Chemistry Syllabus For Year Three (1

Chemistry syllabus for senior three ordinary level
Chapter 1: CONCEPT OF A MOLE
0. An introduction
To conduct well a reaction, the chemist has to know exactly how many atoms, molecules or ions
he/she is dealing with. However, these entities are too small to be handled easily; that is, the
number is immensely big and thus, direct counting is almost impossible. Therefore, it is
necessary to group them into lots or packets in order to simplify the task, each packet containing
a very big number of units. The packet of a chemist is called a mole.
A. DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
a. The relative atomic mass and relative molecular mass.
The size of an atom, molecule or ion is infinitely small. Even using ordinary microscope, it is
impossible to see them. To carry out any measurement of these entities, one is supposed to use a
scale. It is this scaling that enables us to measure the dimensions of an atom, molecule or ion in
grams. In fact, a gram is very large compared to an atom. Like this, one says that he/she is on
macroscopic scale, while the size of an atom is on microscopic scale. From the macroscopic
scale, we can go to the microscopic scale.
a.1. Relative atomic mass
The concept of atomic mass was launched after the German HEINSEBERG had proposed the
term ‘’nucleon’’ to mean the sum of the masses of the nucleus particles (protons and neutrons)
of the atom. The atomic mass of an atom is practically equivalent to the sum of the mass of its
protons and neutrons, but this mass (called absolute atomic mass) is very small and thus its
interpretation is very difficult.
For example, an atom of hydrogen has the mass of 1.67×10-24g; that is, 0.000000000……It
means, one needs a million of millions of millions of millions of hydrogen atoms in order to have
one gram of hydrogen.
Other examples of absolute masses: N has 23.3×10-24g, C has 19.9×10-24g…
The absolute atomic masses are too small and thus not easy to handle. Chemists use the scale of
the relative atomic mass which is better adapted to mathematical calculation. It is called
‘relative’ because it is measured using a standard-Carbon.
By convention, the relative atomic mass Ar or RAM of an atom is the ratio between the absolute
mass of that atom and the 12th (1/12) of the mass of 12C which is equal to 1.66×10-24g
equivalent to the mass of hydrogen atom; that is,

() =
= .
.×

Prepared by Christopher NSENGIYUMVA, a teacher at Kayumbu Secondary School

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Examples
The RAM of H is 1.67×10-24g/1.66×10-24g=1.

The RAM OF C is 19.9×10-24g/1.66×10-24g=12.
The RAM of S is 53.2×10-24g/1.66×10-24g=32.
The RAM of N is 23.3×10-24g/1.66×10-24g=14.
a.2. Relative molecular mass
The relative molecular mass (Mr or RMM) of a substance is the sum of the relative atomic
masses of the atoms that make it up.
Examples: For water (H2O), the Mr=1×2+16×1=18.
For NaCl, the Mr=23+35.5=58.5.
The sum of the absolute atomic masses of all atoms composing the molecule results in what we
call the absolute molecular mass of this molecule.
Note that both relative atomic mass and relative molecular mass have no units.
b) Average atomic mass
∑
The average atomic mass is calculated as = . Consequently, the average molecular

mass of a molecule is now the sum of the average atomic masses of all atoms that make it up.
In the above formula, Ar is the medium (average) relative atomic mass, mi is the isotopic mass
of the isotope i and Xi is the abundance (in %) of the isotope i.
EXERCISES
1. Three isotopes of argon occur in nature with masses Ar-36, Ar-38 and Ar-40
respectively. If the relative atomic masses and abundances of each of these isotopes are
as follows: Ar-36(35.968u and 0.337%); Ar-38(37.963u and 0.063%) and Ar-40(39.962u
and 99.600%), calculate the average atomic mass of argon to three decimal places.
Answer 39.947
2. If naturally occurring boron is 80.20% of boron-11(atomic mass=11.009u) and 19.08%
of some other isotopic form(s) of boron. What must be the atomic mass of account for the
10.811u average atomic mass of boron? Answer: 10.01.
3. The two naturally occurring isotopes of chlorine: Cl-35 and Cl-37 have relative atomic
masses of 34.969u and 36.966u respectively. What must be the approximate abundances
of each in nature if the average atomic mass of chlorine is 35.453?

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4. It has been found by mass spectrometric analysis that the relative abundance of the
various isotopic forms of silicon in nature are: 92, 21% of Si-28; 4.70% of Si-29 and
3.09% of Si-30.The isotopic masses of these three species are 27.977; 28.976 and 29.974
respectively. Calculate the average atomic mass of silicon.
5. Naturally occurring carbon contains two isotopes: C-12 and C-13, the isotopic masses of
which are 12.00000 and 13.0034 respectively. What are the relative abundances of the two
isotopes in a sample of carbon whose atomic mass 12.01112?
6. Calculate the molecular mass of: H2SO4, Ca3 (PO4)2, CH3COOH, Al2O3 and CuSO4.5H2O
c) Avogadro constant, Avogadro number and definition of a mole
In our everyday life, we are familiar with different kinds of packets, such as, in commerce, a
dozen of books, a case of Fanta with 24 bottles, a chalk box…each one comprising the same
number of entities (bottles, notebooks…).
This is the way of simplifying the marketing. In fact, it would not be easy to sell or buy one
entity at a time and even, the mathematics of its price would be very difficult.
In the same way, chemists prefer to weigh ‘packets’ of particles in order to handle appreciable
quantities at once. For example, instead of weighing an atom alone, a chemist chooses to weigh a
whole package of atoms. This package always contains an identical number of atoms. For all
particles, this number is constant and was assumed to be 6.023.1023 atoms, molecules, ions…
This number is called Avogadro constant or Avogadro number in homage to the Italian
Avogadro who was the first to propose it.
The Avogadro constant is noted NA=6.023.1023 entities/mole.
A MOLE is now a packet of matter containing 6.023.1023 particles (atoms, molecules, ions…).
1˚Definition
By definition, a mole of a substance is the quantity of material containing 6.023.1023ultimate

entities. The particles that can constitute a mole may be electrons, protons, neutrons, atoms,
monatomic ions, polyatomic ions, molecules...
The mole is the unit adapted to atomic calculations and it corresponds to the atomic mass or
molecular mass. Remember that the atom of carbon was taken as a reference in order to be able
to measure the mass of a given atom; that is to say:
A mole of carbon-12 contains 6.023x1023 atoms of C-12 and has a mass of 12 g.

Consequently,
A mole of carbon-13 contains 6.023x1023 atoms of C-13 and has a mass of 13 g.
A mole of 1H contains 6.023x1023 atoms of 1H and has a mass of 1 g.
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A mole of 35Cl contains 6.023.1023 atoms of Cl and has a mass of 35 g.

A mole of 16O contains 6.023.1023 atoms of O and has a mass of 16 g.
Furthermore, if 6.023×1023 atoms of C-12 weigh 12 g, One (1) atom of C-12 will weigh
12/6.023×1023≈2.0×10-23 g. This mass is the mass of one atom of C-12 and it is called the
atomic mass unit (a.m.u) because C-12 is always taken as a reference.
Therefore, the Avogadro constant can be calculated as NA=12 g /2.0×10-23 g = 6.023x1023.

Therefore, the new definition of a mole comes out to be: ‘the mole, symbolized as mol, is the
quantity of matter contained in 12 g of C-12 atom’.
Terminology:
An atom-gram: It is the mass (expressed in grams) which contains 6.023.1023 atoms.

Consequently,
A molecule-gram is the mass which contains 6.023.1023 molecules and
An ion-gram is the mass of the ion which contains 6.023x1023 ions.
2˚ Molar mass and calculation of number of moles
The molar mass (mass of a mole) is the mass in grams of one mole of a chemical substance
and it is expressed in grams/mole or gr.mole-1. For single atoms, this mass corresponds exactly to
the RAM written on the periodic table. For molecules, the molar mass is just the sum of the
individual molar masses of all atoms that make it up.
E.g.: The molar mass of water is 18 g/mole
The molar mass of H2CO3 is 62 g/mole

In order to determine the number of moles n the following formula is used: =

Where n is number of moles expressed in moles, m is the mass in grams and Mm is the molar
mass (mass of 1 mole) in grams/mole.
3˚Normal molar volume of a gas
Many researches made by chemists have shown that a mole of either gas picked in normal
conditions of temperature and pressure (CNTP) occupies a volume of 22.4 liters and in the
standards conditions of temperature and pressure (STP) this volume is 24 liters.
The normal molar volume of a gas, in the CNTP, is exactly the volume of one (1) mole of this
gas and it is equal to 22.4 L/mole. The following formula gives us the relationship that exists
()
between the number of moles of any gas and its volume: = ./

Page 4
EXERCICES
1. How many moles are there in: a) 800 gr of NaOH? b) 220 gr of CO2?
c) 49gr of H2SO4? d) 1kgr of sugar?
2. Calculate the number of atoms contained in
a) 2gr of H2O b) 15gr of H2 c) 2gr of CO2
3. Calculate the number of atoms contained in: a) 12gr of Zn b) 6.755 moles of Pb
c) 0.250 moles of Si
4. How many moles of atoms are equivalent to each of the following:
a) 6.023×1023 atoms of Ne
b) 2.225× 1023 atoms of Ba
5. Calculate the mass corresponding to the quantity of:
a) 17 moles of NaCl
b) 300moles of C3H8 c) 2.10-2 Moles of NaClO
B. STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS (STOICHIOMETRY)
According to Lavoisier, any balanced reaction contains as many chemicals in the reactants as in
the products. We say that this kind of reaction is carried out in stoichiometric conditions.
1) Molar and mass reading of a reaction
Given the reaction: A + B → C
This reaction is said to be balanced if and only if the number of atoms present in the reactants is
equal to the number of atoms in the products.
e.g.: Suppose we have a reaction between Sulphur and iron (II): Fe + S → FeS
How much of sulfur do you need to react with 100grs of pure iron to transform it into iron (II)
sulphide? How much of FeS do you get?
Answer: The equation of the reaction is: Fe + S → FeS

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The first thing to do is to balance the reaction in order to make it respect the law of
conservation of matter.
Reading: The stoichiometry of this reaction shows us that 1 mole of iron reacts with 1 mole of
sulfur to produce 1 mole of iron sulphide. In other words, 55.85g of iron react with 32.06g of S
to produce 87.91 g of FeS.
This is recorded in the following table:
Fe S FeS
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
55.85g 32.06g 87.91 g
100 g=1.79 moles of Fe 57.40 g=1.79 moles of S 157.40=1.79 moles of FeS
The calculation done above shows us that 100 g of Fe must be reacted with 57.40 g of S to
produce 157.40 g of FeS.
2) Concept of LIMITING REAGENT/REACTANT
The limiting reagent is the one which is in smaller stoichiometric amount compared to the
other(s); that is, it is available in fewer amounts compared to the amount required by the
stoichiometry of the reaction and consequently, it will be the first to be exhausted and thus stop
the reaction. Note that it is the limiting reactant which is taken as reference during any
stoichiometric calculation.
Example: Suppose that 25 L of oxygen are used to burn 15 L of methane according to the
reaction: CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
i. What is the limiting reactant in this reaction?

