126 °C and 405 °C, respectively [20]. Other
of epoxy resins from the same batches were 126 ◦ C and 405 ◦ C, respectively [20]. Other properties of
properties of CFRP tendons used for testing are listed in Table 1.
CFRP tendons used for testing are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Material properties of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) tendons used.
Table 1. Material properties of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) tendons used.
Dimension Tensile Properties Physical Properties
Dimension Tensile Properties Physical Properties
Fiber
Specimen
Specimen Length
Length Diameter StrengthModulus
Diameter Strength Modulus DensityDensity
ρf Fiber Content TgTg TTdd
content
L(mm) D(mm) ffu (MPa)
L(mm) D(mm) E f (GPa)(g/cmρ3 )f (g/cm3)Vf (%)
f fu (MPa)Ef (GPa) (◦ (°C)
C) ◦ C)
((°C)
V f (%)
CFRP 800 8 2070 156 1.6 65 126 405
CFRP 800 8 2070 156 1.6 65 126 405

In the
In the tensile
tensile test,
test, special
special anchorage
anchorage waswas needed
needed atat both
both ends
ends of
of the
the specimen
specimen due
due to
to the
the smooth
smooth
surface of the tendons. So far, the clip anchorage is the most reliable anchorage for CFRP
surface of the tendons. So far, the clip anchorage is the most reliable anchorage for CFRP tendons, tendons,
which
which can
can effectively prevent the
effectively prevent the slippage
slippage between
between the
the tendon
tendon and
and clip
clip by
by pre-pressing
pre-pressing (Figure
(Figure 1).
1).
Details of the anchorage system for CFRP specimen were presented
Details of the anchorage system for CFRP specimen were presented in Zhou [20].in Zhou [20].

(c) Anchors at the ends of

(a) Anchorage system (b) Jacking device
specimens

Figure 1. Anchorage system for CFRP tendons.

2.2. Testing
2.2. Testing Setups
Setups
The tests
The tests were
were performed
performed at at the
the Testing
Testing Laboratory
Laboratory ofofCivil
CivilEngineering
Engineeringat atSoutheast
SoutheastUniversity.
University.
A UTM5305 Material Test System with a loading capacity of 300 kN was used
A UTM5305 Material Test System with a loading capacity of 300 kN was used in this study, as in this study, as shown
shown
in Figure
in Figure 2.
2. The
Thetendons
tendonsused
usedininthethetests were
tests allall
were 800800
mm long,
mm of which
long, 340 340
of which mmmm was was
exposed to heat
exposed to
inside the furnace. The elongation of CFRP tendons was measured by a high temperature
heat inside the furnace. The elongation of CFRP tendons was measured by a high temperature extensometer
with a gauge length
extensometer with a of 50 mm.
gauge In order
length to obtain
of 50 mm. more
In order to accurate results,
obtain more the temperature
accurate distribution
results, the temperature
on the surface
distribution onofthe
thesurface
tendons ofwas
the measured
tendons was by measured
six thermocouples fixed on the surface
by six thermocouples of the
fixed on the tendon.
surface
of the tendon.
Materials
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4 of
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 12
Upper grip
Upper grip
Anchor Furnace
Anchor Furnace
Cranial cavity
310
120 70 120

40 30 85 55 140 30 40
310 Cranial
CFRPcavity
120 701 120

42030 40
Extensometer
CFRP
Thermo 1 2
3 Extensometer
Wire

40 30 85 55 140
-couple 4
Thermo 2 5

420
3
-couple 4 6 Wire
5 Thermocouple
6
Thermocouple
Rock wool
Lower
Rockgrip
wool
Lower grip

Figure 2. Test setup for CFRP tensile tests at elevated temperatures.

