Instructor's Annotated Edition CHAPTER 56 Oral Presentations At some point during your education or your work, you will probably be called on to speak to a group. Oral presentation can be anxiety producing, even for those who are experienced at it. This chapter shows you how you can apply your experiences as a writer to public speaking, and it offers some techniques that are uniquely appropriate for effective oral presentations, Writing and speechmaking have much in common: both require eful consideration of your subject, purpose, and audience. Thus the mental and physical activities that go into the writing process can also help you prepare and deliver a successful oral presentation. Despite many similarities, however, writing for readers is not the same as speaking to listeners. Whereas a reader can go back and reread a written messaze, a listener cannot stop a speech to rehear a section. Several studies have reported that immediately after hear- ing a short talk, most isteners cannot recall half of what was said. Effective speakers adapt to their audience's listening ability by reinforcing their ideas through repetition and restatement. They use simple words, short sentences, personal pronouns, contrac- tions, and colloquial expressions. In formal writing, these strategies ‘might seem redundant and too informal; but in speaking, they im- prove listeners’ comprehension. (6B) considering purpose and audience ‘The most important step in developing an oral presentation is to identify your purpose: what do you want your audience to know or do as a result of your speech? Topic and purpose are not the same thing, Asking What am I talking about? is not the same as ask- 12 Why amu I speaking? a ass mycomplab Please visit MyCompLab at wwewsnscomplacom for mote on thewriting process, HIGHLIGHTS ‘Many educators, businesses, and inslcutions ‘consider the ality 0 articulate Kleas thought fully and effeetvely within a group ot in larger public seuings to be the most significant and ‘most underemahasized of educational goals, While writing dasses often include an informal speech comporent, planned oral presentations can help student develop their eritical reading, ‘weting, and spaaking sis as part of a cohesive process. Chapter 56 suggests ways to integrate a speechmaking component into the writing cur ‘iculum. In particular, it identifies ways in which the handbook’s emphasis on critical thinking can bbe expanded tohelp students prepare and deliver oral presentations, including identifying the topic, purpose, nd audience for the speech; onza- hiring and presenting the material in a way that clfectively foregrounds the motivational or infor: ational qualities of the speech; and becoming aware of various strategies for vocal and physical delivery and of ways to cope with presentation anxiety. The chpter also includes a "Checklist for ‘an oral presentition’ (p. 856) that students can use in preparirg for their spesches and in cri tiguing each olher’s presentations. Finally, this edition of the handbook includes a new discus: sion of how to ase PowerPoint effectively in oral CON etaa aa GLOBAL WARMING PRESENTATION | Have your sudents do a Web search to gather ‘the mest current information on the topic of global warming and write up a brief statement of ‘purpose for a presentation they could make on this topic. (Note: This is the first of a series of COMPANION WEB SITE ‘ce page IAE-6? for companion Web site content description.856 ral presentations RLUOM Lome ee? activites suggested for this chapter. You can do them either individually ora a linsed series. You can stick with the topic of global varming or use ‘another topic of your own choosing. IF you focus fon global warming, you may wat to direct sti ‘ents to the case study om evaluating a Web site ‘on pages 604-08) Corer enn (CHECKLIST INTERVIEWS Have students break into peles and work through the checklist for al presentation. Each partner can take tums asking the checklist ques: tons about the other partner's oral presentation. The “intervewer’ can take notes about what the "interviewee" saya and then give fexdback. EOmere enone MODEL SPEECHES Watching oF listening © speechmakers is a szood way to get some experienc: in how they work. Invite students to gather with classmates futside ofelass to tune into speeches on C-Span for network telesision. They ean hold informal dlscussions about the speeches “hey hear and then share their findings with te rest of the lass Instructor's Annotated Edition MeRSRRSNOREDRNNNN SAE Checklist for an oral presentation = Purpose: What do you want your audience te know or do asa result cf your presentation? How can you achieve your purpose in the time and setting you've been given? (See the previous page and below) = Audience: What do you know about the chanicteristcs and opinions ff your audience? How can this information help you adapt your presentation to your audience's interests, needs, and opinions? (See below) "= Organization and content: How are your Heas arranged? Where ‘might listeners have difficulty following you? What functions do your Introduction and conclusion perform? How relevant and interesting Js your supporting material for your topic ard your audience? (See copposte) "= Method of delivery: What