ii. Calculate
iii. The mass in grams of CO2 produced
iv. The mass in grams of H2O produced
v. The mass in grams of CH4 reacted
vi. The mass in grams of O2 reacted
vii. The mass in grams of CH4 non-reacted
viii. The mass in grams of O2 non-reacted
ix. The number of moles of CO2 produced
x. The number of moles of H2O produced
xi. The number of moles of CH4 reacted
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xii. The number of moles of O2 reacted

xiii. The number of molecules of CO2 produced
xiv. The number of molecules of H2O produced
xv. The number of molecules of CH4 reacted
xvi. The number of molecules of O2 reacted
Answer: Data: 25 L of O2 are mixed with 15 L of methane.
The balanced equation is: CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
The stoichiometry of the reaction shows us that 1 mole of CH4 reacts with 2 moles of O2 to
produce 1 mole of CO2 and 2 moles of H2O. This is equivalent to saying that 16 g of CH4 react
with 64 g of O2 to produce 44 g of CO2 and 18 g of H2O.
Converting moles into liters, we have that 22.4 L of CH4 react with 44.8 L of O2 to produce 22.4
L of H2O and 44.8 L of H2O.
From the equation above, 22.4 L of CH4 require 44.8 L of O2. In the same way, 15 L of CH4 will
require 15L×44.8L/22.4L=30 L of O2. Yet, only 25 L of oxygen were put in the reaction
medium. This means simply that oxygen is in fewer amounts than required by the stoichiometry
of the reaction; it will then be exhausted the first and thus stop or limit the reaction. Therefore,
O2 is the LIMITING REACTANT of the reaction, that’s it!
All other calculations for any other species will be done by taking O2 as a reference. The
calculation of the mass, number of moles and molecules is shown in the following table:
CH4 O2 CO2 H2O

1 mole 2 moles 1 mole 2 moles
15 L but only 12.5 L 25 L reacted 1 × 25L/2=12.5L 18 × 1.116 =
reacted produced 20.089gproduced
8.888 g reacted 35.555g reacted 24.444g produced 20.089g produced
0.555 mol reacted 1.111mol reacted 0.55mol 1.111mol produced
Produced
23 23
3.346×10 molecules 6.691×10 molecules 3.346×1023molecules 6.691×1023molecules
0.111 mol non- 0 mol non-reacted
reacted
1.785 g non-reacted 0 g non-reacted

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3) Determination of the centesimal mass composition
The knowledge about the centesimal (percentage) mass composition of each element constituting
a chemical substance and the molecular mass from the atomic masses, help us in the
determination of the molecular formula.
The centesimal mass composition is the value of the percentage in mass of each element in a
given substance.
For instance, methane is represented by the formula CH4. Methane is made up of C and H atoms.
Furthermore, 16g of CH4 hold 12g of C. Consequently,
())*
100g of methane contain 12g × (+*
= 75g of C: 100% of CH4 contain 75% of C.
This is then:
CH4 C H
16 g 12 g 4g
100 g 75 g 25 g
100% 75% 25%
Exercise: Determine the centesimal composition of each element in aluminum sulphate:
(Al2 (SO4)3)
Answer:
Al2(SO4)3 Al S O
342 g 2× 27 - 3× 32 - 12× 16 -
342 g 54 g 96 g 192 g
100g 15.78 g 28.07 g 56.14 g
4) Determination of empirical, molecular and structural formulae
The chemical formulae are the short-form representations of substances by means of symbols.
a) The empirical formula
This is the simplest formula of a compound. It does give the relative number of atoms of each
element present in one molecule of the compound. For example, C2H5 is the empirical formula
for butane C4H10.

Page 8
The empirical formula is calculated by taking the ratio of the number of moles of individual
elements composing the compound to the smallest value of the number of moles. Hence, having
the centesimal mass composition of the compound (considered as the masses of individual
elements), it is possible to calculate the empirical formula of the compound under study.
b) The molecular formula
This gives the exact number of atoms present in the compound as a whole. For example, C4H10 is
the molecular formula for butane. Note that the molecular mass or formula mass of the
compound should be known in order to find the molecular formula.
Example:
The elementary analysis of a compound indicates that it is constituted by 85.7% of carbon and
14.3% of hydrogen.
1) Determine the empirical formula.

2) If the molecular mass is 42, determine the molecular formula.
Answer C% H%
% : 85.7% 14.3%
/0.1 (3.4
Number of moles: =7.14 moles = 14.3 moles
(2 (
1.(3 (3.4
Indices (number of atoms): 1.(3
=1 1.(3
=2
The empirical formula is C1H2 or CH2

The molecular formula is MF = (EF) n and weighs the Mm. That is to say:
(MmCH2) × n =Mm of the whole compound.
(12+1×2) × n =42
14n =42
32
n= =3. Hence, the molecular formula is (CH2) ×3 = C3H6.
(3

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Exercises
1) Determine the molecular formula of an organic substance containing only carbon and
hydrogen in the following proportions: 75% of carbon and 25% of hydrogen knowing that
Mm=16.
2) A hydrocarbon contains 20% of hydrogen and 80% of carbon. Its molar mass is 30gr per
mole. Determine its empirical formula.
3) An organic substance contains 52.17% of carbon, 13 % of hydrogen and the rest consists of
oxygen.
Determine the empirical formula of the substance
4) Given that the relative molecular mass of the substance is 92, determine the molecular
formula.
5) A compound contains 40% of carbon, 6.6% of hydrogen and the rest is oxygen. If the
molecular mass of the compound is 180, calculate:
a) The empirical formula b) The molecular formula
6) A hydrocarbon contains 82.8% of carbon and the rest is hydrogen
a) Determine the empirical formula

b) If the relative molecular mass is 58, determine the molecular formula
Being given the molecular formula of glucose as C6H12O6,
a) Determine its empirical formula
b) Determine the centesimal composition in C, H and O for glucose

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Chapter 2: SOLUTIONS AND CONCENTRATIONS
II.1. SOLUTIONS
II.1.1. Definition
A solution is a homogenous (uniform) mixture, consisting of substances (molecules or ions)

taken in small quantity called solutes (dissolved substances) which are uniformly spread among
the molecules taken in great quantity called solvents (dissolving substances). In the case of
miscible fluids, the solvent is the one that is used in larger quantity.
A solute is a substance which is dissolved in another substance known as solvent. The solvent
can be solid (in molten form), liquid, or gaseous. Water is a good solvent for many substances;
this is why it is called water is a universal solvent. A solution with water as a solvent is called
homogeneous solution. Other solvents include among other things:
i. Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) iii. Chloroform (CHCl3)

ii. Acetic acid (CH3COOH) iv. Benzene (C6H6)
Examples of solutions:
Salty water or aqueous solution of NaCl

Sugary water or solution of a sugar
Solution of KMnO4
Carbonated water: here the solute is a gas (carbon dioxide) and this is dissolved in a
liquid solvent (water)
Many metals are soluble in one another forming solid solutions known as alloys. For
instance, the coin is an alloy which is made up of copper and silver.
Terminology
1. Phenomenon of dissolution
This is a process by which crystalline bodies are dissolved (destroyed) by the solvent molecules.
In fact, when the solid solute comes in contact with a solvent, the molecules of the latter
establish links with the particles of the solute as a way of destroying the links between solid
particles. One now says that there is solvatation of the particles of the solute by the solvent.
Factors influencing dissolution
The nature of the solute. For instance, glucose is more easily dissolved than paraffin).
The temperature (thermal effect). For instance, sugar is more easily dissolved in hot
water than in cold water. This means, the dissolution increases with increasing
temperature.

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NB: 3 kinds of dissolutions do exist: exothermic, endothermic, and athermic dissolution.
2. Dissociation of a solute in a solvent
That is the collapse of the crystalline edifices of the solute followed by their dispersion in the
solvent. We talk about dissociation when the solute molecules have been split into ions of
opposite charges. The dissociation is influenced by the nature of the solute, the ionizing power
of the solvent and the temperature.
3. Hydration of ions and their spread in solution
This is the fact for the ions of the solute to be rounded by the molecules of the solvent (here
water), and this makes the ions of the solute to change their disposition in solution which will
depend on their respective charges.
Any solution should be homogenous. A watery ionic solution is conductive of electricity. It

simultaneously contains cations and anions coming from the dissociation of the solute and
assuring the transport of electrons during the passage of electricity.
NB: 1) Any placement of a solute in solution causes three phenomena:
The dissociation of Cristal ions leading to the outbreak of the crystalline edifice
Hydratation of ions
The spread out of the hydrated ions into the solution
2) A solution is different from colloids, suspensions and emulsions by the fact that the
particles of the solute are of molecular size and are evenly dispersed in the molecules of the
solvent. Also, solutions appear homogeneous under the microscope and the solute cannot be
separated by filtration.

Page 12
I.2. SOLUBILITY
Definition
Solubility (s) of solute in solvent, at a given temperature, is the quantity or mass of the solute
that can dissolve in a given volume of solvent to obtain one liter of saturated solution. It can also
be defined as the maximum quantity of solute that can be dissolved in one liter of solution at a
given temperature.
Common expression of solubility
The solubility is generally expressed in:
Grams of solute per liter of solution. That is, S=m/V (1).

Moles of solute per liter of solution. That is, S=n/V (2).
Key: S is the solubility; m is the mass of solute; n is the number of moles of the solute and V is
the volume of the saturated solution in liters or dm3.
Solubility is often defined as the maximum amount of the solute that can be dissolved in 100
grams of the solvent at a given temperature.
Examples
The solubility of NaCl in water at 50˚C is 39g.

The solubility of potassium sulphate in water at 50˚C is 15g.
The solubility of potassium nitrate in water at 50˚ is 15g.
Factors affecting solubility
1) Shaking: Shaking increases the speed of dissolution.
2) Temperature: In general, the solubility increases with temperature.
3) The quantity of solvent: A big amount of solvent facilitates the dissolution while that of
solute slows it down.
4) The nature of the substance (solvent and solute): The solubility varies from one substance to
another; a solute can easily dissolve in one solvent and difficultly in another (see solubility rule
in year 2).

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SOLUBILITY RULE
All sodium, potassium and ammonium compounds are soluble.

All nitrates, chlorates and acetates are soluble.
All chlorides are soluble except mercury, silver, and lead
All sulfates are soluble except those of lead, barium and calcium.
All normal carbonates, phosphates and silicates are insoluble except those of
sodium, potassium and ammonium.
All oxides and hydroxides are insoluble except those of sodium, potassium and
ammonium.
5) The size of particles of the solute. All in all, a fine powder of a solid dissolves more easily
than a big crystal of the same solid.
Saturated and unsaturated solutions
A saturated solution is a solution that contains the maximum quantity of solute such that no
more solute can be dissolved at a given temperature. The excess of added solute precipitates.
An unsaturated solution is the one which is still able to dissolve more solute at a given
temperature.
An oversaturated solution is the one that contains, at a given temperature, more solute than it
should hold at this temperature.
EXERCISES
1. Given an aqueous solution of glucose, what is the solute, what is the solvent?
2. Take 100mL of a saturated solution of NaCl; evaporate the solvent and weigh 36 gr of the
residue that remains. Calculate the solubility of NaCl (the residue) in grams per liter and moles
per liter.
3. Calculate the solubility of CuSO4 (in moles/liter) if 100mL of a saturated solution of copper
(II) sulphate contains 20.7 gr of CuSO4 (aq).
4. At 25˚C, the solubility of aspirin C9H8O4 in water is 1gr per 300mL. This means that it can
dissolve a maximum of 1gr of aspirin in 300mL of solution. What is the solubility of aspirin?