Figure 2. Test
Test setup for CFRP tensile tests at elevated temperatures.
temperatures.
2.3. Testing Procedure
2.3. Testing Procedure
2.3. Testing Procedure
The tests of the material properties of CFRP tendons at elevated temperatures were divided into
The
three
The tests
series, of
tests of the material
namely
the material
thermalproperties
expansion
properties of test,
of CFRP
CFRP tendons
steady
tendons at elevated
state
at elevated
test, temperatures
and temperatures were
test.divided
transient statewere A total into
divided of 42
into
three series,
specimens
three namely
series, were
namely thermal
performed expansion
thermal in test,
this study,
expansion steady
as steady
test, state
shown state test,
test,2.and transient state test. A total of 42
in Table and transient state test. A total of 42
specimens
specimens were performed in this study, as shown in Table2.2.
were performed in this study, as shown in Table
Table 2. Number of specimens in this study.
Table 2.
Table Number of
2. Number of specimens
specimens in
in this
this study.
study.
Type of Tests Number of Specimens
Type of
Type
Thermal ofTests Number of
Tests test Number
expansion of Specimens
Specimens
3
Thermal expansion
Steady
Thermal test
state test
expansion test 3324
Steady
Steady state
Transient test
state
state testtest 2415
24
Transient state test 15
TransientTotal
state test
Total 4242
15
Total 42
(1) Thermal expansion tests
(1)
(1) Thermal
Thermal expansion
expansion tests
tests
In the thermal expansion test, one end of the specimen was gripped by the upper grip, and the
In
other the
In the thermal
endthermal expansion
was relaxed. test,one
In order
expansion test, one
to endofthe
make
end ofthethe specimen
outer
specimenand inner was
was gripped by by
temperatures
gripped thethe
of upper
the
upper grip,
tendons
grip, andand
to
thebe
the other
consistent,
other end
end was was relaxed.
therelaxed.
furnace In In order
temperature to
order to make make
(target the outer
thetemperature) and
outer and inner inner
was heldtemperatures
constant for
temperatures of the
about
of the tendons tohour
half anto
tendons be
be
consistent,
after it was
consistent, the
the furnace
raised temperature
to atemperature
furnace (target
target temperature temperature)
(target (Figure
temperature) was
3) [10].was held
Theheld constant
surface for
temperature
constant about
for about half
of CFRP an hour
half antendons
hour
after
after it
it was
detectedwasbyraised to
to aa target
target temperature
six thermocouples
raised (Figure
is presented
temperature 3)
in Figure
(Figure 3) [10].
4. ItThe
[10]. surface
shows
The thattemperature
surface the temperature
temperature of
of CFRP tendons
distribution
CFRP tendonsat
detected
detected by
by six
the specimen six thermocouples
surface was notis
thermocouples presented
isuniform.
presented in
in Figure
The 4.
temperature
Figure It shows
4. It that
that the
difference
shows temperature
within
the the 50 mm
temperature distribution
range of at
distribution the
at
the specimen
extensometer
the surface was
was small,
specimen surface not
was and uniform.
the maximum
not uniform. The temperature difference
temperaturedifference
The temperature within
value appeared
withinnearthe
the 50 50 mm
themm range
no. 3range of the
point.ofThus,
the
extensometer
the temperature
extensometer was at
was small,
small, and
no. 3and the
point maximum
thewas chosen as
maximum temperature value
the failure value
temperature appeared
temperature.
appeared near the
Finally,
near when
the no. 33 point.
no.the point. Thus,
temperature
Thus,
the temperature
was
the stable, the at
temperature at no.
no. 33 point
pointdeformations
longitudinal was chosen
was chosen asas the
ofthe
CFRP failure temperature.
tendons
failure Finally,bywhen
were recorded
temperature. Finally, the
the temperature
the extensometer.
when temperature
was
was stable,
stable, the
the longitudinal
longitudinal deformations
deformations of of CFRP
CFRP tendons
tendons were were recorded
recordedby bythetheextensometer.
extensometer.

Figure 3. Time–temperature curve for no. 3 point.

Figure 3. Time–temperature curve for no. 3 point.
Figure 3. Time–temperature curve for no. 3 point.
Materials 2018,12,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 5ofof1212

Figure 4. Constant temperature distribution on the surface of CFRP tendons.

