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Characterisation of dietary fibre components in cereals and legumes used in

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Article  in  Food Chemistry · December 2013

DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.05.078 · Source: PubMed

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 Food Chemistry 141 (2013) 1624–1629

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Analytical Methods

Characterisation of dietary fibre components in cereals and legumes

used in Serbian diet
Margarita S. Dodevska a,⇑, Brizita I. Djordjevic a, Sladjana S. Sobajic a, Ivanka D. Miletic a,
Predrag B. Djordjevic b, Vesna S. Dimitrijevic-Sreckovic b
a
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Bromatology, Belgrade, Serbia
b
Institute for Endokrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases, Clinical Center of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The typical Serbian diet is characterised by high intake of cereal products and also legumes are often
Received 3 September 2012 used. The content of total fibre as well as certain fibre fractions was determined in cereals, cereal prod-
Received in revised form 27 November 2012 ucts, and cooked legumes. The content of total fibre in cooked cereals and cereal products ranged from 2.5
Accepted 2 May 2013
to 20.8 g/100 g, and in cooked legumes from 14.0 to 24.5 g/100 g (on dry matter basis). Distribution of
Available online 23 May 2013
analysed fibre fractions and their quantities differed significantly depending on food groups. Fructans
and arabinoxylans were the most significant fibre fractions in rye flakes, and b-glucan in oat flakes, cel-
Keywords:
lulose and resistant starch were present in significant amounts in peas and kidney beans. When the size
Fibre
Fructans
of regular food portions was taken into consideration, the best sources of total dietary fibre were peas and
Arabinoxylans kidney beans (more than 11 g/serving). The same foods were the best sources of cellulose (4.98 and
Resistant starch 3.56 g/serving) and resistant starch (3.90 and 2.83 g/serving). High intake of arabinoxylans and fructans
Cellulose could be accomplished with cooked wheat (3.20 g and 1.60 g/serving, respectively). Oat (1.39 g/serving)
b-Glucan and barley flakes (1.30 g/serving) can be recommended as the best sources of b-glucan.
Cereals Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Legumes

1. Introduction
Dietary fibre represents carbohydrate polymers containing
three or more monomer units, which cannot be absorbed in small
intestine (European Commission, 2008). Dietary fibre is commonly
classified on the basis of water solubility, although the ability of gel
forming, viscosity and the rate of fermentation are more relevant
features. Soluble dietary fibre ferments in the large intestine to
produce short chain products: lactate, butyrate, acetate, propio-
nate (Fernando et al., 2010; Scott, Duncan, & Flint, 2008). Butyrate
serves as an energy source for colon epithelium and protect colon
from cancer and colitis (Hague, Singh, & Parasceva, 1997). Soluble
dietary fibre also reduces serum cholesterol and postprandial
blood glucose response mainly through forming a viscous gel layer
thus slowing the gut absorption (e.g. glucose, bile acids, choles-
terol) (AACC Report, 2001). The effect on T-cell proliferation and
macrophage activation is documented as well (Sherry et al.,
2010). Insoluble dietary fibre possesses high capacity for water
binding, thus softening faecal content. At the same time they short-
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +381 11 2445 607; fax: +381 11 3972 840.
E-mail addresses: margarit_bromi@yahoo.com (M.S. Dodevska), brizitadj@
yahoo.com (B.I. Djordjevic), sobajic04@yahoo.com (S.S. Sobajic), ivamil@pharmacy.
bg.ac.rs (I.D. Miletic), profpredrag@yahoo.com (P.B. Djordjevic), vesnadsendo@ptt.rs
(V.S. Dimitrijevic-Sreckovic).
en transit time of stool through the colon (AACC Report, 2001,
2003). Some fibre act as prebiotic showing a selective effect to-
wards gastrointestinal bacterial macrobiota benefical for human
health (Gibson, Probert, Loo, Rastall, & Roberfroid, 2004).
Dietary fibre can be separated into several fractions with differ-
ent physico-chemical and physiological properties (AACC Report,
2001). These fractions include, among others, b-glucan, cellulose,
resistant starch, arabinoxylans and fructans. b-Glucan is a homo-
polysaccharide composed of glucose monomers linked either with
b-(1–3), b-(1–6), b-(2–3), or with b-(3–6) glycosidic bond. b-Glucan
is being classified as soluble dietary fibre although it contains parts
which are insoluble in water (Johansson, Tuomainen, Ylinen,
Ekholm, & Virkki, 2004). The consumption of b-glucans is associ-
ated with potential health benefits such as reducing postprandial
glycemia and insulinemia in normoglycemic patients (Behall,
Scholfield, & Hallfrisch, 2006; Brennan & Cleary, 2005) and a reduc-
tion of hypercholesterolemia (Braaten et al., 1994). Resistant starch
is a portion of starch that has not been digested by the human en-
zymes in the small intestine but is partially or completely fer-
mented in the large intestine (Sajilata, Singhal, & Kulkarni, 2006).
Resistant starch induces satiety (Sajilata et al., 2006), increases
insulin sensitivity in overweight and obese men (Maki et al.,
2012) and significantly alters pH in faeces and intestine content,
which is followed by decreased production of potentially harmful