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I.3. NOTION OF CONCENTRATION
Definition
The concentration of a solution is the quantity of the solute in a given precise amount (often the
volume) of solution.
Expressions of the concentration of a solution
There are different ways of expressing the concentration of a solution. The concentration can be
expressed in g/L, mol/L, equivalents/L, mol/kg and even in percentage of the solute in the whole
(solution).
1˚ Mass concentration or mass title (Tm): in g/L
This is the quantity in grams of the solute per one (1) liter of solution.

Formula: Tm = where Tm is the mass concentration in g/L; m is the mass of solute in grams

and V is the volume of solution as a whole in liters.
Note that many ionic compounds exist in hydrated form; this means that they contain a certain
number of water molecules. Such is the case of CuSO4.5H2O… In this case, we have not to
forget to consider the number of water molecules in the calculation of the molar masses.
Example:
200L of a solution of table salt were prepared by dissolving 5g of NaCl in water. Calculate the
mass concentration of the obtained solution.
0*5
Answer: Tm = =25gr/L.
).2))6
2˚ Morality or molar concentration (M): in mol/L
The molar concentration M is defined as the number of moles of solute per one (1) solution. So,
it is measured in mol/L and its expression comes out to be:
( )
C or M= ()
with n=

Then, = where M is the morality of the solution; n is the number of moles of the
×()
solute; m is the mass of the solute and Mm is the molar mass of the solute.
Example: 1) A 50 mL saccharine (C12H22O11) solution contains 50gr of saccharine. Calculate

the molar concentration of this solution.

Page 15
Answer:
Data: 50mL; m=5.0gr.
7(8(2922:(() = (8(2922:(()
Formula: [C12H22O11] = =
;(<) >=(8(2922:(().;(<)
0.)
= = 0.29 mole/L
432 × ).)0
2) In the laboratory, you have two flasks of cobalt chloride and sodium chloride at 0.1mol/L,
each. What does this mention mean?
Answer: When one liter of solution is prepared to dissolve n moles of any compound, we refer
to this as a solution of n moles per liter. Thus, 1L of CoCl2 solution at 0.1mol/L has been
prepared in gauged conic flask of one liter by dissolving 0.1 mole of CoCl2 in water.
3) What is the composition of the above solution?
Answer: The CoCl2 is an ionic crystal. During its dissolution, it is totally dissociated into its ions
as follows:
?@AB5
CoCl2(s) CDDE Co2+ + 2 Cl-
These are the ions that we have in the above solution.
Relation between molar concentration and mass concentration

Tm = and M = yet, n = ⇒ m=n × Mm
()
×
Tm = = Then, Tm= M × Mm because M =

3˚The mass percentage: %m
The mass percentage is 100 times the ratio of the mass of the solute by the mass of the solution.
Here 100 is the multiplicative factor of the ratio.
G HIJ
Formula: %m =100 × G HI
. Both masses are expressed in the same units
The mass percentage expresses the mass in grams of the solute per 100gr of solution.
E.g.: 50 gr of phosphoric acid solution contains 1.5 gr of phosphoric acid. Calculate the
percentage by mass of this solution.

Page 16
(.0 *
Percentage by mass = 0) * × 100 = 30 %. This result means that 100 g of the solution contains 30
g of phosphoric acid.
4˚The volume percentage: %V
This is 100 times the ratio of the solute volume by the volume of solution; that is %V= 100×
volume of solute/volume of solvent.
E.g.: Given 250 mL of an alcohol solution containing 50 mL of alcohol; what is the volume
percentage of alcohol in this solution?
0) =6
Percentage by volume =%V= 20) =6 × 100 = 20 %
This means that 100 mL of this solution contains 20 mL of alcohol.
EXERCISES
1) What is the morality of a BaCl2 solution with 15.8 g of BaCl2 in 200 mL of solution?
2) Calculate the morality of a solution obtained by dissolving 2g of NaOH in 500mL of solution.
3) What is the mass of silver nitrate (AgNO3) required for the preparation of a 1M solution in
500mL flask?
4) Calculate the mass concentration of each of solutions:
a) 12g of CuSO4 in 50 mL of solution

b) 10 g of glucose in 100 mL of solution
c) 0.3 mole of ZnCl2 in 0.5 dm3 of solution
5) What is the morality of a solution containing 16 g of methanol (CH3OH) in 200mL of

solution?
Concept of crystallization and precipitation
a) Crystallization
Crystallization is one of the ancient techniques used in the evaporation of sea water.
Crystallization is the process by which any dissolved substance is isolated from its solution by
means of evaporation followed by drying. Two approaches are used:
Decreasing the solubility of the solution since the solubility decreases with decreasing
temperature.

Page 17
Increasing the concentration of the solute in a solution such as sea water after evaporation
of the solvent. This is because if the concentration of the solute increases, the solution
will become saturated and thus the dissolved substance crystallizes.
Aims of crystallization
To isolate the solute from its solution in order to retrieve it in solid form. E.g.:
Evaporation of sea water in order to isolate salt.
Isolation of the solute.
To give a good crystalline form to the solid
b) Precipitation
This is the formation of an insoluble product called precipitate. This is formed when two
solutions are mixed in a reaction called precipitation reaction. One of the differences between
the crystallization and the precipitation is that during the crystallization, the solute crystallizes
slowly.
Determination of the crystallization number
For most of salts, the crystallization number is determined through laboratory experiment by
heating the specific mass of the hydrated compound till the moment there is no more vapor
release. By this time, one weighs the mass of the anhydrous compound and then records it. With
this in mind, we can determine the mass of water lost using the following formula:
mH2O=mhydrated - munhydrous . Finally, the number of moles of water is calculated as follows:

KLIJ
nH2O=
KLIJ
Example: given the reaction of the crystallization of 2.466g OP x times hydrated magnesium
sulphate (MgSO4.Xh2O) to produce 1.260- of anhydrous magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) as
follows:
MgSO4.xH2O → MgSO4 + x H2O
Calculate the crystallization number of this reaction of crystallization.

=?@AB5 (.2+*
Answer: The number of moles of water is nH2O= = = 7×10-2mole.
>=?@AB5 (/*/=Q<
On the other hand, the number of magnesium sulphate is
= (,2)0*
nMgSO4=>= = (2)*
=10-2mol.

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Thus, we have: 10-2x=7 × 10-2.

So, x=7×10-2/10-2=7.
Therefore, we get the formula of the hydrated magnesium sulphate written as MgSO4.7H2O. It is
obvious that the content of water in this compound is 51.12%
I.4. PREPARATION OF SOLUTIONS
In this perspective, 2 methods are useful: Dissolution and dilution methods.
1. Dissolution method of preparation of a solution
This involves dissolving a given amount of the solute in a precise volume of solution.
Procedure
The substances to be weighed must have the following qualities:

• A defined chemical composition
• They must be chemically pure
• They must remain stable in solid or dissolved form
• They must have the highest possible gram-equivalent to obtain a greater precision
or morality of the solution
The steps of preparing a solution by dissolution of a solid are:
• Calculating the required quantity of a substance (mass of substance which is
necessary to prepare the solution).
• Weighing this mass on analytical balance.
• Transferring this mass in a flask (of 100 mL or 500mL or 1000mL depending on
the amount of the solution to be prepared).
• Adding a very little amount of distilled water and shake until the solute is
dissolved.
• Fill the flask using distilled water up to the rough mark.
Like this, the solution is already prepared.
Example: Prepare a solution of CuSO4.5H2O of a decimolar concentration in 100 mL of

solution.
Answer: Calculation of the necessary mass of salt to prepare
The Mm of CuSO4.5H2O = 241.6 g/mol
V (l) =100 mL =100 × 10-3L
Morality =0.1 M

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The mass to dissolve is m = n × Mm
n=C×V
m = C × V × Mm = 0.1 × 100×10-3×249.6 = 2, 50 g of CUSO4.5H2O
Hence, to prepare 100mL of solution of CuSO4.5H2O you need 2, 50 g of copper (II) sulfate5
times hydrated to dissolve in 100 mL. The outline for this preparation is given below:
• Weigh 2.50 g of CuSO4.5H2O.

• Transfer these 2.50 g in a 100mL flask.
• Add very little distilled water and shake until the solute is completely dissolved.
• Pouring water in the flask up to the rough mark.
• The solution is already prepared; please, it is required to label it.
2. Dilution method of preparation of a solution
Dilution allows us get a less concentrated solution.
How do we dilute a solution?
We dilute a solution of known concentration by adding more solvent to get a less concentrated
solution. It means that from the initial solution (also called mother solution), you can prepare a
derivative solution (also known as daughter solution). The principle is that the quantity of
solute remains unchanged.
The dilution law is: Ci × Vi = Cf × Vf Where Ci is the morality of initial solution; Vi is the
volume (in liters) of the initial solution; Cf is the morality of the final solution and Vf is the
volume (in liters) of the final solution

S
The dilution factor is the ratio: n = =

S
For such a solution, it is better to measure the volume rather than weighing the mass of
substance. So, you need to determine the volume of the mother solution to sample before
knowing the quantity of water to add.
Example: prepare 50 mL of a solution of KMnO4 of concentration 0.02 mol/L (daughter

solution) from a solution of KMnO4 of concentration of 0.01mol/L (mother solution).
Answer: the dilution law is written: Mi× TU = VP × TP.
Therefore, initial volume Vi to measure is given by:
;W.>W ).)2 ×).)0)

Vi = = = 10.10 -3=10 mL
>X ).()

Page 20
You need to dilute 10 mL of the mother solution in 40L of distilled water to obtain 50 mL of the
solution of KMnO4 0.02 mol/L.
The volume added is always equal to the difference between the initial and the final volume; that
is: Vadded=Vf-Vi.
NB: The dilution factor is the ratio of the initial concentration to the final one.
EXERCISES
1) Give the necessary instructions to prepare 500mL of 3M of NaOH solution from 5.25 M of
NaOH solution.
2) What is the mass of silver nitrate (AgNO3) required for the preparation of 1 mol/L solution in
a 500 mL flask?
3) What is the mass of potassium nitrate (KNO3) required for the preparation of 100 mL of 2M
solution?
4) Physiological salt solution: a medical student has to prepare a saline solution of potassium
chloride (KCl) with 600 mg/L. While in the laboratory; he finds a bottle containing about 70 cm3
of a mother solution of KCl with 10g/L. As he had a graduated pipette of 50 Cm3, what volume
of saline solution will he obtain?
The physiological salt serum consists of 0.16 M of NaCl; calculate the mass (in grams) of NaCl
contained in 2 dm3 of that solution.
I.5 ACID-BASE TITRATION
NOTION OF pH
1˚definition
The word pH means potential in hydrogen. It is a value which determines the degree of acidity
and/or basicity (alkalinity) of a substance or a solution.
This value is only used to bases which in water solution give hydroxide ions (OH-) and acids
which liberate hydronium ions (H3O+).These acid or basic properties in aqueous solution are
attributed to the presence of an excess of H3O+ or OH-.
In pure water, the quantity of H3O+ is the same as that of OH- ions and this is equal to 10-7. This
is: 2H2O ⇌ H3O++OH-
[H3O+] = [OH-] =10 -7. Then [H3O+] × [OH-] =10 -14

Page 21
2˚ pH scale
The values of pH range from 0 to 14. All in all:
A neutral solution has pH =7. E.g.: pure water.