method of delivey do you plan: extem- pporaneous? reading from a text? memorized” a mixture? How does Your method suit the purpose, setting, and occasion of your presen- tation? (See pp. 855-57.) * Vocal and physical delivery: In rehearsing your presentation, what do you perceive as your strengths and weaknesses Is your voice suit- ably loud for the setting? Are you speaking clearly? Are you able to ‘move your eyes around the room s0 that you'll be making eye con- tact duting the presentation? ls your posture saight but not stiff? Do \your gestures reinforce your ideas? Do you use visual aids appropri- ately? (See pp. 861-62.) Confidence and credibility: What techniques wil you use to ove ‘come the inevitable anxiety about speaking! How will you project your confidence and competence? (See pp. 852-63.) In school and work settings, oral presentations may include anything from a five-minute report before a few peers to an hour: long address before a hundred people. Waatever the situation, you're likely to be speaking for the same reasons that you write in School or at work: to explain something to listeners or to persuade listeners to accept your opinion or take an action, See pages 14-15 for more on these purposes. Adapting to your audience is a critical sk in public speaking as well as in writing. You'll want to consider the questions about audience on page 11. But a listening audience requires additional considerations as wel: cause they want to hear vou and your ideas may be easier to in- terest and motivate then listeners who cre required to attend, = How large is your audience? With a small group you can be in formal. If you are speaking to a hundred or more people, youInstructor's Annotated Edition may need a public address system, a lectern, special lighting, and audiovisual equipment. = Where will you speak? Your approach should match the set- ting—more casual for a small classroom, more formal for an auditorium. = How long are you scheduled to speak? Whatever the time limit, stick (0 It. Audiences lose patience with someone who speaks longer than expected, When speaking, alike when writing, you can see and hear your audience's responses during your presentation. If you sense that an audience is bored, try to spice up your presentation. If an audience is restless, consult your watch to make sure you have not gone over your time. If you sense resistance, try to make midspeech adjust- nts to respond to that resistance, An effective oral presentation, like an effective essay, has @ rec ognizable shape, The advice in Chapter 2 for organizing and outlin- ing an essay serves the speechmaker as well as the writer (see pp. 32-43). Here are adcitional considerations for the introduction, conclusion, and supporting material Hl The introduction First impressions count. A strong beginning establishes an im- portant relationship among three elements in an oral presentation: you, your topic, and your audience. More specifically, the beginning of an oral presentation should try to accomplish three goals = Gain the audience's attention and interest. Begin with a ques- tion, an unusual example or statistic, ora short, relevant story ® Put yourself in the speech. If you demonstrate your expertise, experience, or concern, your audience will be more interested in what you say and more trusting of you. = Introduce and preview your topic and purpose. By the time your introduction is over, listeners should know what your topic is and the direction in which you wish to take them as you de- velop your ideas. In addition to these guidelines for beginning a speech, there are some important pitfalls to avoid: * Don't try to cram too much into your introduction. Focus on engaging the audence and quickly previewing your talk, Organization 857 Wire GLOBAL WARMING PRESENTATION It To help students get practice in pitching a presentation tea specific audience, ask thers ‘work in groups 10 outline @ presentation on tlobal warming for three different audiences: an clementan-schnol science class; campaign fon ralser for a pditical candidate: and an associa- tion of automebile executives. They should aim to keep their central argument the same for each ‘version but decide how they will tailor the pre- sentation appropriately for euch audi. Comet GOOD FIRST IMPRESSIONS ON A BORING. Toric In small eruups, have students outline an in troduction to « presentation on driving etiquette for the eampts student body. They eam by storm different ways of making this potentially boring topic imteresting to listeners. Pecan GLOBAL WARMING PRESENTATION Ill ‘Choose one or more of the outlines created by [groups of students in the “Global Warming II” exercise and post it to your class Web site. Then sek students t surf the Web looking for apt quo {ations, images, or stories to suppor the presen tation, They cen post their findings for the rest of the clas to reiew.858 Oral presentatiens Comer nn GLOBAL WARMING PRESENTATION IV Have students do a dry run of their global ‘warming presentation with a partner or their small group. Rehearsing isan effecive way to re duce anxiety about public speaking and to learn tozadapt wo a live audience Instructor's Annotated Edition = Don't begin with an apology. A statement such as / wish Fd been