0308-8146/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.05.078
 M.S. Dodevska et al. / Food Chemistry 141 (2013) 1624–1629
secondary bile acids, ammonia and phenols and increased produc-
tion of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) in the coecum of the large
intestine (Sajilata et al., 2006). Cellulose is an unbranched polymer
chain consisting of glucose residues linked by b-(1–4) glycosidic
bond. Cellulose is classified as so called polymorphous substances
(Blackwell, 1982). Cellulose has a protective role on colon by
increasing the number of apoptotic epithelial cells in the large
intestine in mice (Mastutik, Putra, & Martoprawiro, 2004). It makes
the stool bulky, which helps with elimination of possible carcino-
gens and shortens bowel transit time (Nakaji et al., 2004). Arabin-
oxylans consist of a-L-arabinofuranose residues attached as
branch-points to b-(1–4) linked D-xylopyranose polymeric back-
bone chains. These may be 2 or 3 substituted or 2 and 3 di-substi-
tuted. Residual ferulic acid can also be found. Food sources of
arabinoxylans are cereal grains. In wheat bran it makes 60–69%
non-starch polysaccharides, and in endosperm 88% non-starch
polysaccharides (Ring & Selvendran, 1980). Arabinoxylan acts as
a prebiotic (Vardakou et al., 2008) and improves postprandial glu-
cose and insulin sensitivity (Lu, Walker, Muir, Mascara, & O’Dea,
2000). Fructans are carbohydrates made of fructose units with or
without glucose units. Fructans differ in molecular structure and
in molecular weight. They may be classified in three main types:
the inulin group, the levan group and the branched group. Wheat
contains a range of fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) (Van den Ende
et al., 2003). Fructans increase satiety (Cani, Joly, Horsmans, &
Delzenne, 2006), which leads to reduced energy intake, they in-
crease calcium absorption (Van den Heuvel, Muys, van Dokkum,
& Schaafsma, 1999) and reduce serum triglycerides (Brighenti,
2007).
Although data on total fibre content and content of some of its
components exist in scientific literature for numerous plant foods,
there is no such published data for foods commonly used in Ser-
bian diet. Considering that different fibre fractions have different
physiological effects, it is of importance to establish qualitative
and quantitative composition of fibre in foods most commonly
used in diet. This data could be of great practical importance in
developing dietary interventions aiming to achieve certain positive
health effects, both in healthy individuals and patients with certain
health problems. Since cereal grains, cereal products and legumes
are main dietary sources of fibre in Serbian diet (Djukic, Sobajic,
Djordjevic, Miletic, & Gajic, 2009), the aim of this work was to
characterise dietary fibre components of cereals and legumes most
commonly used in Serbian diet.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
For each food item three different samples were independently
analysed. Sampling process was conducted in three biggest super-
markets. All food items within certain food group were from differ-
ent food producers and most commonly purchased by the
consumers.
2.1.1. Cereal grains
Cereal grains were cooked in water (different cereal types had
different cooking times): wheat – 80 min, wholemeal rice –
60 min, polished rice and millet – 25 min, sweet corn – 20 min;
cereals were drained after cooking and prepared for analysis by
milling in a blender.
Flakes: corn flakes, barley flakes, oat flakes and rye flakes; the
samples were prepared for analysis by milling in a blender.
Commercially available breads: white wheat bread (leavened,
wheat flour type 500); wheat/corn bread (leavened, corn flour
concentrate min 18%, wheat flour type 500); wheat/rye bread
1625
(leavened, rye flour, wheat flour type 500); wholemeal wheat
bread (leavened, wheat flour type 850); the samples were analysed
the same day when they were bought. Each type of bread was
sliced, grinded in electric blender and finally analysed.
2.1.2. Legumes
Legumes were cooked in water (different legume types had
different cooking times): string (or green) beans (Phaseolus vulga-
ris) – 40 min; peas (Pisum sativum) – 60 min; lentils (Lens culinaris)
– 60 min; kidney beans ( P. vulgaris) – 100 min; legumes were
drained after cooking and grinded in electric blender.
2.2. Analytical methods
2.2.1. Resistant starch and starch
AOAC Method 2002.02; AOAC Method 32–40 (RSTAR II/02,
Megazyme).
Samples are incubated in the presence of pancreatic alpha-amy-
lase and amyloglucosidase for 16 h at 37 °C. During this time non-
resistant starch is solubilised and hydrolysed to glucose by the syn-
ergistic action of the two enzymes. By the addition of ethanol RS
and subsequent centrifugation RS is obtained as a pellet, while ob-
tained supernatant is further used for measuring total starch. Pellet
is dissolved in 2 M KOH and solution is neutralised with acetate