Acid solutions have a pH value which is less than 7 (pH < 7).
Alkaline solutions have a pH value greater than 7 (pH > 7).
Figure1 (at left): The color range of a typical universal indicator
Figure2 (at right): natural sources of acids and bases
Universal Indicator
Chemical indicators change color in response to a solution’s pH. Most chemicals used as
indicators respond only to a narrow pH range. A universal indicator, however, is sensitive to a
large pH range because it uses several indicator chemicals. This illustration shows the color
range of a typical universal indicator with the corresponding pH scale.
3˚Measurement of pH
To measure pH of a solution we do use:
A pH-meter: This is an electronic device (instrument) used to measure directly the

precise value of pH.

Page 22
An indicator paper: This is a paper which changes in color when immersed in a given
solution to be tested. The coloration taken is specific to the tested substance.
The colored indicator: This is a substance which changes the color of a solution
depending on whether the solution is acidic or alkaline.
Note that the colored indicator does not give the pH; instead, it gives the information about the
nature of a solution (acidic or alkaline).
Examples: The BBT (blue of bromothymol): works in the range of pH=0 and pH=6.4.
It is red in acid solution. Between pH=7.5 and pH=14 the BBT is blue in basic solution
The colored indicators are used during the titration of solutions because they let know the end of
the neutralization reaction.

Page 23
Some indicators
Turning zone Coloration

Acid Base
Indicators Character
Trampoline 1,3 - 3,2 Red yellow Basic
Bleu de Thymol 1,2 – 2,8 Red yellow Basic
Methyl yellow 2,9 – 4,0 Red yellow Basic
Methyl orange 3,1 – 4,4 rose yellow Basic
Blue of Bromophenol 3,0 – 4,6 yellow Purple Acid
litmus 5,0 – 8,0 Red Blue Acid
Bromothymol blue 6,0 – 7,6 yellow Blue Acid
Red of cresol 7,2 – 8,8 yellow Red Acid
Phenolphthalein 8,0 – 10,0 colorless Rose Acid
Thymol bleu 8,6 – 9,6 yellow Blue Acid
I.6 ACID-BASE TITRATION
1˚Definition
Acid- base titration is a technique of determining the concentration of an acid by adding a

solution of a base whose concentration is known (or inversely). During the titration, the chemical
reaction taking place is a reaction of neutralization of an acid by a base or inversely, thanks to
which you determine the concentration of the acid or a base. The process used to determine the
concentration of any species in solution is commonly known as ‘dosage’. The species for which
we determine the concentration M constitute a titrated solution and has a known volume V
while the solution used is called a titrant solution and has a known concentration MO and
volume VE.

Page 24
Titration
The titration is carried out by gradually adding, drop by drop, the titrant solution contained in a
burette in the titrated solution contained in a beaker or Erlenmeyer until the total exhaust
(neutralization or end-point) of the titrated solution marked by the change in the color of the
colored indicator (often phenolphthalein)previously placed in the beaker or Erlenmeyer.
At the end-point, the number of gram-equivalents of the base is exactly equal to that of the acid,
and thus: MaVa=MbVb or MoVE=MV. Hence, M= MoVE/V.
The titration is schematized by the apparatus below:
E.g. 10 ml of HCl are titrated by 10 mL of NaOH 0.1M according to the apparatus above.
Procedure
Put 10 ml of HCl solution to be titrated in a beaker

Add 2 or 3 drops of indicator (phenolphthalein), and then gradually, drop by drop, add,
while shaking, 0.1 M of caustic soda solution contained in the pipette (or burette)
previously set, until a purple coloration appears (at the end-point or equivalence point).
Immediately close the tap as soon as the coloration appears (just after adding 10mL of
NaOH).
a) Calculate the molar concentration of HCl from this titration.
b) What is the number of moles corresponding to this concentration?
Answer

Page 25
Data: Mb=0.1mol/L; Va = 10mL; Vb=10mL.
Unknown: Ma=?
a) Solution and formula:
a) MaVa=MbVb. So, Ma= MbVb/Va=0.1mol/L.
b) The number of moles of HCl is nHCl=0.1mol L-1×10-2L= 10 moles.
NB: 1) One makes about three consistent tests and thereby deduces the average volume of
titrated solution used. This allows one to find the average volume to use since it is not the same
volume at each measurement due to possible inaccuracy errors.
2) When the stoichiometric coefficients of both species are different such as in the case of the
neutralization between NaOH and H2SO4 for example, we multiply the gram-equivalents of both
the acid and the base by their respective coefficients. This is for instance:
2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O
At the end-point, M H2SO4 × V H2SO4= 2M NaOH × V NaOH.
EXERCISES
1. 200 cm3 of NaOH 0.01 M were titrated by 400cm3 of HCl 0.01 M with phenolphthalein as an
indicator.
a) Define titration.
b) State two basic pieces (instruments) in the apparatus that would be used in this experiment.
c) What is the role of the indicator in this experiment?
d) Write the equation for this neutralization.
e) Calculate the mass of the formed salt in grams.
2. In the titration experiment, a student found that 10 cm3 of HCl 0.1 M have been neutralized by
12.5 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution. What was the concentration of NaOH solution?
3. In another experiment, another student has found that 25 cm3 of NaOH 0.025M have
neutralized P cm3 of the solution H2SO4 0.03M. Calculate P.

Page 26
4. 20cm3 of sodium hydroxide was pipette into a conic flask and titrated against 0.1M
hydrochloric acid using phenolphthalein as an indicator. The indicator changed the colour when
15.6 cm3 of the acid had been added.
a) Define titration.
b) State 3 basic pieces in the apparatus that would be used in this experiment as well as their
roles.
c) What is the role of the indicator in this experiment?
d) i) Write the equation for this neutralization.
ii) Calculate the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution.
Chapter3. ELECTROLYSIS
0. An introduction
Some compounds have got the capacity to conduct the electricity either in their dissolved or
molten form. These are referred to as electrical conductors or electrolytes. Their ability to
conduct the electricity is due to the fact that they form ions in solution. These ions are mobile,
opposite and thus conduct the electric power in one direction. If a pair of electrodes (metallic
rods) are placed in such a solution, and a source of direct current is connected between them, the
positive ions in the solution move toward the negative electrode (negative metallic rod) and the
negative ions toward the positive electrode. Once they reach the electrodes, the ions may gain
or lose electrons and be transformed into neutral atoms or molecules. The nature of the electrode
reactions depends on the potential difference or voltage applied.
1. Definition of electrolysis
The term electrolysis is made up of 2 words: electricity and lysis (decomposition or rupture or
disconnection). Combining the two words, the term electrolysis can be defined as the
decomposition by electricity.
2. Terminology
A. Electrical conductor
An electrical conductor is a substance that allows the flow of current through it. Electric
conductors have got the capacity to conduct the electricity either in their dissolved or molten
form.
For instance, the electrical conductivity of metals is ensured by the motion of electrons inside
the wires connecting the electrodes. An electrolytic conductivity results from the flow of ions

Page 27
inside the electrodes. The process of motion of electrons along the electrodes is maintained by
the reactions at electrodes. In solid state, salts do not conduct electricity. This is only possible in
molten or dissolved state.
Types of conductors
1. Metallic conductors or electronic conductors: These are conductors in which the

conduction is ensured by the movement of free electrons from a high negative potential to a
lower one without producing chemical changes. Examples include metals, alloys, graphite,
certain solid salts like CuS, CdS…
2. Electrolytic conductors: These are conductors in which the flow of current is ensured by the
movement of ions between oppositely charged electrodes. This flow is accompanied by chemical
changes at electrodes. Examples include molten salts, aqueous solutions of salts, acids and
bases as well.
3. Semi-conductors: These are substances that are normally poor conductors and can become
quite good conductors in some conditions. Metalloids are semi-conductors. E.g.: Si and Ge.
4. Insulators: These are substances that do not allow the flow of current through them. They can
also be called non-conductors or dielectrics. These include the glass, most of plastics, rubber,
wood…
B. Electrode
An electrode is a conductor that produces or receives electrons in a battery, in an electrolysis

cell.
The positive electrode where the oxidation takes places is called anode while the negative
electrode at which the reduction takes place is called the cathode.
C. Electrolyte
An electrolyte is a substance which conducts the electric current in its solution or molten state.
Examples: HCl, NaOH and NaCl are electrolytes. In fact, when in solution, these substances
release the positive and negative ions that allow the flow of electric current in one direction.
Types of electrolytes
The solutions of ionic compounds conduct the electric current. Examples include most inorganic
acids, bases and soluble salts. The solutions of compounds such as sugar do not conduct the
current. These are referred to as non-electrolytes.
1. A strong electrolyte is a substance that dissolves in water almost completely to give free ions

Page 28
which conduct the electric current, a phenomenon which is manifested by a high luminosity of
the lamp.
Examples: NaCl, CaCl2,HCl,NaOH,H2SO4 …
2. A weak electrolyte is a substance that is partially dissociated in water. That is, only a small
fraction of it is dissociated into free ions and thus the main part remains undissociated. It weakly
conducts the electric power, a phenomenon which is manifested by low luminosity.
Examples: H2O, HgCl2, NH4OH, CH3COOH….
3. A non-electrolyte is a substance whose aqueous or liquid form does not conduct electric
current due to the fact that they do not dissociate in solution to give ions. Examples: sugar,
ethanol, glycerin…These substances are formed by covalent bonds that do not break down in
solution. These substances remain in molecular state and therefore do not conduct the electric
current.
Rules of classification of electrolytes
The acids HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4 and HClO4 are strong electrolytes. Most of the
other acids are weak electrolytes. In other words, any acids different from the ones
already enumerated above are weak electrolytes.
The dissolvable hydroxides of metals belonging to group I and II are strong electrolytes.
Most of other hydroxides and particularly the aqueous solution of ammonia are weak
electrolytes.
Most of salts are strong electrolytes in aqueous solution.
The halides and cyanides of heavy metals (those with high atomic number, e.g. Hg, Pb)
are generally weak electrolytes.
3.Notion of electrolysis
Michael FARADAY (1791-1867), an English chemist and physicist was the first to notice that
the passage of electricity through solutions provokes new reactions which cannot take place if no
electricity passes.
Electrolysis is the decomposition of a substance by electric current. Practically, the

electrolysis is carried out in an apparatus named electrolyser that carries 2 types of metallic rods
(most often) called electrodes. Once formed, the ions migrate towards the electrodes. The
electricity goes in and out of the solution by electrodes in the electrolysis cell. An electrode is
any solid (often a block of metal) at the surface of which oxidation or reduction reaction has
taken place. An electrode has the function of connecting the conventional wiring of the circuit
to the conducting medium (electrolyte solution).