given more time to get ready for this presentation will only undermine your listeners’ confidence in you. = Don't begin with My speech is about. ..."The statement is dull and it does little to clarify purpose. [2] supporting material Just as you do when writing, you can and should use facts, sta tistics, examples, and expert opinions to support spoken arguments (see pp. 184-85). In addition, as a speaker you can draw on other kinds of supporting material: ® Use vivid description, Paint a mental image of a scene, a con- cept, an event, or a person, ® Use well-chosen quotations. They can add an emotional or hu- ‘morous moment to your speech. © Use true or fictional stories. A memorable narrative can rivet the audience's attention and illustrate your point. ® Use analogies. Comparisons between essentially unlike things, such asa politician and a tightrope walker, link concepts mem- orably. (For more on analogy, see pp. 97-28.) Use a variety of supporting material in your speech. A presenta- tion that is nothing but statistics can bore en audience. Nonstop storytelling may (BY The conclusion Last impressions count as much as first impressions. You may hope that listeners will remember every detail of your speech, but they are more likely to leave with a general impression and a few ideas about you and your message, You want your conclusion to be clear, of course, but you also want it {0 be memorable. Remind listeners of how your topic and main idea connect to their needs and interests, (SGA) Delivering the presentation Writing and speaking differ most obviously in the form of deliv- ery: the writer is represented in print; the speaker is represented in person. This section describes the methods and techniques of oral presentation as well as some ways of coping with stage fright. [Bll Methods of delivery An oral presentation may be delivered impromptu, extempora- neously, from a text, or from memory. No one technique is best forInstructor's Annotated Edition all speeches; indeed, asingle speech may include two or more forms or even all four—perhaps a memorized introduction, an extempora- neous body in whick quotations are read from a text, and im- promptu responses to audience questions during or after the speech. = Speaking impromptu Impromptu means “without preparation’: an impromptu. pres- entation is one you deliver off-the-culf, with no planning or prac- tice. You may be called on in a class to express your opinion or to summarize something you've written. You may speak up at a neigh- borhood meeting. An audience member may ask you a question at the end of an oral presentation. The only way to prepare for such in- cidents is to be well prepared in general—to be caught up on course reading, for instance, or to know the facts in a debate. "= Speaking extemporaneously Extemporancous speaking—that done with some preparation, but without reading from a text—is the most common form of pres entation, typical of class lectures and business briefings. With ex- temporaneous speaking, you have time to prepare and practice in advance. Then, instead of following a script of every word, you speak from notes that guide you through the presentation. = Speaking from a rext Delivering a presentation from a text involves writing the text ‘out in advance and tKen reading aloud from it. With a text in front you're unlikely to lose your way. However, a reading speaker ‘can be dull for an audience. Try to avoid this form of delivery for an entire presentation. If-you do use a text, write it so that it sounds spoken (less for~ mal) rather than written (more formal): for instance, the sentence Although costs rose, profits remained steady would sound fine in ‘writing but stiff and awkward in speech because in conversation we rarely use such a structure, In addition, rehearse thoroughly so that you can read with expression and can look up frequently to make eye contact with listeners (see the next page). = Speaking from memory A memorized presentation has a distinct advantage: complete freedom from notes er a text, That means you can look at your au- dience every minute and can move away [rom a lectem and even into the audience. However, you may be like most speakers in seem- ing less relaxed, not more relaxed, when presenting from memory ‘your mind is too busy retrieving the next words to attend to the re~ ‘sponses of the audience. Further, you risk forgetting your place or a whole passage. Delivery 859860 ral presentations ACCENT, GRAMMAR, AND CREDI my Students who speak English with an accent mas fea that they will ot be perceived as ered bleby some members oftheir audience. Reassure them that as long a an accent dosnt interfere with the audience’ abilityto understand them, it is nota lability fora public seater. However anyone who makes frequent lapses in grammar, ‘whether they be native English speakers or not, ‘may well be perceived as less credible by mem. bers of their audience, So remind! your students tobe rigorous in applying their knowledge of cor rect grammar to their oral presentations. E Poeranais GLOBAL WARMING PRESENTATION V Have starlets prepare a PowerPoint presenta- tion to go sith thelr speech on glcbal warming “They might want o pu their supporting material (images, statistics, quotations) or