buffer. RS is quantitatively hydrolysed to glucose with amylogluco-
sidase. Glucose is assayed with glucose oxidase/peroxidase reagent
(GOPOD), and the absorbance is measured at 510 nm. Soluble non-
resistant starch is determined from supernatant, while absorbance
is measured at the same wavelength as for RS. This method offers
the most approximative results, those that can be as far as possible
reflected in vivo and can be considered physiologically significant.
2.2.2. b-Glucan
AACC Method 32–23, AOAC Method 995.16 (K-BGLU 06/11,
Megazyme).
Samples are suspended and hydrated in a sodium-phosphate
buffer solution of pH 6.5 and then incubated with purified lichen-
ase enzyme. An aliquot of the filtrate is then hydrolyzed to comple-
tion with purified b-glucosidase. The glucose produced is assayed
using a GOPOD, while absorbance is measured at 510 nm. Assay
kit is specific for mixed linkage [(1–3)(1–4)]-b-D-glucan. There is
a difference in quantity and factors when raw and cooked samples
are calculated.
2.2.3. D-Xylose including xylan and arabinoxylan
(K-XYLOSE 03/07, Megazyme).
Acid hydrolysis occurs in the presence of 1,3 M HCl. Intercon-
version of the a- and b-anomeric forms of D-xylose is catalysed
by xylose mutarotase. The b-D-xylose is oxidised by NAD+ to D-
xylonic acid in the presence of b-xylose dehydrogenase at pH 7.5.
The amount of NADH which is measured by the increase in absor-
bance at 340 nm.
In wheat flour the arabinoxylan to D-xylose ratio is 62%. This
factor was used to measure arabinoxylan in other samples.
2.2.4. Fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) and fructan polysaccharide
Modification of AOAC Method 999.03, AACC Method 32.32 (K-
Fruchk 03/05), Megazyme.
Sucrose and lower degree of polimerisation maltosaccharides
are hydrolised to fructose and glucose using a specific sucrase/mal-
tase enzyme. After pH adjustment, samples are treated with puri-
fied fructanase. The concentration of glucose plus fructose is
measured with a hexokinase/phospho-glucose isomerase/glucose
6-phosphate dehydrogenase system. Absorbance was measured
at 340 nm.
1626 M.S. Dodevska et al. / Food Chemistry 141 (2013) 1624–1629
2.2.5. Total dietary fibre
(K-TDFR 03/2009, Megazyme).
Total dietary fibre (TDF) was determined using method based
on AOAC Method 985.29 on duplicate samples of dried and defat-
ted (if fat content is >10%) material. Samples are cooked at 100 °C
with heat stable a-amylase to give gelatinisation, hydrolysis and
depolymerisation of starch; incubated at 60 °C with protease (to
solubilise and depolymerise proteins) and amyloglucosidase (to
hydrolyse starch fragments to glucose); and treated with four vol-
umes of ethanol to precipitate soluble fibre and remove depoly-
merised protein and glucose (from starch). The residue is
filtered; washed with 78% ethanol, 95% ethanol, and acetone;
dried; and weighed. One duplicate is analysed for protein and
the other is incubated at 525 °C to determine ash. The TDF is the
weight of the filtered and dried residue less the weight of the pro-
tein and ash.
A pulverized sample is treated with heat resistant enzymes: al-
pha-amylase, amyloglucosidase and protease, under defined pH
and temperature. Heat resistant alpha-amylase turns starch into li-
quid and optimises condition for the next phase where enzyme
amyloglucosidase hydrolise starch into glucose. In the final step
proteolytic enzyme hydrolises proteins into soluble amino acids
and short-chain peptides. After the enzymatic treatment has been
completed the sample is corrected for possible mineral and nitro-
gen residue. Total dietary fibre is measured by gravimetric
analysis.
Total dietary fibre obtained by enzymatic–gravimetric method
(AOAC 985.29) does not present the sum of all fractions of dietary
fibre (AACC Report, 2001), because the fructan fraction is dissolved
during treatment with 78% ethyl alcohol in this method, but on
that value should added content of fructan, which in the determi-
nation of total dietary fibre (Tsai, Lu, Yu, Lin, & Fu, 2007).
2.2.6. Cellulose
Cellulose content was determined using gravimetric method
after acid digestion (Official Method No. 950.37).
2.2.7. Moisture analysis
Moisture content was analysed gravimetrically (ISO 712:2009).
2.2.8. Methods quality assurance
Analytical internal quality control was conducted using refer-
ence materials: (1) Resistant Starch Control (Megazyme, LOT
50904); (2) Beta-glucan from oat flour Control (Megazyme, LOT
00101); (3) D-xylose Standard (Megazyme, LOT 90401a); (4) Fruc-
tan Control Flour (Megazyme, LOT 90705); (5) Dietary fibre and
Water Test material (FAPAS, T2440).
3. Results and discussion
Since cereal grains and cereal products traditionally have been
the most frequently used foods and present the most important
energy source in Serbian nutrition (Tisovski, Trbovic, & Rodic,
2000; Zivic, Golubovic, & Zivic, 2000), it is important to establish