Figure 4. Constant temperature distribution on the surface of CFRP tendons.
(2) Steady state tests
(2) Steady state tests
In order to avoid the influence of free expansion, the installation process at the beginning of
In order
the steady statetotestavoid
wasthe influence
similar to thatof free expansion,
of expansion theThe
test. installation
specimens process
were at the beginning
exposed of the
to the target
steady state test was similar to that of expansion test. The specimens
temperature for additional 30 min as soak time. The temperature distribution on the surface of the were exposed to the target
temperature
tendons for additional
was similar 30 min in
to that shown as Figure
soak time. The temperature
4. Then, the lower grip distribution on theAccording
was tightened. surface of to the
tendons
the was similar
ACI 440.3R [21], theto that shown in
specimens wereFigure
loaded4. Then,
with the lower grip was
displacement tightened.
control at a rateAccording
of 3 mm/min to the
ACI 440.3R [21], the
(585 MPa/min) until failure.
specimens were loaded with displacement control at a rate of 3 mm/min (585
MPa/min) until failure.
(3) Transient state tests
(3) Transient state tests
In the transient test, the specimens were first applied to a target load at a rate of 3 mm/min
In the transient test, the specimens were first applied to a target load at a rate of 3 mm/min (585
(585 MPa/min). After load stabilization for 1 min, the temperature was raised at a heating rate of
MPa/min). After load stabilization for 1 min, the temperature was raised at a heating rate of 20 °C/min
20 ◦ C/min while maintaining the pre-set load until failure occurred. According to GB 50608-2010 [22],
while maintaining the pre-set load until failure occurred. According to GB 50608-2010 [22], the
the allowable service stress of CFRP bars is limited to not more than 71% of the ultimate tensile strength.
allowable service stress of CFRP bars is limited to not more than 71% of the ultimate tensile strength.
Therefore, 29–67% of the ultimate tensile strength at room temperature was chosen as the stress levels
Therefore, 29–67% of the ultimate tensile strength at room temperature was chosen as the stress levels
for the loaded specimens in this study.
for the loaded specimens in this study.
3. Discussion of the Test Results
3. Discussion of the Test Results
3.1. Thermal Expansion Tests
3.1. Thermal Expansion Tests
According to the ACI 440.1R [23], the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of CFRP tendons is
between According
−9.0 × 10 to−the
6 /◦ACI
C and 440.1R
0.0 ×[23],10−6the/◦ C coefficient of thermaldirection.
in the longitudinal expansionHowever,
(CTE) of theCFRP tendonsofis
variation
between
CTE −9.0 × 10 /°Cisand
with temperatures −6
not0.0 × 10The
clear. −6 /°C in the longitudinal
experimental direction.
results show However,
that the the variation
longitudinal deformation of CTE
of
CFRP tendons decreased with the increase of temperature (Figure 5), which verifies the fact that the FRPof
with temperatures is not clear. The experimental results show that the longitudinal deformation
CFRP tendons
composites decreased
shortened alongwith the increase
the fiber directionofattemperature (Figure 5), which
elevated temperatures [24]. Thisverifies the fact
is mainly that the
attributed
toFRP
factcomposites
that carbon shortened
fibers shrink along the fibertemperatures
at elevated direction at in elevated temperatures
the longitudinal [24]. [25].
direction This With
is mainly
the
attributed
increase to fact that carbon
of temperature, fibers shrink
the shrinkage at elevated
of carbon fiberstemperatures
dominated the in the longitudinal
longitudinal direction [25].
deformation of
With tendons
CFRP the increase
due toofthetemperature,
softening of the resin. shrinkage
Whenofthecarbon fibers was
temperature dominated
low, the the
CTElongitudinal
decreased
deformation
slowly. As theof CFRP tendons
temperature rose,duetheto the of
resin softening of the resin.
FRP composites When
began the temperature
to soften, and the CTE wasoflow,
CFRP the
CTE decreased
tendons decreased slowly. As the negative
to a larger temperature value.rose,Especially,
the resin of FRP the
when composites
temperaturebeganexceeded
to soften,200 ◦
and the
C,
CTE
the CTE of decreased
CFRP tendons rapidly. decreased
Finally, to thea longitudinal
larger negative value. Especially,
deformation when the
of CFRP tendons was temperature
unstable
after 300 ◦ C200
exceeded due °C,tothe
theCTE decreased rapidly.
decomposition Finally,
of the resin, the longitudinal
resulting deformation
in the failure of CFRP
of obtaining tendons
its thermal
was unstable
expansion after 300 °C due to the decomposition of the resin, resulting in the failure of obtaining
properties.
its thermal
Based on expansion properties.
the experimental data, the longitudinal CTE (10−6 /◦ C) of CFRP tendons is proposed
in the Based
form of onpolynomial
the experimentalfunction data, the longitudinal
(Equation CTE (10−6curve
(1)). The obtained /°C) ofis CFRP
in good tendons
agreementis proposed
with thein
the form of polynomial
experimental results as shown function (Equation
in Figure 5. (1)). The obtained curve is in good agreement with the
experimental results as shown in Figure 5.
α = −1.5 × 10−6 ( T −−623)3 + 3.17 × 10−4 ( T − 23)2 − 2.44 × 10−2 ( T − 23) + 0.015 (1)
α = −1.5 × 10 (T − 23)3 + 3.17 × 10−4 (T − 23)2 − 2.44 × 10−2 (T − 23) + 0.015 (1)
Materials 2019, 12, 1025 6 of 12
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12

Figure 5. Expansion coefficient–temperature curves.