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Two types of electrodes do exist according to their charges: The negative electrode connected
to the negative end of a generator is called cathode; the positive electrode connected to the
positive end of the generator is called anode.
The cathode is rich in electrons (hence its negative charge) while anode is poor in electrons
(hence its positive charge). During electrolysis, there is migration of cations to the cathode
and anions to the anode. That is, when the electricity passes through an electrolyte solution, the
cations which are present in solution move to the cathode while the anions move to the anode.
All in all, there is:
Reduction at the cathode since the later collects cations: CCC = Cathode Collects
Cations. In fact, at the cathode, cations capture electrons (reduction) and become neutral
(uncharged).
Oxidation at the anode since the later collects anions: AAA = Anode Attracts Anions.
In fact, at the anode, anions lose electrons (oxidation) and become neutral as well.
In terms of electrons transfer, the oxidation is the loss (OIL) of electrons while the
reduction is the gain (RIG) of electrons.
In terms of oxygen transfer (outside of electrolysis), oxidation is defined as the combination with
oxygen while the reduction is defined as the loss of oxygen).
In terms of hydrogen transfer, the scheme is a bit the inverse of that of oxygen. You will come
across with this in organic chemistry.
Examples of reactions at electrodes
We always have to remember that Cations ⟹ cathode and Anions ⟹ anode. Electrolytes thus
are decomposed into ions which move to opposite electrodes to become neutral atoms as
illustrated by the following examples:
In the electrolysis of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) for example, the following reactions occur at
electrodes:
1) Reduction at the cathode: Al3+ + 3e → Al (s)
2) oxidation at the anode: 2O2- → O2 (g) + 4e
The formation of uncharged entities from ions is called discharging. The energy required to
cause the ions to migrate at electrodes as well as the one required to cause the electrolyte to
dissociate into component ions is provided by the external source of the electrical potential.

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A simple scheme of an electrolysis
Power supply é
Anode cathode
Electrolyte solution
N.B.: Electrodes made of Cu or Zn themselves participate in the redox reactions that happen at
their site. That is for instance, if the anode is made up of either Zn or Cu:
At the anode: Cu(s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e or Zn(s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e.
The formed ions will then be attracted by the cathode and deposited there.
4. Typical examples of electrolysis
a) Electrolysis of pure water: H2O
When connected to the electricity using a typical electrolyser, pure water is electrolyzed to
produce 2 different gases: H2 and O2 in the ratio of 2:1 respectively. However, pure water is a
very poor conductor of electricity and thus one has to add a dilute solution of sulphuric acid in
order to generate a significant current flow.
Reactions at electrodes
At the cathode, there is reduction of the protons: 2H+ + 2e → H2 (g)

At the anode, there is oxidation. Here, 2 anions compete to give up their electrons,
namely sulphate (SO42-) from sulphuric acid and hydroxide (OH-) from water. The main
oxidation at the anode is the one of OH- ions according to the reaction: 4OH- → 2H2O (l)
+ O2 (g)
b) Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate aqueous solution

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The electrolysis of CuSO4 is most of times carried out using copper electrodes (participating
electrodes). If such is the case, the reactions that happen at the electrodes are derived as follows:
As long as we have closed the circuit, the ions present in solution are Cu2+, SO42-, H+, and OH-
ions.
Reactions at the electrodes
At the cathode, there is competition between Cu2+ and H+ to be attracted by the negative
cathode. As long as the redox couple (equilibrium) H+/H2 appears higher in the
electrochemical series (activity series) than Cu2+/Cu couple, it is obvious that copper ions
are preferably reduced to copper metal which is deposited at the cathode according to the
reaction:
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e → Cu (s)
At the anode, there is competition of the anions to be attracted by the positive anode and
release their electrons there. These are OH- and SO42-. OH- are much better reducing
agents and then they are preferably oxidized to water and oxygen according to the
reaction: 4OH- → 2H2O + 4e
Remember that the anode is made up of copper. Therefore, there is dissolution of a significant
part of copper anode towards the solution and finally to the cathode. That is, Cu (s) → Cu2+ + 2e
Remark that copper is deposited at the cathode and dissolved at the anode. Consequently, the
concentration of copper in solution remains constant.
This can be used as the method of purification of copper since only pure copper is deposited at
the cathode leaving the impurities behind.
c) Electrolysis of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) solution
In the electrolysis of aluminum oxide, also called alumina, both the cathode and the anode are
made of carbon. In this process, cryolithe (Na3 AlF6) is added to reduce the melting point of
alumina.
At the cathode, aluminum is reduced: Al3+ + 3e → Al (s)

At the anode, oxide ion is oxidized and oxygen gas released: 2O2- → O2 + 4e
As the electrode is made of carbon, the latter is oxidized, releasing CO2 as follows:
C + O2 → CO2

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Therefore, anodes must be replaced regularly since they are consumed in the process. Unlike the
anode, the cathode is not oxidized because no oxygen is present. In fact, the carbon at the
cathode is protected by the liquid aluminum inside the cell.
d) Electrolysis of sodium chloride: NaCl
The sodium chloride can be electrolyzed either in its dissolved or molten form.
i. Electrolysis of NaCl aqueous solution
The ions present in solution are Na+, Cl-, H+ and OH-.
Reactions at electrodes
At the cathode, there is competition of the positive ions (Na+ and H+) to be attracted by
the negative cathode. Thanks to their greater mobility explained by their smaller size, H+
ions from water are preferably reduced to H2. As the electrolysis goes on, the solution
becomes alkaline due to the formation of NaOH by the attraction between Na+ and OH-.
In glosso modo, two reactions do happen at the cathode:
• 2H+ + 2e → H2
• Na+ (aq)+ OH-(aq) → NaOH (aq)
At the anode, the chloride and the hydroxide ions compete to release their electrons to the
anode. Preferentially, the chloride ions are oxidized to become chlorine gaseous
molecules as shown by the following reaction:
2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e
Note that the electrolysis of an aqueous solution of NaCl can be used to prepare NaOH, H2 and
Cl2.
The global equation of this manufacture is given below.
2NaCl (s) + 2H2O (l) ⟶ 2NaOH (aq) + Cl2 (g) + H2 (g)
ii. Electrolysis of molten NaCl
At the cathode : 2Na+ + 2e → 2Na (s)

At the anode: 2Cl- → Cl2 (g) + 2e
Exercise: Show that the electrolysis of aqueous dilute sulphuric acid is similar to that of water.
Use well balanced equations that show the reactions that occur at both electrodes. Draw a labeled
diagram that illustrates this electrolysis. Using a chemical test, how can you insure that the
awaited products are formed at both electrodes?

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APPLICATION OF ELECTROLYSIS
Electrolysis has many areas of application and many uses among other things:
1) Electrometallurgy: the process by which metals are extracted from their ores (minerals)
whose final step is often electrolysis. The later intends to separate a metal from impurities that
are mixed with it. For example, sodium hydroxide, in its molten form, is separated by
electrolysis, into sodium and oxygen, both of which have important chemical uses
Let’s take at least one example of metallurgy (extraction) of iron.
Extraction of iron
The extraction of iron consists of a number of stages/steps whose target is the isolation of iron
from any of its ores such as hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), siderite (FeCO3), pyrites (FeS2)
and limonite (FeO (OH)).
Hematite and magnetite are most often used for the extraction of the pure iron.
Procedure
The ore is first mixed with coke and limestone and roasted in air in a blast furnace. The
typical furnace is lined with fire brick and it is about 30m high and 6m wide. Hot air is
passed from the base into the furnace through the air pipes. Oxygen in the hot air burns
the coke (carbon), producing carbon dioxide and heat according to the following reaction:
C(s) + O2 (g) ⟶ CO2 (g) + heat
The carbon dioxide rises in limited supply of air to meet more coke from the top of the
furnace. The coke reduces the carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide according to the
following reaction:
CO2 (g) + C(s) → 2CO (g)
The iron (III) oxide (hematite) is reduced by carbon monoxide at about 1000 ˚C and the
molten iron metal produced is collected in the reservoir below the furnace. There, it cools
down and hardens into iron bars.
Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO (g) ⇄ 2Fe (l) + 3 CO2 (g)
This iron is not yet pure. Pure iron can be obtained if one proceeds with electrolysis of hematite.
The limestone is necessary in this process to remove silica present in the ore. At a
temperature above 800 ˚C limestone is decomposed into calcium oxide (lime) and carbon
dioxide.

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Calcium oxide fuses with silica to form calcium silicate which forms a molten layer of
slag on the surface of a layer of molten iron. The reaction illustrating this is the
following:
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3 (l)
Figure: Blast furnace
2) Preparation of simple substances
Metal extraction and purification (e.g.: Cu, Al, Fe…)

Metal protection (galvanostegy). For example, aluminum is protected against corrosion
by covering it with a thin compact layer of aluminum oxide. Electrolysis is also used to
protect other metals that are sensible to corrosion. By electrolysis, a thin layer of a
relatively inert metal such as nickel, chromium, tin, silver, or god is deposited on a
highly reactive metal surface by the techniques called nickel plating, chromium plating,
tin plating, silvering and gilding respectively. By electrolysis, a thin metallic layer is
deposited on a metallic object acting as a cathode, improving its hardness, solidity or
appearance.
Anodization: This is an electrolytic process by which the surface of a metal is made
resistant to corrosion. For example, ships are prevented from being corroded by oxygen
in water by this process. The same process is also used to decorate the metal surfaces.
Production of oxygen used by nuclear submarines and aeronauts.
Electroplating: a process of covering a metallic object with a layer of another metal for
protection purposes. It can also be used for decorative purposes in vehicles, in coin
manufacture… Galvanization is a particular sort of electroplating. This consists of

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covering a piece of metal with a hot zinc layer, by immersion in welding zinc puddle.
Note that it is not an electrolysis process.
Production of H2 for fuels that use a cheap source of electrical energy.
Production of Cl2, NaOH…
Chapter 4: CARBON CHEMISTRY
4.0. An introduction
Carbon is a chemical element found in group Iva. Its symbol is C with atomic number 6, atomic
mass 12 and 4 electrons. Carbon is a very important element in nature since it is found in many
organic compounds where it is combined with other elements.
4.1. Allotropes of carbon
By definition, allotropes of an element are different forms under which this element can exist.
The property of an element to exist under different forms is known as allotropy. The difference
in these forms resides in their structures and/or arrangement of atoms that make them up.
Example: Phosphorus exists under 3 main varieties among other things White P, red P and
black P.
Sulfur can exist as α sulfur, β sulfur and plastic sulfur.
Carbon has got 2 main allotropic forms: crystalline carbon amorphous carbon.
a) Crystalline carbon
This includes diamond and graphite.
Diamond
Diamond is a structure that consists of a regular sequence of tetrahedrons. Diamond is the

hardest material known nowadays. Diamond erases all other materials but never let any of them
erase it. It is this hardness of diamond that makes it be used as an abrasive (used to cut glasses
and perforating trepans). Diamond does not conduct electricity because it lacks freely moving
electrons. Diamond shines brightly (a phenomenon known as fire of diamond); that is, it
decomposes the rays of the light which penetrates it and sends it out. Because of this, the
diamond is considered as a precious stone by excellence since it is pure and uncolored.