the content of total dietary fibre as well as the content of different
fibre fractions in selected cereal products used in everyday
nutrition.
Cooked cereal grains (wheat, wholemeal rice, polished rice, mil-
let, and sweet corn), four commercially available bread types
(white wheat bread, wheat/corn bread, wheat/rye bread, whole-
meal wheat bread), four commercially flakes’ products (corn, bar-
ley, oat, rye) were analysed for total dietary fibre, b-glucan,
resistant starch, cellulose, arabinoxylans and fructans. Total dietary
fibre determined by AOAC method 985.29 comprise cellulose, b-
glucan, galactomannan, arabinoxylan, resistant starch, pectin,
arabinogalactan, part of polydextrose, and resistant maltrodextrin.
All results are reported on a dry weight basis and presented in Ta-
ble 1.
Analyzed cereal grains contained 2.5–20.8 g/100 g total dietary
fibre (on dry matter basis). In the group of cooked cereals cooked
wheat was by far the richest source of total fibre (15.8 g/100 g),
cooked sweet corn was also a rich fibre source (9.2 g/100 g), while
cooked polished rice had the lowest fibre content. Wholemeal rice
samples had 3.6 times more fibre than polished rice. Quantitative
distribution of fibre fractions in cooked cereals differed signifi-
cantly. Arabinoxylans were the main fibre fractions only in cooked
wheat (37% of total dietary fibre), while resistant starch and cellu-
lose were main fibre fractions in cooked millet and cooked sweet
corn. It is interesting that the main fibre fractions in polished rice
and wholemeal rice were not identical: while in polished rice resis-
tant starch was the major fraction, in wholemeal rice fructans and
cellulose were two main fibre fractions. This result confirms that
the major part of rice fructans, cellulose and b-glucan is located
in rice bran and with the rice grain hulling process these compo-
nents diminish. b-Glucan is highly recommended dietary fibre be-
cause of its health potential, but analysed cooked cereals were poor
sources of b-glucan. Only wheat and wholemeal rice contained
small quantities of b-glucan, while in millet, sweet corn and pol-
ished rice no b-glucan was detected. Obtained results for total fi-
bre, fructans and arabinoxylans content in wheat grain were in
good correlation with the findings of Haska, Nyman, and Anders-
son (2008). While Demirbas (2005) has found in millet, corn and
rice grown in Turkey low levels of b-glucan, no b-glucan was de-
tected in our samples. Resistant starch was an important fibre
component almost in all analysed cooked cereal grains except in
the wholemeal rice. The content of resistant starch fraction was
0.5–3.1 g/100 g and it comprised 63.7% of total fibre in cooked rice,
50.7% in cooked millet, and 33.7% in cooked sweet corn. Retrogra-
dation process is highly expressed in the millet and sweet corn
core (Sajilata et al., 2006) causing high content of resistant starch
in these cereals after cooking. Murphy, Douglass, and Birkett
(2008) and Chen et al. (2010) presented in their papers a compre-
hensive review of existing data on resistant starch content in var-
ious foods. Results for resistant starch content in cooked millet,
rice and brown rice are somewhat lower in database of Murphy
et al. (2008) than results in our study, but for cooked wheat, pol-
ished rice, millet and corn are in good correlation with data of Chen
et al. (2010).
When various samples of commercially available bread types
(white wheat, corn/wheat, rye/wheat, and whole wheat) were ana-
lysed for total dietary fibre content the results showed that rye and
whole wheat bread had the highest total fibre content and the dif-
ference was statistically significant as compared to corn and white
wheat bread. Total fibre content in analysed breads was in range
4.8–8.6 g/100 g. In all analysed bread types major fibre fractions
were fructans, arabinoxylans and resistant starch, while b-glucan
and cellulose were of minor importance. Rye bread was the richest
source of fructans, arabinoxylans, resistant starch, and b-glucan as
compared to other types of bread (Table 1). Analyzed bread types
showed no significant difference in resistant starch content
(1.45–1.97 g/100 g) and this fibre fraction comprised 20–37% of to-
tal fibre in breads. High percentage of resistant starch in all types of
bread is expected because resistant starch forms during baking
within bread’s barks and core (Sajilata et al., 2006). Whole wheat
bread was the only significant source of cellulose (1.05 g/100 g).
If we compare the arabinoxylan and b-glucan content in our sam-
ples of white wheat bread with the results of Hiller, Schlörmann,
Glei, and Lindhauer (2011), we can conclude that the results are
comparable, but for rye bread our results are considerably lower.
Ultimately, the fibre content can indicate how much rye is used
in preparing rye bread.
 M.S. Dodevska et al. / Food Chemistry 141 (2013) 1624–1629 1627