Figure 5. Expansion coefficient–temperature curves.
3.2. Steady State Tests
3.2. Steady State Tests
In the steady state tests, the experimental results of CFRP tendons at various temperatures are
listed In
in the
Table 3. Itstate
steady can be seen
tests, thethat maximumresults
experimental temperature
of CFRP ontendons
the surface (no. 3 temperatures
at various point) of CFRP are
tendons
listed inwas Tableless3.than thebe
It can furnace temperature
seen that maximum(target temperature).
temperature on the When
surfacethe temperature
(no. 3 point) ofinCFRPthe
furnace
tendonsexceeded
was less 500 than◦ C,thethe surface
furnace temperature
temperature of CFRP
(target tendons was
temperature). Whenhigher than the furnace
the temperature in the
temperature
furnace exceeded because 500of°C,
thethecombustion phenomenon
surface temperature of CFRP
of CFRP composites.
tendons The than
was higher ultimate
the tensile
furnace
strength
temperatureof CFRP tendons
because of theat combustion
room temperature was 2070
phenomenon of MPa,
CFRP but the strength
composites. The decreased with
ultimate tensile
strength
the increase of CFRP tendons at as
of temperature, roomshowntemperature
in Figurewas 6. 2070
WhenMPa, the but the strength
temperature decreased
reached with the
and exceeds
Tincrease
g and T dof
, temperature,
the tensile as
strengthshownof in
CFRPFigure 6.
tendons When the
decreased temperature
dramatically.reached
The and
mainexceeds
reason T and
g is Td,
that
thesoftening
the tensile strength of CFRP tendons
and decomposition of the decreased
resin notdramatically.
only reducedThe themain reason
strength is that
of the theitself,
resin softening
but
andweakened
also decomposition of the resin
the bonding not
effect of only reduced
fibers, thein
resulting strength
the rapidof the resin itself,
reduction of thebut also weakened
strength of FRP
the bondingThis
composites. effect of fibers, resulting
phenomenon in the rapid
further verifies reduction
the effect of the strength
of temperatures on theofmechanical
FRP composites. This
properties
ofphenomenon
FRP composites further
due toverifies
differentthe effect
state of theofresin
temperatures
at elevated on the mechanical
temperatures. In order properties
to determine of FRP
the
composites
fire resistancedue to different
of concrete state ofstrengthened
members the resin at elevated
with FRPtemperatures.
composites, the In order to determine
temperature at whichthethe
fire
resistance of
composites loseconcrete
50% of itsmembers strengthened
tensile strength withasFRP
was used the composites, the temperature
critical temperature at which by
of FRP composites the
composites
Wang lose 50% the
[26]. Therefore, of its
Tctensile
of CFRP strength
tendons waswasused as the critical
determined ◦
to betemperature
324 C by theoflinear
FRP composites
interpolation by
Wang [26].
method Therefore,
according the T3.c of CFRP tendons was determined to be 324 °C by the linear interpolation
to Table
method according to Table 3.
Table 3. Tensile strength of CFRP tendons in steady state tests.
Table 3. Tensile strength of CFRP tendons in steady state tests.
Target Average Surface Strength (MPa) Average Standard Coefficient ffu (T)/ffu
Temp (◦ C) Temp (◦ C)
Average Strength
SS-1 SS-2(MPa)
SS-3 Strength (MPa) Deviation of Variation %
Target Average Coefficient f fu100
(T ) / f fu
20 Surface
23 2048 2087 2075 2070 Standard
16.3 0.0079
Temp
100 91 1906 1943 1901 Strength
1917 18.7 of
0.0098 92.6
Temp SS-1 SS-2 SS-3 Deviation %
(°C)
150 137 1584 1714 1508 (MPa)
1602 85.1 Variation
0.053 77.4
200 (°C)
180 1325 1303 1281 1303 18.0 0.014 62.9
250
20 228
23 1248
2048 1165
2087 1097
2075 1170
2070 16.361.7 0.053
0.0079 56.5
100
300 278 1105 1110 1091 1102 8.0 0.0073 53.2
100
400 91
383 1906
996 1943
901 1901
953 1917
950 18.738.8 0.0098
0.041 92.6
45.9
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 12
500 518 331 365 350 349 13.9 0.040 16.9
150 137 1584 1714 1508 1602 85.1 0.053 77.4
200 180 1325 1303 1281 1303 18.0 0.014 62.9
250 228 1248 1165 1097 1170 61.7 0.053 56.5
300 278 1105 1110 1091 1102 8.0 0.0073 53.2
400 383 996 901 953 950 38.8 0.041 45.9
500 518 331 365 350 349 13.9 0.040 16.9

Figure6.
Figure Tensile strength
6.Tensile strength degradation
degradation in
in steady
steady state
state tests.
tests.