PowerPoint “They might even choose to display an outline of their main arguments onscreen, Instructor's Annotated Edition For these reasons, many experts discourage memorization, At least reserve the method for the introducticn, perhaps, or some other part with which you want to make a strong impression. Re- hearse not only to memorize the words but, beyond that, to deliver the words fresh, as if for the first time, [2 Vocal detivery ‘The sound of your voice will influence how your listeners receive you. When rehearsing, consider volume, speed, and articulation, = Speak loudly. In a meeting with five other people, you ean speak in a normal volume. As your audience grows in size, so should your volume. Most speakers can project to as many as a hundred people, but a larger audience may require a micro- phone. = Speak slowly enough to be understandable. = Speak clearly and correctly. To avoid mumbling or slurring words, practice articulating. Sometimes it helps to open your mouth little wider than usual. [Bl Physical detvery You are more than your spoken words when you make an oral presentation. Your face and body also play 2 role in bow your speech is received. = Make eye contact with listeners. Move your gaze around the entire room, seile on someone, and extsbls ret eye con: fect then spove on te means ele + Stand up, always stand fora presentation, ness it takes place java Scall rou where stunting verld be imprints: You can sce more audience members when you stand, and they in ttm can hear your voice and see your gestes more lea # Stand etralght and move arouse. Tura jour body tmwatd one tide ofthe room and then the other, step out Ror behind say Teeter or desk, and gesture appropriately. as you Would incon eit Visual aids You can supplement an oral presentation with visual aids such as posters, models, slides, videos, or presentation software such as PowerPoint. Visual aids can emphasize key peints, organize related concepts, and illustrate complex procedures. They can gain the at tention of listeners and improve their understanding and memory, The following guidelines can help you create effective and ap- propriate visual aids:Instructor's Annotated Edition = Use visual aids to underscore your points. Short lists of key ideas, illustrations such as graphs or photographs, or objects such as models can make your presentation more interesting and memorable, Eut use visual aids judiciously: a constant flow of illustrations or objects will bury your message. = Match visual aids and setting. An audience of five people may bbe able to see a protograph and share a chart; an audience of a hundred will need projected images. = Coordinate visua aids with your message. Time each visual aid to reinforce a point you're making. Tell listeners what they’re looking at—what they should be getting from the Give them enough viewing time so they don't mind turning their attention back to you. = Show visual aids only while they're needed. To regain your au- dience’s attention, remove or turn off any aid as soon as you have finished with it. Many speakers use PowerPoint or other software to project vi sual aids, (See the sample slides on the next page.) Sereens of points supported by data, images, or video can help listeners follow your main points. To use PowerPoint or other software effectively, follow the guidelines above and also the Following: = Don't put your whole presentation on sereen. Select key points, and distil them to as few words as possible. Think of the slides as quick, easy-to-remember summaries. = Use a simple design. Avoid turning your presentation into a show about the software's many capabilities. = Use a consistent design. For optimal flow through the presen- tation, each slide should be formatted similarly ‘= Add only relevant illustrations. Avoid loading the presentation with mere decoration. [Bl Practice Practicing an oral presentation is the speechmaker’s equivalent of editing and proofreading a written text. You wor't gain much by practicing silently in your head; instead, you need to rehearse out Jou, with the notes fou will be using. For your initial rehearsals, you can gauge your performance by making an audio- or videotape of yourself or by practicing in front of a mirror. A recording will let you hear mumbling, too-rapid delivery, grammatical errors, mis- pronounced words, and unclear concepts. A mirror or video will re- veal your stance, your gestures, and your eve contact. Any of these praciice techniques will tell you if your presentation is running too Tong or too short. Delivery 861 ‘Students can ty out different feature options (such as backgrounds, colors, and fonts) in drafts ‘of their presestation. Peet groups can provide ‘quick assessments ofthe elfectiveness of Var Feature choices to help each writer know what visions to make,862 ral presentations RESOURCES AND IDEAS Beason, Lany, "Ethos and Error: How Business People React 10 Errors” Caflege Composition and Communication 53 (September 2001): 33-64, Beason's study suggests that business leaders see ervors in business communication as.a sign of carelessness and faulty thinking ‘nd would be reluctant to hire applicants who Commit sch erars. Felske, Claudia Klein. “Beyond the Page: Stu- dents a6 Actor-Readers.” Enlist