Table 1
Total and fractional dietary fibre content in analysed cereals (g/100 g of dry matter).

Samples Fructans Arabinoxylan Cellulose b-Glucan Resistant starch Dietary fibrea Total dietary fibreb Moisture
Cooked cereals
Wheat 2.93 ± 0.78 5.86 ± 0.43 2.53 ± 0.43 0.63 ± 0.04 1.33 ± 0.19 12.88 ± 2.12 15.81 ± 2.90 72.72 ± 1.55
Millet 0.58 ± 0.10 0.45 ± 0.03 1.23 ± 0.20 n.d. 2.84 ± 0.23 5.02 ± 1.10 5.60 ± 1.20 73.07 ± 0.93
Sweet corn 1.10 ± 0.13 1.35 ± 0.08 1.85 ± 0.31 n.d. 3.11 ± 0.57 8.11 ± 0.97 9.21 ± 1.10 68.44 ± 1.28
Rice 0.33 ± 0.09 0.13 ± 0.02 n.d. n.d. 1.62 ± 0.32 2.21 ± 0.53 2.54 ± 0.62 68.36 ± 0.57
Wholemeal rice 2.24 ± 0.21 0.51 ± 0.04 1.60 ± 0.24 0.39 ± 0.11 0.53 ± 0.16 6.98 ± 0.79 9.22 ± 1.00 74.59 ± 0.52
Breads
White wheat bread 1.42 ± 0.05 1.61 ± 0.05 0.45 ± 0.07 0.20 ± 0.04 1.45 ± 0.22 4.32 ± 0.57 5.74 ± 0.62 39.13 ± 0.87
Wheat/corn bread 1.40 ± 0.31 1.33 ± 0.02 0.39 ± 0.10 0.24 ± 0.06 1.81 ± 0.18 3.41 ± 0.57 4.81 ± 0.88 38.20 ± 1.23
Wheat/rye bread 2.20 ± 0.28 2.04 ± 0.12 0.68 ± 0.11 0.44 ± 0.07 1.97 ± 0.43 6.16 ± 0.89 8.36 ± 1.17 38.12 ± 0.73
Whole wheat bread 1.60 ± 0.17 1.79 ± 0.24 1.05 ± 0.15 0.31 ± 0.07 1.76 ± 0.25 7.03 ± 1.11 8.63 ± 1.28 37.82 ± 0.62
Flakes
Corn flakes 1.88 ± 0.22 0.31 ± 0.12 0.13 ± 0.05 0.68 ± 0.06 2.00 ± 0.31 2.86 ± 0.35 4.74 ± 0.57 6.78 ± 0.56
Barley flakes 1.66 ± 0.12 3.44 ± 0.57 0.55 ± 0.10 4.79 ± 0.25 2.61 ± 0.25 10.77 ± 0.68 12.43 ± 0.80 9.86 ± 0.29
Oat flakes 0.35 ± 0.02 2.81 ± 0.23 0.73 ± 0.12 5.13 ± 0.33 0.37 ± 0.11 15.86 ± 0.91 16.21 ± 0.93 9.63 ± 0.34
Rye flakes 5.00 ± 0.09 7.61 ± 0.21 1.53 ± 0.22 1.93 ± 0.17 4.17 ± 0.22 15.86 ± 1.10 20.85 ± 1.19 12.12 ± 0.29