Figure 7a shows the failure mode of CFRP tendons in the steady state test. Due to the limitation
of the location of the furnace, the heating area was not in the middle of the specimen. However, all
specimens failed within the length of the specimen, and the clip anchorage provided effective
anchoring effect. In Figure 7a, it is obvious that the temperature distribution of CFRP tendons was
Materials 2019, 12, 1025 Figure 6. Tensile strength degradation in steady state tests. 7 of 12

Figure 7a shows the failure mode of CFRP tendons in the steady state test. Due to the limitation
of theFigure 7a shows
location the failure
of the furnace, themode of CFRP
heating area wastendons in the
not in the middle
steady state
of thetest. Due to the
specimen. limitation
However, all
specimens failed within the length of the specimen, and the clip anchorage providedHowever,
of the location of the furnace, the heating area was not in the middle of the specimen. effective
all specimens
anchoring failed
effect. within7a,
In Figure theitlength of the
is obvious specimen,
that and the distribution
the temperature clip anchorage provided
of CFRP effective
tendons was
anchoring effect. In Figure 7a, it is obvious that the temperature distribution
not uniform, and the deterioration of resin was more serious near no. 3 point. As the temperature of CFRP tendons was
not uniform,
increased, theand the deterioration
bonding effect of the of resin
resin was more
decreased serious near
gradually. This no. 3 point.
resulted in aAs the temperature
gradual separation
increased, the bonding effect of the resin decreased gradually. This resulted in
of the carbon fibers and the resin. At 200–300 °C, there were obvious longitudinal cracks on the a gradual separation of
the carbon fibers and the resin. At 200–300 ◦ C, there were obvious longitudinal cracks on the surface of
surface of the tendons, and the CFRP tendons were divided into several bunches of fibers. When the
the tendons, and
temperature the CFRP
exceeded 500tendons
°C, only werecarbon
divided into several
fibers in the bunches of fibers.were
CFRP tendons Whenretained
the temperature
due to
exceeded 500 ◦ C, only carbon fibers in the CFRP tendons were retained due to decomposition of the
decomposition of the resin. At this time, the majority of the mechanical properties of CFRP tendons
resin.lost.
was At this time, the majority of the mechanical properties of CFRP tendons was lost.

20℃
70kN
100℃
150℃ 60kN
200℃
250℃
50kN
300℃

400℃
40kN

500℃ 30kN

(a) Steady state tests (b) Transient state tests

Figure 7. Failure modes of CFRP tendons at elevated temperatures.

3.3. Transient
3.3. Transient State
State Tests
Tests
Table 4 presents failure temperature of the loaded specimens in transient state tests. It should
Tablethat
be noted 4 presents failuretemperature
the failure temperaturegradually
of the loaded specimens
decreased in transient
with stateof
the increase tests.
theItload
should be
level.
noted that the failure temperature gradually decreased with the increase
Corresponding to the steady state test results, the critical temperature of CFRP tendons was 341 C in of the load level.
◦
Corresponding
the transient test.to In
thetheory,
steadythestate test results,
presence thestress
of initial critical temperature
may intensify andof CFRP tendons
accelerate was 341 °C
degradation of
in the transient test. In theory, the presence of initial stress may intensify and
CFRP tendons at elevated temperature. However, as shown in Figure 8, most of the data values in accelerate degradation
of CFRP tendons
transient at were
state tests elevated temperature.
slightly higher than However,
those inassteady
shownstate
in Figure 8, mostare
tests. There of two
the data
mainvalues in
reasons:
transient state tests were slightly higher than those in steady state tests. There are
(1) In the steady state test, the degradation of tensile strength may have been further accelerated by two main reasons:
(1)
the In the steady
additional 30 state test, thetime
min soaking degradation
[27]; (2) Inof the
tensile strength
transient test,may have been further
the temperature at the accelerated
surface partbyof
the additional 30 min soaking time [27]; (2)
CFRP tendons was higher than that in the internal part. In the transient test, the temperature at the surface part
of CFRP tendons was higher than that in the internal part.
Table 4. Failure temperatures of CFRP tendons in transient state tests.
Table 4. Failure temperatures of CFRP tendons in transient state tests.
Temp (◦ C)
Target Load (kN) Stress (MPa) Stress Ratio (%) Average Temp (◦ C)
TS-1 TS-2 TS-3
30 597 28.8 441 489 473 468
40 796 38.5 432 421 439 431
50 995 48.1 360 344 394 366
60 1194 57.7 253 246 219 239
70 1393 67.3 169 196 184 183
 40 796 38.5 432 421 439 431
50 995 48.1 360 344 394 366
60 1194 57.7 253 246 219 239
70 12, 1025
Materials 2019, 1393 67.3 169 196 184 183 8 of 12