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Uses of diamond
Diamond is used in industry to cut hard materials thanks to its hardness.

Diamond is used in jewellery thanks to its brightness.
Graphite
The structure of graphite is such that each carbon atom is linked to 3 others by covalent bonds in
such a way to form a hexagonal geometry. This means that there will be, on each carbon atom,
one free electron. This is why graphite was found to be a good conductor of electricity. It is soft
and greasy on touch. This allows it to be used in the manufacture of pencil leads, as a lubricant
and as an electrode due to its electric conductivity.
Figure: Structures of diamond and graphite
Amorphous carbon
The amorphous carbon is a non-crystalline, irregular and glassy variety which is essentially
graphite but not held in a crystalline macrostructure. It is present as a powder, and is the main
constituent of substances such as charcoal, lampblack (soot) and activated carbon.
Some forms of amorphous carbon:
1. Charcoal
Wood charcoal is produced by burning wood with insufficient supply of air.

Animal charcoal is made by heating animal refuse (unwanted waste material) and bones
with a limited supply of air. It has the property of absorbing coloring matter (for
example litmus) and has a use in industry in removing the coloring matter from brown
sugar.
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2. Soot and Lampblack
Lampblack is made by burning oils (e.g. turpentine) with a limited supply of air, and it is used
in the manufacture of printers ink and shoe-polish while Soot is made when fuels are burnt.
3. Coke
Coke is made by heating the coal in the absence of air.
Coke, gas carbon, and soot are other forms of impure amorphous carbon. Coke is used
commercially as a fuel. Also, coke is used as a source of energy in the extraction of metals from
their ores.
4. Sugar coal: This is made by burning sugar in the absence of air. It is the purest form of
amorphous carbon and it is used to absorb gases in chemical processes.
4.2. Physico-chemical properties of carbon
Solubility: carbon is insoluble in most common solvents

Reactivity of carbon and its affinity for oxygen: oxygen is unreactive towards the near
total other elements except some of them such as oxygen and a few halogens. The
reaction of carbon (or any other element) with oxygen is called combustion. All
allotropes of carbon undergo combustion at sufficiently high temperature. The complete
reaction of carbon with oxygen produces carbon dioxide according to the following
equation: C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) (with enough oxygen) while its incomplete
combustion produces carbon monoxide which is toxic: C + 1/2 O2 → CO + heat (with
not enough oxygen).
Electrical conductivity: Graphite conducts electricity and it is used in electrolysis where
it forms an inert electrode (which takes no reaction in electrolysis) while diamond does
not.
Reducing properties: Carbon is a powerful reducing agents towards metal oxides when
burnt with them.
Example: 2PbO (s) + C (s) → 2Pb (s) + CO2 (g)
Oxides of carbon do also reduce most metal oxides.
Example: Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) → 2Fe (s) + 3CO2 (g)

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4.3. SOME DERIVATIVES OF CARBON
1. Carbon dioxide: CO2
Natural source of CO2
The CO2 is formed during the respiration of animals and plants, from the decomposition of
organic residues and in the formation of coal (slow oxidation of carbon). It is found in air mixed
with other gases.
Preparation of CO2 at the laboratory
Carbon dioxide can be prepared in the laboratory by the action of an acid on carbonate.
The reaction takes place with effervescence. Because of its high density (1.6), the carbon
dioxide can be collected in an open vessel by the method of upward displacement of air
(or downward delivery).
Example: CaCO3(s) + 2 HCl → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
In the brewery (aerobic fermentation) carbon dioxide is the secondary product of sugar
fermentation in the industry.
Figure: Apparatus for the preparation of carbon dioxide

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Properties of carbon dioxide
a) Physical properties of carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a colorless and odorless gas

It is heavier (denser) than air. Its density is 1.6g/L.
It is soluble in water
b) Chemical properties of carbon dioxide
When mixed with water, CO2 forms the carbonic acid:
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2CO3 (aq)
CO2 does not activate the combustion of fuels.

CO2 is faintly acidic to litmus indicator. It colors litmus to purple (slightly pink).
CO2 reduces alkalis to form carbonates.
Example1: 2NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3 + H2O (with a little amount of the gas)
NaOH + CO2 → NaHCO3 or CO2 + Na2CO3 + H2O → 2NaHCO3 (excess gas)
Example2: CO2 + Ca (OH) 2 → CaCO3 + H2O
Burning magnesium decomposes CO2: 2Mg (s) + CO2 (g) → 2MgO (s) + C (s)
The reaction of CO2 with lime water (Ca (OH) 2) produces calcium carbonate (limestone),
a milky white precipitate. With excess CO2, the milky precipitate disappears thanks to the
formation of soluble sodium hydrogen carbonate.
2NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3 + H2O (with a little amount of CO2)
NaOH + CO2 → NaHCO3 or CO2 + Na2CO3 + H2O → 2NaHCO3 (with excess CO2)
Note that this reaction is commonly used for testing the presence of CO2.
Uses of carbon dioxide
CO2 is used:
In fire extinguishers thanks to its property of deactivating the combustion

In the manufacture and preservation of fizzy (effervescing) drinks called mineral waters
In the refrigeration

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Carbon dioxide and the Greenhouse effect
The energy from the sun is absorbed by the earth. The latter throw back (ray reflection) part of
this energy in atmosphere in form of heat energy. Part of this energy is used by the atmosphere
for normally warm the earth atmosphere. If the air is too polluted with gases such as CO2 or
methane, a large quantity of these rays will be retained by these gases thereby preventing them to
be let out in the atmosphere and thus contributing to the abnormal warming of the earth. This
results in the abnormal increase of temperature on the earth’s surface. It is this atmosphere
warming caused by the retention of heat energy by CO2 and other atmospheric gases that we call
‘’greenhouse effect ‘’.
2. Carbon monoxide: CO
Carbon monoxide is a colorless and poisonous gas with practically no smell. It is present in coal-
gas and other gaseous fuels. It is formed by the partial combustion of carbon, and poisoning, by
the exhaust fumes of a motor-car in an enclosed space. In the blood, this gas is combined with
blood hemoglobin to form carboxy hemoglobin (HbCO) that makes hemoglobin unable to fix
oxygen. i.e. CO replaces oxygen. This results in the asphyxia or even death depending on the
absorbed dose of carbon monoxide.
Preparation of CO
Carbon monoxide is prepared by:
The action of heat on the mixture of 2 acids: ehanedioic or oxalic acid (H2C2O4.2H2O)
and concentrated sulfuric acid. The equation for this reaction is: H2C2O4(s) → CO (g) +
CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Figure: Apparatus for the laboratory preparation of CO

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When the crystals of oxalic acid are heated with a solution of sulphuric acid, a kind of
effervescence occurs and a mixture of CO2 and CO is given off. The CO2 is absorbed by a
concentrated solution of KOH in a two-opening wash bottle while the CO is collected over water
(see the figure above).
The reaction of sodium methanoate and the concentrated sulfuric acid. Here, only CO is
given off. Therefore, the same apparatus as above can be used with no wash bottle. The
equation for this reaction is:
HCOONa(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → HCOOH (aq) + NaHSO4 (aq) and finally,
HCOOH (aq) → CO (g) + H2O (l)
Globally, we have: HCOONa(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → NaHSO4 (aq) + CO (g) + H2O (l)
Properties of carbon monoxide
a) Physical properties of carbon monoxide
CO is a colorless and odorless gas which is insoluble in water

Its density (1.25) is approximately equal to that of air.
Its boiling point is -195˚C and thus difficultly liquefiable
b) Chemical properties of carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide is quite a strong reducing agent.
E.g.: PbO (s) + CO (g) → Pb (s) + CO2 (g)
Carbon monoxide is a neutral oxide: It doesn’t react with either acids or alkalis under
normal conditions.
Carbon monoxide burns in air with a blue flame, forming carbon dioxide. The equation
for this reaction is: 2CO (g) + ½ O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
3. Carbonates
A carbonate is a salt generally made of a metal or ammonium and the carbonate anion. E.g.:
CaCO3, K2CO3, NH4CO3…

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Preparation of carbonates
Carbonates are obtained by:
The action of carbon dioxide on a basic oxide. E.g.: CaO + CO2 → CaCO3
The action of carbon dioxide on an alkali.
Example: 2NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3 + H2O
The action of a carbonate to another metallic salt. This method is mostly used for the
preparation of insoluble salts more particularly.
Example: CuSO4 + NaCO3 → CuCO3 + Na2SO4
Properties of carbonates
Carbonates are acted on by dilute acids to produce a salt, carbon dioxide and water
according to the following typical reaction:
CaCO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
If we have to do with a strong acid, there is effervescence which results from the emission of
carbon dioxide.
Action of heat on carbonates and hydrogen carbonates.

The alkali metals’ (group I) carbonates are heat-proof. i.e., they are
indifferent to heat or simply do not get decomposed by it.
Group II metal carbonates are decomposed by heat to form the metal oxides
∆
and carbon dioxide. E.g.: CaCO3 (s) → CaO + CO2 (g)
The hydrogen carbonates are also decomposed by heat.
∆
Example: 2NaHCO3 (s) → Na2CO3 (S) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Solubility rule for carbonates

Group I carbonates are soluble in water.
Group II metal carbonates are insoluble in water.
Group I hydrogen carbonates are insoluble in water.
Group II hydrogen carbonates are soluble in water.
Uses of some carbonates
CaCO3 is used in the process of lime (quick lime) manufacture and cement.
CaCO3 is also used in the process of liming acidic soils and lakes.
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MgCO3 is used in the manufacture of magnesia milk (MgO) and Mg. Note that MgO is
used in the treatment of the hyperacidity of the stomach.
MgCO3 is also used in the manufacture of refractory or heat resistant materials.
4.4. Concept of soft and hard water
Hard water is the one which contains dissolved Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions or just their salts.
Terminology
a) Temporary hardness: this is the hardness caused by the presence of hydrogen carbonates,
especially Ca (HCO3)2 and Mg (HCO3)2. It can be overcome by heating.
b) Permanent hardness: This is caused by calcium and magnesium salts, soluble in water,
other than carbonates. It is also known as no carbonate hardness. Most of times, the permanent
hardness is due to the presence of sulphates in water. This hardness can only be removed by
chemical precipitation of magnesium and calcium ions by suitable reagents.
Why is hard water bad?
The following reasons explain the disadvantages of hard water for human preferences:
Hard water prevents soap from lathering (producing the foam or bubbles) during washing
operations thereby causing high consumption of soap.
Hard water constitutes a nuisance in laundries as it causes water to be wasted, but also in
other industries where water is used as a solvent.
Hard water is unusable for cooking vegetables because calcium salts are deposited on
vegetables, close their pores and prevent water vapor from entering their tissues.
The carbonates and calcium sulfates form a deposit on walls of conducting pipes for hot
water, boilers, water heaters and pans and they thus form fur (the grey substance
commonly observable in the pipes for conduction of hot water).
Methods for softening hard water
Softening hard water means treating it in such a way to remove Mg2+ and Ca2+. Two general
methods are used to do this: heating and precipitation methods.
Heating method: this is normally used to remove the temporary hardness. It intends to
decompose hydrogen carbonates Ca2+ and Mg2+ into carbonates which precipitate. That
is, for instance,
∆
Ca (HCO3)2(aq) → CaCO3(s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