Data are expressed as mean ± SD of three independent determinations.

n.d. – non detected.
a
Results for dietary fibre shown in Table 1 are results obtained with AOAC Method 985.29.
b
Results for total dietary fibre represent sum of dietary fibre (obtained with AOAC Method 985.29) and fructans (AOAC Method 999.03).

In order to determine and compare content of dietary fibre in
different flake types, samples of commercially available corn, oat,
barley and rye flakes were analysed. Total dietary fibre content
in flakes varied in wide range from 4.7 to 20.8 g/100 g. Oat and
rye flakes were the richest sources of total dietary fibre content
(Table 1). Rye flakes also had the highest content of arabinoxylans,
fructans, cellulose, and resistant starch. b-Glucan fraction was a
major component of oat flakes (5.1 g/100 g) and barley flakes
(4.8 g/100 g). The content of b-glucan in oat and barley flakes re-
ported by Johansson et al. (2004) is similar to our results. Although
corn flakes are most popular and most frequently consumed break-
fast cereals, they had the lowest fibre content with resistant starch
and fructans as predominant fractions.
Beside cereals and cereal products, legumes are also tradition-
ally important part of everyday diet in Serbia. Legumes are well
known for their high protein content and in spite of the limited
protein quality they are commonly used as protein-rich foods of
plant origin. Less known is a fact that legumes can be valuable
sources of fibre. Legumes are consumed after thermal processing,
and in Serbian cuisine they are usually cooked with other vegeta-
bles. Four types of legumes – kidney beans, lentils, peas and string
beans, have been chosen as the most frequently used legumes in
Serbian diet and were cooked and analysed for total dietary fibre
and fibre fraction content (Table 2). The results showed that there
was no significant difference in total fibre content among kidney
beans, peas and string beans (19.6–24.48 g/100 g), while lentils
had significantly lower total fibre content (9.01 g/100 g). Cellulose
was the major fibre component in all examined legumes compris-
ing 30–43% of total fibre. Resistant starch was also an important
part of legumies’ fibre: in peas and kidney beans this fraction com-
prised 30.3% and 24.2% of total fibre, respectively. During cooking
of vegetables retrogradation process evolves and resistant starch
is formed, therefore boiled vegetables have usually significantly
more resistant starch than raw vegetables (Sajilata et al., 2006).
Arabinoxylans and fructans were not present in legumes in appre-
ciable amounts. The best arabinoxylan sources among legumes
were kidney beans (2.21 g/100 g), while lentils were the best
sources of fructans (1.49 g/100 g). In all analysed types of legumes
no b-glucan was detected. Costa de Almeida, Monici Queiros, Reis,
and Costa de Oliveira (2006) have found that crude fibre content in
four different freeze-dried and cooked legumes was 5.69–8.98 g/
100 g, while Li, Andrews, and Pehrsson (2002) in their paper
reported total dietary fibre content of different canned legumes
to be 4.5–10.6 g/100 as eaten Although comparison of data ob-
tained in our study with the results of other authors is difficult be-
cause of the different way of expressing the results, the content of
total fibre in our study is comparable with the results of Li et al.
(2002).
It is well known that dietary fibre has many different physiolog-
ical effect and health benefits. These effects are mainly attributed
to the fibre components such as b-glucans, fructans, arabinoxylans,
resistant starch and cellulose. The most important role of b-glucan
is in the immune system activation (Reid et al., 2004). b-Glucan
and arabinoxylan act as prebiotics (Fernando et al., 2010; Hughes,
Shewry, Gibson, McCleary, & Rastall, 2008; Vardakou et al., 2008),
but also on postprandial blood glucose level in normoglycemic
subjects (Behall et al., 2006; Lu, Walker, Muir, Mascara, & O’Dea,
2000), while resistant starch increase insulin sensibility in over-
weight and obese men (Maki et al., 2012). Fructan and resistant
starch increase perception of satiety (Cani et al., 2006; Sajilata