Figure 8.
Figure Variation of
8. Variation of failure
failure temperatures
temperatures with
with target
target loads
loads in
in transient
transient state
state tests.
tests.

In the
In the transient
transient tests,
tests, the
the failure
failure mode
mode ofof CFRP
CFRP tendons
tendons isis shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 7b.
7b. For
For the
the specimens
specimens
under loads of 50–70 kN, the time from the beginning of the test to the failure of CFRP
under loads of 50–70 kN, the time from the beginning of the test to the failure of CFRP tendons was tendons was
shorter. The
shorter. The tendons
tendons were
were still
still characterized
characterized byby brittle
brittle fracture
fracture at
at failure.
failure. This
This was
was mainly
mainly attributed
attributed
to the fact that most of the undecomposed resin still had an effective bonding effect,
to the fact that most of the undecomposed resin still had an effective bonding effect, while for while for the
the
specimens under
specimens under loads
loads of
of 30–40
30–40 kN,
kN, the
the resin
resin was
was obviously decomposed, and
obviously decomposed, and the
the duration
duration time
time of
of
the test was longer before the failure of CFRP
the test was longer before the failure of CFRP tendons.tendons.

4. Modeling of Strength Properties at Elevated Temperatures

4. Modeling of Strength Properties at Elevated Temperatures
4.1. Description of Models
4.1. Description of Models
In the present section, the experimental results of CFRP tendons at elevated temperatures are
used to the
In present
evaluate thesection, the experimental
applicability and accuracyresults of CFRP
of the models tendonsinatdifferent
proposed elevatedliteratures.
temperatures are
In order
used to evaluate the applicability and accuracy of the models proposed in different
to fully reveal the influence of thermo–physical responses on thermo–mechanical properties, a new literatures. In
order to fully reveal the influence of thermo–physical
model is proposed with the form of exponential function. responses on thermo–mechanical properties, a
new model
Accordingis proposed with the formof
to the characteristics ofFRP
exponential
composites function.
at elevated temperatures, the temperature
(Tref ) at which the tensile strength and Young’s modulus at
According to the characteristics of FRP composites elevated
vanish and temperatures, the temperature
the room temperature (T0 ) are
(Tref) at which the tensile strength and Young’s modulus vanish and the room temperature (T0) are
applied in the expression by Gu [28]. The equation is provided as follows:
applied in the expression by Gu [28]. The equation is provided as follows:
T − T0 m
P( T ) = (1 − T − T0 )m · P0 (2)
P(T ) = (1 −Tre f − T0 ) ⋅ P0 (2)
Tref − T0
where P(T) and P represents the mechanical property at T (◦ C) and room temperature, respectively;
where P(T) and P00 represents the mechanical property at T (°C) and room temperature, respectively;
The value of the power law index m can be chosen between 0 and 1.
The value of the power law index m can be chosen between 0 and 1.
Subsequently, in order to fit the curve simply and accurately, a cubic polynomial function was
Subsequently, in order to fit the curve simply and accurately, a cubic polynomial function was
proposed by Liu [29]. The glass temperature was successfully applied in the expression as follows:
proposed by Liu [29]. The glass temperature was successfully applied in the expression as follows:
T −TT0− T0 TT−−TT00 22 TT−− T0 T03 3
P( T ) =P ) =a[1
（[1T − 1 (− a1 ( ) −) a−2a(2 ( ) −−aa33( ( ) ])⋅ P]0 · P0 (3)
(3)
Tg −TgT0− T0 TgTg−−TT00 TT −−
g g T0 T0

More recently,
recently,in the studystudy
in the of mechanical properties
of mechanical of GFRP composites
properties at elevated temperatures,
of GFRP composites at elevated
Correia [12] proposed an exponential function model which was derived from
temperatures, Correia [12] proposed an exponential function model which was derived Gompertz statistical
from
distribution
Gompertz theory. distribution theory.
statistical
C×T
P( T ) = (1 − e Be ) × ( P0 − Pr ) + Pr (4)

in which coefficients B and C are determined by experimental data; P0 and Pr are the mechanical
properties of the composites at ambient temperature and in the decomposed state, respectively.
As mentioned in the previous section, the critical temperature can be used as a criterion for
evaluating the fire resistance of strengthened concrete members. On the basis of Gibson [14] model,
Yu [6] further proposed the following hyperbolic tangent function model.