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Precipitation method: This is used to remove the permanent hardness of water. It

consists of precipitating the Mg2+ and Ca2+ which are normally responsible of this
hardness. That is,
∆
CaSO4 (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) → CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4 (aq)
4.5. The carbon cycle
Carbon cycle explains how carbon which available in the Earth’s ecosystem does never get lost
at all; instead, it circulates under different forms, some of which are going to be explained here.
Plants and animals breathe out carbon dioxide which is given off in atmosphere. This
constitutes the atmospheric carbon.
Plants, on the other hand, absorb CO2 via the process of photosynthesis
Animals acquire carbon in their tissues when they eat plants and meat as well. Carbon in
animals and in plants is referred to as animal and plant carbon respectively.
Plants and animals die and get decomposed to produce fossils of different kinds. This
results in the formation of fossil carbon.
A big amount of carbon dioxide is dissolved in oceans and seas where it can undergo
various reactions to produce carbon-containing compounds such as methane gas…
By combustion of different fuels, carbon dioxide is abundantly given off in atmosphere
Through the rainfall, carbon dioxide is trained by rain water in rivers, lakes… In this way
carbon keeps circulating in different forms and the cycle continues.
Figure: Carbon cycle

Atmospheric carbon
Photosynthesis
Animal respiration plant respiration

Animal carbon Plant carbon
Animal assimilation
Combustion
Animals’ death
Fossil carbon Plants death

Page 45
Chapter 5: NITROGEN CHEMISTRY
Nitrogen is an element found in group V of the Periodic Table, with 5 valence electrons but with
3 single electrons. Nitrogen is a diatomic gas (N2) which exists in free form in the atmosphere
where it constitutes approximately a fifth (1/5) of the whole volume of air (just 78.09%).
Nitrogen exists also in combined form in naturally occurring compounds such as proteins, urea,
nitrates and ammonium salts. Note that N2 can also originate from the decomposition of most
organic compounds. Nitrogen is an inert gas since it is unreactive. It does not even support the
combustion.
5.2. Properties of nitrogen
a) Physical properties of nitrogen
N2 is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas at room temperature

It is an inert gas, i.e. almost unreactive and does not support combustion
It is slightly soluble in water. Its density is 0.97
Its boiling point is -195.5 ˚C while its melting point is -210 ˚C
b) Chemical properties of nitrogen
Unreactive nature of nitrogen
In the diatomic molecule (N2), the atoms are joined by a strong triple bond N≡N. These three
covalent bonds cannot be broken easily and this is the reason why nitrogen is naturally
unreactive. The reactivity of nitrogen thus requires special conditions. Some cases are given
below:
Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen in the Haber process to produce ammonia:
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g)
The reaction conditions are: 500 ˚C, 200-1000 atmospheres with Fe as a catalyst. Aluminum
oxide or potassium oxide can also be used as a catalyst in the place of iron.
Nitrogen reacts with some reactive metals such as sodium and magnesium to form
nitrides.

Page 46
∆
Examples: Mg(s) + N2 (g) → Mg3N2(s)
∆
Na(s) + N2 (g) → Na3N2(s)
Note that any nitride reacts with water to liberate ammonia (NH3)
E.g.: Mg3N2(s) + 6H2O (l) ⟶ 2NH3 (g) + 3 Mg (OH) 2(s)
Nitrogen reacts with very few non-metals especially hydrogen and phosphorous to form
ammonia and phosphine respectively. The equations are: N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⟶ 2NH3
and N2 (g) + 2 P (g) ⟶ 2PH3
Nitrogen reacts with oxygen to produce a mixture of oxides. This is schematized by the
equation: xN2 (g) + yO2 (g) ⟶ 2NxOy (g)
These oxides are: N2O: Nitrous oxide or dinitrogen oxide
NO: Nitrogen monoxide or nitric oxide
N2O3: Nitrogen sesquioxide or dinitrogen hemi trioxide
NO2: Nitrogen dioxide
N2O5: Nitrogen pentoxide or nitrogen hemipentoxide
5.3. Preparation of nitrogen
Nitrogen can be prepared both in laboratory and in industry.
a) Laboratory preparation of nitrogen
About three techniques are used to prepare nitrogen in the laboratory.
Treatment of dry air by 2 reagents: caustic soda (NaOH) and copper (Cu). In fact,
dry air contains mainly 3 gases among other things CO2, O2 and N2. The first 2 gases are
sequentially removed and nitrogen is collected according to the apparatus below:

Page 47
Carbon dioxide is removed according to the following reaction:

2NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3 + H2O
Oxygen is removed according to the following reaction:
2Cu + O2 → 2CuO
Finally, nitrogen is collected by the method of upward delivery.
The product is not pure nitrogen; in fact, it contains few noble gases.
Action of heat on ammonium nitrite:

∆
NH4NO2 → N2 + 2 H2O
Action of heat on a mixture of ammonium chloride and sodium nitrite:
∆
NH4Cl + NaNO2 → NaCl + 2H2O + N2
b) Industrial preparation of nitrogen
On industrial scale, nitrogen is prepared by fractional distillation of liquid air. Oxygen is

obtained at the same time. Because nitrogen has a lower boiling point than oxygen, the former
distills off the first and then it is collected.
5.4. Tests of nitrogen
At ordinary temperature, nitrogen is so inert that no positive tests can be easily applied.
However, some of its properties help us to identify it.
Lighted splint test: this consists of placing a lighted splint into a gas jar containing the
suspected gas. The positive reaction is manifested by the fact that the splint is
extinguished and the gas does not burn.
Test by smell: N2 gas has no smell. This distinguishes it from gases such as sulfur
dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen chloride…
Test by using calcium hydroxide solution: after the above tests, the only gas with
which nitrogen may be confused is carbon dioxide. To distinguish it from this, one adds
the solution of calcium hydroxide and shakes. If present, nitrogen leaves the calcium
hydroxide solution unchanged; with carbon dioxide, the calcium hydroxide solution is
turned milky.
5.5. Some uses of nitrogen
Nitrogen is used as a coolant (a substance which is used to stop the machine from getting
too hot while it is operating) in electronic devices
Nitrogen is used in the preparation of ammonia
Nitrogen is an important element which enters in the formation of most fertilizers used in
crop production
In combination with oxygen, nitrogen is used in the surgery

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5.6. SOME NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
1) AMMONIA: NH3
Ammonia is a covalent compound with the molecular formula NH3. Its molecular mass is 17.
Preparation of ammonia
Laboratory preparation of ammonia
In the lab, ammonia is prepared by heating the mixture of any ammonium salt and an
alkali (a base). A typical example is:
∆
Ca (OH) 2(s) + 2NH4Cl(s) → CaCl2(s) + 2H2O (l) + 2 NH3 (g)
It can also be prepared by the action of heat on ammonium hydroxide, the equation of
∆
which is NH4OH → H2O + NH3
Figure: apparatus for the laboratory preparation of ammonia
Industrial preparation of ammonia
In industry, ammonia is prepared by the Haber process: direct interaction between hydrogen
and nitrogen, the equation of which is N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)

Page 49
Properties of ammonia
a) Physical properties
NH3 is a colorless gas with a choking smell often described as pungent smell
NH3 is lighter (less dense) than air; that’s why it is collected by downward displacement
of air (or upward delivery).
NH3 is very soluble in water and it can easily be liquefiable at high pressure
b) Chemical properties of ammonia
Ammonia has a basic/alkaline nature. It acts on the wet red litmus paper and turns it to
blue
Thanks to its alkaline nature, ammonia reacts with acids to form the corresponding
ammonium salts.
Examples: H2SO4 (aq) + 2NH3 (aq) → ( NH4)2SO4 (aq)
HCl (aq) + NH3 (aq) → NH4Cl(s)
Note that gaseous HCl reacts with gaseous ammonia to give dense white fumes of ammonium
chloride. This is a common test of identification of ammonia.
Dry ammonia gas burns in oxygen to produce water and nitrogen gas:
4NH3 + 3O2 → 4N2 + 6H2
In presence of platinum catalyst, the products are instead nitrogen monoxide and water: 4NH3 (g)
_A
+ 5 O2 (g) → 4 NO (g) + 6 H2O (g)
NH3 gas reduces the oxides of metals. The oxide has to be heated and the gas passed
over it: 3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) → 3Cu(s) + N2(g) + 3H2O(g)
Reaction of ammonia with water: NH3(g) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
The resulting solution is called ammonia solution which is a weak alkali or basic solution.
Reactions with metallic ions:
Some metal ions react with aqueous ammonia to form insoluble metal hydroxides. This reaction
is used as a test for identifying those metal ions or cations in quantitative analysis based on the
color of the formed precipitate.
Some metal hydroxides are insoluble in excess ammonia solution

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E.g.: Pb2+ (aq) + NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) → Pb(OH)2(s) + 2 NH4+(aq)
White ppt
Fe3+ (aq) + 3NH3 (aq) + 3H2O (l) → Fe(OH)3(s) + NH4+(aq)
Brown ppt
Other metal hydroxides are soluble in excess ammonia solution which results
in the formation of a complex ion.
E.g.: Zn2+ (aq) + 2 NH3 (aq) + 2 H2O (l) → Zn (OH) 2 (s) + 2 NH4+ (aq)
White ppt
In excess NH3, we have: Zn (OH) 2 (s) + 4 NH3 (aq) → Zn (NH3)42+ (aq) + 2 OH- (aq)
Tetra ammine zinc ion
E.g.: Cu2+ (aq) + 2 NH3 (aq) + 2 H2O (l) → Cu(OH)2(s) + 2NH4+(aq)
Blue ppt
In excess ammonia: Cu (OH) 2(s) + 4 NH3 (aq) → Cu (NH3)42+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq)
Tetra ammine copper (II) ion (deep blue)
NH3 gas reduces chlorine as follows: 2NH3 + 3Cl2 → N2 + 6HCl
Test for the presence of ammonia
The test for ammonia is based on:
Its smell: NH3 has a characteristic choking smell. In large quantities, NH3 causes
asphyxiation and it should therefore always be handled with care.
Its reaction with hydrogen chloride to produce dense white fumes of ammonium
chloride.
Its action on litmus paper. In fact, exposing the damp red litmus paper to the gas, it is
turned blue. Ammonia is the only common alkaline gas.
Uses of ammonia
Commercially, NH3 is used in:

The manufacture of fertilizers like ammonium sulfate
The manufacture of plastics
The production of nitric acid

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Production of ammonium chloride itself used in dry cells as an electrolyte

The Solvay process for the manufacture of sodium carbonate from common
salt
Liquid ammonia is used in refrigerators
Ammonia solution is used to soften water and as a domestic cleanser (a substance used
for cleaning especially your face). In fact, it has the property of easily removing the
grease (a kind of fat which is a bit soft).
2) OXIDES OF NITROGEN
At this level, two main oxides deserve to be discussed. These are NO2 and NO.
a) Nitrogen dioxide: NO2
Preparation: NO2 is mainly obtained by heating the nitrates of group II as well as lead nitrate.
∆
E.g.: Pb (NO3)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
Properties of NO2
Physical properties of NO2
NO2 is a brown or reddish gas at room temperature