Table 2
Total and fractional fibre content in analysed cooked legumes (g/100 g of dry matter).

Samples Fructans Arabinoxy-lans Cellulose b-Glucan Resistant starch Dietary fibrea Total dietary fibre b
Moisture
Kidney beans 1.39 ± 0.15 2.21 ± 0.31 5.98 ± 0.53 n.d. 4.75 ± 0.27 18.21 ± 1.57 19.60 ± 1.72 70.26 ± 2.31
Lentils 1.49 ± 0.29 1.03 ± 0.09 5.37 ± 1.27 n.d. 2.05 ± 0.23 12.52 ± 2.03 14.01 ± 2.32 73.54 ± 1.68
Peas 1.15 ± 0.09 1.07 ± 0.15 8.05 ± 0.51 n.d. 6.30 ± 0.08 19.59 ± 2.31 20.74 ± 2.40 69.07 ± 2.65
String beans 0.78 ± 0.08 0.97 ± 0.22 10.63 ± 0.89 n.d. 1.91 ± 0.08 23.71 ± 3.44 24.49 ± 5.52 88.03 ± 0.82

Data are expressed as mean ± SD of three independent determinations.

n.d. – non detected.
a
Results for dietary fibre shown in Table 1 are results obtained with AOAC Method 985.29.
b
Results for total dietary fibre represent sum of dietary fibre (obtained with AOAC Method 985.29) and fructans (AOAC Method 999.03).
1628 M.S. Dodevska et al. / Food Chemistry 141 (2013) 1624–1629
Table 3
The best dietary sources of dietary fibre among analysed cereals, cereal products, and legumes.a
Fibre fractions
Fructans Arabinoxylans Cellulose
Cooked wheat (1.60 g) Cooked wheat (3.20 g) Cooked peas (4.98 g)
Cooked wholemeal rice Rye flakes (2.01 g) Cooked kidney beans
(1.14 g) (3.56 g)
Cooked kidney beans Cooked kidney beans Cooked lentils (2.84 g)
(0.83 g) (1.32 g)
Cooked lentils (0.79 g) Barley flakes (0.93 g) Cooked string beans
(2.55 g)
Cooked peas (0.71 g) Cooked sweet corn Cooked wheat (1.38 g)
(0.85 g)
Cooked sweet corn (0.69 g)
a
Data for fibre content are in parenthesis and are expressed as g in one portion of original food item (portion = 200 g for cooked cereals and legumes, 30 g for flakes and
breads (Source: Dunne, 2002)).
b
Total dietary fibre represent sum of dietary fibre and fructans.
et al., 2006), fructan increase calcium absorption (Van den Heuvel
et al., 1999). Cellulose on the other hand has a protective role on
colon by increasing the number of apoptotic epithelial cells in
the large intestine (Mastutik et al., 2004). It also makes the stool
bulky, which helps with elimination of possible carcinogens and
shorten bowel transit time (Nakaji et al., 2004) and this effect also
shows resistent starch (Sajilata et al., 2006).
The final effect of plant food fibre depends on its qualitative and
quantitative properties. For obtaining certain therapeutic effect or
for using fibre and fibre-rich food within medical nutrition therapy,
it is important to know the fibre potential of individual foods in or-
der to make knowledgeable choices and combinations. In Table 3
foods analysed in this investigation are listed according to their
qualitative and quantitative fibre properties. Only the best dietary
sources among all analysed samples are listed in Table 3 according
to their fibre content expressed per average portion of original food
item.
Data presented in Table 3 shows that the best food items
(among analysed ones) for increasing total fibre, cellulose and
resistant starch intake are cooked peas and kidney beans. With
one average portion of cooked peas or kidney beans one half of
the recommended daily amount of dietary fibre for adult healthy