P0 + PR P − PR
P( T ) = ( − 0 tanh(k( T − Tc )) (5)
2 2
Materials 2019, 12, 1025 9 of 12

where PR is the relaxed (high temperature) value of the mechanical properties; k is a constant describing
the extent of relaxation; Tc is critical temperature of CFRP tendons.
In order to reveal the thermophysical properties of CFRP composites at elevated temperatures,
a modified model is suggested by the authors, which is based on the exponential function model.
Equation (6) contains the comprehensive effects of fiber content, resin softening, and decomposition
on the mechanical properties of CFRP composites at elevated temperatures.
"  # "  #
T − T0 3 T − T0 3
 
P( T )
= (1 − Vf ) exp −k1 + Vf exp −k2 (6)
P0 Tg Td

where k1 and k2 are constants determined by fitting the experimental data; Vf is the volume fractions
of fibers.

4.2. Results and Discussion

Table 5 summarizes simulation results of strength degradation values of CFRP tendons with
different models. For the empirical models, the parameters were determined by least squares regression
analysis. In Gu and Asaro’s model, Tref (597 ◦ C and 578 ◦ C) was obtained by linear interpolation
according to Tables 3 and 4. In Equation (4), Correia defined Pr as the mechanical property after glass
transition (but before decomposition), corresponding to the strength in the leathery state. However,
the experimental results in this paper show that it was more reasonable to refer to Pr as the strength
in the decomposed state. Thus, Pr had the same meaning as PR in Yu’s model. As discussed above,
the resin of CFRP tendons was completely decomposed in steady state and transient tests at 518 ◦ C
and 468 ◦ C, respectively. Therefore, the strength at 518 ◦ C and 468 ◦ C was used as Pr or PR .
In statistics, the coefficient of determination (R-Square) can represent the accuracy of a fitting
model. The normal range of its value is between 0 and 1. The closer R-Square approaches 1, the better
the model fits with the data. The comparison of different models shows that Liu model and the model
proposed in this paper have better fitting accuracy. At the same time, the proposed model not only has
fewer parameters, but also reflects the thermophysical properties of CFRP composites.

Table 5. Simulation of CFRP material strength for different models.

Steady State Transient State

Model Parameters
Strength R-Square Strength R-Square
Gu and Asaro [28] m 1 0.941 0.885 0.782
a1 0.281 0.332
Liu et al. [29] a2 −0.056 0.963 −0.09 0.957
a3 0.007 0.012
B −3.529 −2.862
Correia et al. [12] 0.936 0.898
C −0.007 −0.007
Yu and Kodur [6] k 0.0035 0.796 0.0036 −0.548
k1 1.419 1.155
Present study 0.984 0.955
k2 0.663 0.552

The strength degradation curves derived from different empirical relations are plotted in Figure 9.
All the models were in good agreement with the experimental data in the range of temperatures
analyzed. It is a fact that the mechanical properties of CFRP composites after the decomposition of
the resin approached zero. However, when the temperature exceeded 500 ◦ C, the results fitted by the
Gu model and the Liu model became negative, which did not satisfy with the physical truth. Again,
it confirms the applicability and accuracy of the proposed model in this paper for calculating the
mechanical properties of CFRP composites at elevated temperatures.
 the resin approached zero. However, when the temperature exceeded 500 °C, the results fitted by the
Gu model and the Liu model became negative, which did not satisfy with the physical truth. Again,
it confirms the applicability and accuracy of the proposed model in this paper for calculating the
mechanical properties of CFRP composites at elevated temperatures.
Materials 2019, 12, 1025 10 of 12

(a) Steady state tests (b) Transient state tests

Figure9.9.Nominal
Figure Nominalstrength–temperature
strength–temperaturemodeling
modelingcurves.
curves.