Jounal 95 (September 2005) 58-63. The author explains a method she uses to help stndents under ‘stand Shakespeare and develop their ora exvage kil George, Don, “Peer Support in Spocch Prepara ion.” Speech Communication Teacher 73 (1993): 45. A brief piece deserising exercises for cultivating a team approseh to. public speaking tring debating club state Hallmark, James R. and Amie Madson. ‘Your Compater to Bvaluae Speeches, puterAssisted Comments for Research Pa pers and Speeches." Both in Speech Commu hicarion Teacher 9.3 (Spring 1995), 4 These two short pieces on CNES (computer ized narrative evaluations) idewiy the uses and limitations of programs that supply ‘generic evaluations that can be tailored 0 in slsidal student presentations. Henry Jim, Writing Workplace Caltures: An ‘chacology of Professional Wri. Carbondale: Southern Ilinois University Press, 2000. Henry deseribes a fascinating audy of work: place cultures and of how such cultures shape discourse cas, Stephen E. The Ar of Public Speaking. 9th fed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2007, This is 3 Standard. speech communication textbook that can be used to integrate a speechmaking ‘component onto the writing cassroom. See also Lucas’ videotaped collecion, Speeches for Analysis and Discussion (Now York: Ran: dom, 1989) Menzel, Kent E., and Lov J, Carell, “The Rela- tionship Between Preparation and Perfor mance in Public Speaking." Coremunication Fclucatios 43 (1994). 17-26. Fyplores the ef- fects of factor ike anew levd, preparation time, and scholastic ably on the quality of ‘oral presentations. The authors shows, forex: Instructor's Annotated Edition Fist slide, introducing the project and presentation Simple, consstent side design focusing {9h information, not Ponurtoin Features Late lide, esing bit faced into be explained by the Speaker Photographs rein the project's aeties If you plan to use visual a referably in the room where you'll make the presentation and certainly with the help of anyone who \ ‘goal is to climinate hitches (upside-down slid too, PowerPoint slides Making a Difference? A Service-Learning Project ing ‘at ReadingWorks eontine Morty Sing terns since spl } Prete ave Semestergoals Teton mit veterans ‘Rosearch att tery ids, you'll need to practice with them, ‘Hoop ural *Calabrate on dacuments far eadngerks ‘Roper experiences and fines I be assisting you. Your missing charts) and to weave the visuals seamlessly into your presentation, (BY Stage fright Many people report that speaking in front of an audience is their pber-one fear. Even many experienced and polished speakers have some anxiety about delivering an oral presentation, but they use this nervous energy to their advantage, letting it propel them into working hard on each presentation, and rehearsing until they're satisfied with their delivery. They know tkat the symptoms ofInstructor’s Annotated Edition anxiety are usually imperceptible to listeners, who cannot see or hear a racing heart, upset stomach, cold hands, and worried thoughts, Several techniques can help you reduce your level of anxiety «= Use simple relaxction exercises. Deep breathing or tensing and. relaxing your stomach muscles can ease some of the physical symptoms of speech anxiety = Think positively. Instead of worrying about the mistakes you might make, concentrate on how well you've prepared and practiced your prsentation and how significant your ideas are. = Don't avoid opportunities to speak in public. Practice and experience build speaking skills and offer the best insurance for Delivery 863 ample, that time spent on preparing vital aids adds to an effective delivery, parly because o° the motivational atl” ansety~ reducing eet. Rowan, Katherine E. “A New Pedagogy for Ex: planatory Public Speaking: Why Arrangement Should Net Substitute for Invention.” Co Imusicatior Education 44.3 (1995): 236-50. Rowan maces the case against current speech ‘communiestion textbooks that focus om the ‘organization of definitions, examples, and sual aids without recognizing the process of critical thinking throuzh which students de- velop the content of the speech in relation 10 effective modes of presentation Shachtman, Thomas, The Inarticulate Society Eloquence snd Culture in America. New York roe Press 1995, Shachtman ses an histor cal oversew of the changing value pat on elo- ‘quence in American society to argue that there isa rarked decline in public articulate~ ness, a decline that is rapidly undermining the democratic system, Sullivan, Gwendolyn F. “Improving Delivery Skills: The Practice Imprempt.” Speech Communication Teacher 11.2 (1997). 5-6 This shor piece deseribes group activities and preparatory exercises (such as inviting a quest speaker) that help stuclents lear to de liver impromptu speeches. Whitworth, Randolph H., and Claudia Cochran. Faluatien of Integrated Versus Unitary ‘Treatment for Reducing Public Speaking Anxiety.” Conmunicaiion Education 43 (1996): 305-21. A highly technical case study fof the rektive merits of using or combining skills training, visualization therapy, and “communication orientation motivation ther apy” in overcoming presentation anxiety. The results shote the importance of combining sis raining with other ansity-relocing ap proaches.