persons could be achieved. In the aim of increasing arabinoxylan
dietary intake cooked wheat or rye flakes should be used. Content
of fructans and b-glucans was the lowest among the analysed fibre
fractions, not exceeding 1.6 and 1.4 g/per portion, respectively.
Cooked wheat and cooked wholemeal rice were the best dietary
sources of fructans, while oat and barley flakes were the best
sources of b-glucans. Low levels of b-glucans in most of analysed
foods indicate possible difficulties in archiving recommended 3 g
daily intake (FDA, 1997). It is interesting that none of the four ana-
lysed bread types has found its place in this list of the best fibre
sources, as well as polished rice and corn flakes. This kind of infor-
mation could be used in health-oriented dietary interventions,
where different food could be combined depending on the aimed
effect. Several dietary interventions based on defined qualitative
and quantitative fibre characteristics have already been conducted.
Lu, Walker, Muir, Mascara, and O’Dea (2000) used arabinoxylan-
enriched bread in normoglycemic subjects. The level of postpran-
dial glucose concentration was significantly reduced after consum-
mation of both 6 and 12 g of arabinoxylans from bread. One other
investigation was conducted by Schroeder, Gallaher, Arndt, and
Marquart (2009). They showed how breakfast intake of highly fi-
brous whole grain barley could significantly decrease hunger in
healthy volunteers. This effect was achieved with 18 g of dietary fi-
bre from whole grain barley flakes, while whole wheat flakes with
7 g of dietary fibre and rice flakes with 1 g of dietary fibre did not
Total dietary fibreb
b-Glucan Resistant starch
Oat flakes (1.39 g) Cooked peas (3.90 g) Cooked peas (12.83 g)
Barley flakes Cooked kidney beans Cooked kidney beans
(1.30 g) (2.83 g) (11.66 g)
Rye flakes (0.51 g) Cooked sweet corn Cooked wheat (8.63 g)
(1.96 g)
Cooked wheat Cooked millet (1.53 g) Cooked lentils (7.41 g)
(0.34 g)
Rye flakes (1.10 g) Cooked string beans
(5.86 g)
demonstrate the same effect. Isaksson et al. (2012) confirmed the
influence of whole grain rye products consumed for breakfast on
satiety. Food items that have been repeatedly listed as the best
sources of selected fibre fractions in this study were cooked peas,
cooked kidney beans, cooked wheat, and oat flakes, and these foods
and their combinations could be recommended in medical nutri-
tional therapy needing higher fibre intake. Since these foods are
commonly used and easily available for Serbian consumers, their
more frequent consumption could be an easy and simple way of
achieving fibre health potential.
4. Conclusions
Optimal choices of cereals, cereal products, and legumes, can
beneficially influence daily intake of fibre and certain fibre frac-
tions. Further fibre profiling of common and region-specific foods
is necessary in order to obtain comprehensive database that could
be used in dietary planning.
Acknowledgment
This study was financed by grant from the Serbian Ministry of
Education and Science and Technology Development (III46001).
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