5.5.Conclusions
Conclusions
InInthis
thispaper,
paper,detailed
detailedexperimental
experimentalstudies
studiesare
arepresented
presentedon
onthe
thematerial
materialproperties
propertiesofofCFRP
CFRP
tendons
tendonsatatelevated
elevatedtemperatures.
temperatures.Based
Basedononthe
theexperimental
experimentaldata
dataobtained,
obtained,the
thefitting
fittingaccuracy
accuracyofof
different
differentstrength
strengthprediction
predictionmethods
methodsisisevaluated.
evaluated.The
Themain
mainconclusions
conclusionscan
canbebedrawn
drawnasas follows:
follows:
(1)
(1) In
In the
the thermal
thermal expansion
expansion tests,tests, experimental
experimental results
results reported
reported herein
herein confirmed
confirmedthat thatthethe
longitudinal deformation of CFRP tendons is shrinkage at elevated temperatures.
longitudinal deformation of CFRP tendons is shrinkage at elevated temperatures. The coefficient The coefficient
ofofthermal
thermalexpansion
expansiondecreases
decreaseswith withthetheincrease
increaseofoftemperature.
temperature.The TheCTE CTEofofCFRP
CFRPtendons
tendons
predicted by polynomial function is in good agreement with the experimental
predicted by polynomial function is in good agreement with the experimental data before data before 300 ◦300
C.
(2) In°C. the steady state tests, the tensile strength of CFRP tendons shows a characteristic of degradation
with
(2) In the temperature.
steady state Especially, in the
tests, the temperature
tensile strengthrange
of of glasstendons
CFRP transformation
showsand decompositionof
a characteristic
ofdegradation
the resin, itwith
decreases rapidly. Especially,
When heated ◦
324temperature
C, the retained strength
temperature. in the range of glassoftransformation
CFRP tendonsand is
50%. Hence the critical temperature of CFRP tendons in the steady state tests is 324 ◦ C.
decomposition of the resin, it decreases rapidly. When heated 324 °C, the retained strength of
(3) TheCFRP transient
tendons temperature
is 50%. Hence testthe
is more
criticalrepresentative
temperature of forCFRP
actualtendons
fire conditions than state
in the steady the steady
tests is
state
324 °C.test. The fire resistance time of CFRP tendons increases with the decrease of loading level.
Corresponding to the steady state test results, the critical temperature
(3) The transient temperature test is more representative for actual fire conditions than the steady of CFRP tendons in the
transient ◦
state test.state
Thetests is 341 C. time of CFRP tendons increases with the decrease of loading level.
fire resistance
(4) Based
Corresponding to the data,
on experimental steadyallstate
models testsuggested in different
results, the literatures can
critical temperature reasonably
of CFRP tendonssimulate
in the
the variation
transient of tests
state tensileis strength
341 °C. in the temperature range of the test. The new model proposed in
(4) the present
Based on study seems todata,
experimental be particularly
all models well suited forin
suggested describing
differentthe strength degradation
literatures can reasonably of
CFRP
simulatetendons as a function
the variation of temperature.
of tensile strength in It the
can temperature
be used in evaluating
range of firethe response
test. The ofnewconcrete
model
members
proposedstrengthened
in the present with CFRP
study tendons.
seems to be particularly well suited for describing the strength
degradation of CFRP tendons as a function of temperature. It can be used in evaluating fire
Authorresponse of concrete
Contributions: members strengthened
Conceptualization, J.Z. and F.Z.;with CFRP tendons.
methodology, F.Z. and S.S.; software, F.Z.; validation,
D.Y. and C.W.; formal analysis, F.Z.; investigation, F.Z., D.Y., and C.W.; resources, F.Z., D.Y., and C.W.; data
Author F.Z.;
curation, Contributions: Conceptualization,
writing—original J.Z. and
draft preparation, F.Z.;
F.Z.; methodology,and
writing—review F.Z.editing,
and S.S.; software,
J.Z. and S.S.;F.Z.; validation,
visualization,
D.Y.supervision,
F.Z.; and C.W.; formal analysis,
J.Z.; project F.Z.; investigation,
administration, F.Z., acquisition,
J.Z.; funding D.Y., and C.W.; resources,
J.Z. and S.S. F.Z., D.Y., and C.W.; data
Funding: This research was funded by National Key Research and Development Program of China
(no. 2017YFC0703006-01), National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 51378104).
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge Jiangsu Hengshen Co. Ltd. (Zhenjiang, China) for providing CFRP
tendons and Jiangsu Yiding electric power technology Co. Ltd. (Suqian, China) for providing anchorages.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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