NO2 dissolves in water to forms an acid solution
NO2 has a pungent and choking smell
NO2 is heavier than air and soluble in water
Chemical properties of NO2
NO2 is acidic to litmus

NO2 oxidizes red hot metals to their oxides and it gets reduced to nitrogen
E.g.: 4Cu + 2NO2 → 4CuO + N2
Thanks to its acidic nature, NO2 reduces the alkalis
E.g.: 2NaOH + 2NO2 → NaNO3 + NaNO2 + H2O
NO2 aqueous solution contains both HNO3 and HNO2; that is:
2NO2 + H2O → HNO3 + HNO2 It is this reaction which explains the poisonous nature of
nitrogen dioxide in the lungs.
Uses of NO2
NO2 gas is used in the medicine as an anesthetic (prevents patients from feeling the pain)
during a surgical operation
NO2 is also a law material in the Ostwald process for the manufacture of nitric acid

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b) Nitrogen monoxide: NO
Preparation: NO is often prepared according to the following reaction:
3Cu + 8HNO3 → 3Cu (NO3)2 + 2 NO + 4H2O
Properties of NO
Physical properties of NO
NO is a colorless and odorless gas

NO is almost insoluble in water ( it is very slightly soluble in water)
NO is slightly denser than air
Chemical properties of NO
NO does not support the combustion

As soon as it is exposed to air, NO is immediately oxidized to nitrogen dioxide and so,
brown fumes are observed. The equation for this reaction is: 2NO + O2 → 2NO2
NO is a neutral oxide: it is neutral to litmus
NO reacts with both metals and non-metals to produce their oxides as well as nitrogen
gas.
E.g.: 2Cu + 2NO → 2CuO + N2
10NO + P4 → 2P2O5 + 5N2
Dangers of nitrogen oxides and chemical fertilizers
All the nitrogen oxides are formed by the reaction: xN2 + yN2 → 2NxOy
These nitrogen oxides are combined with water to produce acids in rain water. The pH of
water is decreased and thus making the rain acidic.
The use of fertilizers has significantly increased the production of crops. Yet, too much
fertilizers are bad and contribute not only to the pollution, but also, as it is the case for
nitrogen fertilizers, to the acidification of the soil and consequently to a low fertility of
the soil.
3) NITRIC ACID: HNO3
Nitric acid is a very strong mineral acid which completely dissolves in water to produce H+ ions:
HNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + NO3-(aq)

Page 53
Preparation of nitric acid
Laboratory preparation of nitric acid
In the laboratory, nitric acid is prepared by heating the mixture of potassium nitrate and
concentrated sulfuric acid. The equation for this preparation is:
`JLI
KNO3(s) + H2SO4 (l) CDE KHSO4(s) + HNO3 (g)
The figure below stands for the apparatus for this preparation
Figure: apparatus for the laboratory preparation of nitric acid
Note that if KNO3 is not easily available, NaNO3 can be used in its place. In this case, the
mixture must be specifically brought to 150 ˚C .The temperature must be seriously controlled to
avoid decomposition of HNO3. The equation is:
NaNO3 + H2SO4 ⟶ HNO3 + NaHSO4
Industrial preparation of nitric acid
At industrial scale, nitric acid is prepared by the Catalytic oxidation of ammonia (Ostwald
process) developed by Wilhelm Ostwald (patented in 1902). Note that it is closely associated
with the Haber process, which provides the requisite raw material, ammonia. The reaction is
carried out with platinum as a catalyst (this is the reason why it is being called catalytic).
The global reaction for this synthesis is: 4NH3 + 6O2 + NO2 → 2HNO3 + 2NO + 5H2O and it
consists of three important steps as outlined here below:
Oxidation of ammonia: 4 NH3 (g) + 5 O2 (g) → 4 NO (g) + 6 H2O (g)

Oxidation of nitric oxide (NO) to yield nitrogen dioxide:
3NO (g) + O2 (g) → 2 NO2 (g)
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Absorption of nitrogen dioxide by water to yield the desired product (nitric acid).
However, another portion of NO2 is reduced back to nitric oxide: 3 NO2 (g) + H2O
(l) → 2 HNO3 (aq) + NO (g)
NO is recycled and nitric acid is concentrated to the required concentration by distillation.
Alternatively, if the last step is carried out in air, oxygen will take place in it:
4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 4HNO3 (aq)
Typical conditions for the first stage which contribute to an overall yield of about 96% are:
Pressure: between 4 and 10 atmospheres

Temperature: around 1173 K (approx. 900 °C or 1652 °F).
A complication that needs to be taken into consideration is a side-reaction in the first step that
converts the nitric oxide back to N2: 4 NH3 + 6 NO → 5 N2 + 6 H2O
This risk is minimized by reducing the time the gas mixture is brought in contact with the
catalyst.
Properties of nitric acid
Physical properties of nitric acid
HNO3 is a fuming colorless liquid when pure. The yellow color which is often
encountered in dilute HNO3 is due to the presence of dissolved nitrogen dioxide
HNO3 has a specific gravity (density) of 1.5
Chemical properties of nitric acid
HNO3 is acid to litmus and other indicators. It is a strong acid and thus dissociates
completely in aqueous solution to give its ions:
HNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + NO3-(aq)
HNO3 neutralizes bases and alkalis to form nitrates
Examples: NH3 + HNO3 → NH4NO3
HNO3 + KOH → KNO3 + H2O
HNO3 decomposes most carbonates to form nitrates with effervescence. The latter is
due to the evolution of CO2 gas which leaves as it bubbles the reaction mixture.
HNO3 attacks almost all metals except a few of them like Al, Fe and Au to form
nitrogen dioxide, nitrate and water
E.g.: 3Cu + 8HNO3 → 3Cu (NO3)2 + 4H20 + 2NO2
With metals like Mg and Ca, carbonates, hydroxides and oxides, HNO3 reacts in the
similar way like other acids.
E.g.: Mg + 2HNO3 (aq) ⟶ Mg (NO3)2(aq) + H2 (g)

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HNO3 oxidizes sulphur to sulfuric acid. The equation is:

S(s) + 6HNO3 (l) → H2SO4 (aq) + 6NO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
HNO3 oxidizes carbon to carbon dioxide according to the equation:
C(s) + 4HNO3 (l) → 2H2O (aq) + CO2 (g) + 4 NO2 (g)
HNO3 oxidizes iron (II) compounds to iron (III) compounds
E.g.: 6FeSO4 + 3H2SO4 + 2HNO3 → 3Fe2 (SO4)3 + 2NO + 4H2O
HNO3 oxidizes iodides to iodine
9a:4
E.g.: 2 I-(aq) CDDE I2 (aq) + 2e
Uses of nitric acid
HNO3 is largely used for the production of fertilizers like ammonium nitrate…, explosives such
as TNT (trinitrotoluene) and dynamite (nitroglycerine: a fertilizer), dyes, drugs…
1) NITRATES: M (NO3) x where M can be a metal or NH4+
Preparation of nitrates
Simple methods by which nitrates are prepared include among other things:
The neutralization reaction between HNO3 and a base or an alkali

The action of HNO3 on a carbonate
The action of a metal like Mg, Zn, Pb and Cu on HNO3
The reaction between HNO3 and a basic oxide
Properties of nitrates
All nitrates are soluble in water

All nitrates are solid and ionic compounds
Action of heat on nitrates:
Almost all group I nitrates are decomposed by heat to give a nitrite and oxygen.
`JLI
E.g.: 2NaNO3 CDE 2NaNO2 + 02
Almost all group II nitrates are decomposed by heat to produce a metal oxide,
carbon dioxide and oxygen. This is always the case for all metals between
copper and calcium in the activity series
`JLI
E.g.: Ca (NO3)2 CDE CaO + NO2 + O2
Metals like silver and mercury lower than copper in the activity series produce
the metal, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.
E.g.: Hg (NO3)2 → Hg + 2NO2 + O2
Ammonium nitrate decomposes explosively to give dinitrogen oxide and water:
NH4NO3 → N2O + 2H2O

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Uses of some important nitrates
KNO3 can be used as a fertilizer or as a food preservative

NaNO3 is mainly used as a fertilizer
NH4NO3 is used as a fertilizer and in the manufacture of explosives
AgNO3 is used in the manufacture of silver iodide and bromide themselves used to make
photographic films. It is also used in dentistry as a mild antiseptic.
4) AMMONIUM SALTS
Ammonium salts are salts of the radical NH4+ called ammonium ion.
Preparation: Besides the familiar reactions that can produce an ammonium salt, the most
common method consists of the neutralization reaction between an acid and ammonia.
E.g.: 2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
Properties of ammonium salts
All ammonium salts are soluble

When treated by an alkali, ammonia gas is given off.
E.g.: 2NH4Cl + Ca (OH) 2 → CaCl2 + 2H2O + NH3
All ammonium salts are decomposed by heat.
E.g.: -Carbonates are decomposed into ammonia, carbon dioxide and water
-Nitrates are decomposed into NO2 and water
-Nitrites are decomposed into nitrogen and water
Uses of some important ammonium salts
Ammonium sulphate is an important artificial fertilizer

Ammonium nitrate is used in the manufacture of explosives
NH4Cl is used in the manufacture of dry batteries
Etc…
THE NITROGEN CYCLE
Definition: The nitrogen cycle is a natural cyclic process in the course of which nitrogen enters
the soil and becomes part of the living organisms before returning back to the atmosphere.
Nitrogen compounds play a key role in the constitution of all living beings (plants and
animals).
Thanks to some bacteria (especially those of the nodules of legumes: cyanobacteria)
and some fungi, plants are able to use gaseous nitrogen from the atmosphere for the
synthesis of organic compounds. Such a synthesis is referred to as chemosynthesis

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On the other hand, green plants can absorb nitrates from the soil and make the synthesis
of nitrogenous organic compounds from these nitrates ions (NO3-).
Animals can find nitrogen compounds necessary for their life in the food chain. In fact,
plants are consumed by herbivores and the latter constitute the food (meat) for carnivores.
Animals can also eat other animals by predation.
When plants and animals die, nitrogenous compounds contained in them are decomposed
first into ammonia and/or ammonium ions (NH4+). This process is known as
ammonification.
In the soil, special ferments (microorganisms) use oxygen of air to oxidize ammonia
and/or ammonium ions and turn them into nitrate ions, in a process called nitrification.
The reaction can be written as: NH4+ + 2O2(g) → NO3- + H2O + 2H+
Finally, NO3- is converted back into atmospheric nitrogen (N2) by denitrifying bacteria
in the process known as denitrification and the cycle restarts.
Diagram: The nitrogen cycle

Atmospheric
nitrogen
Fixation of atmospheric N2
By Rhizobium denitrification
Animal assimilation
Plant nitrogen (in Animal nitrogen
proteins) (in proteins)
Death and decomposition
Followed by nitrification Death and decomposition
Nitrogen in the Nitrogenous

soil: NH4+and Nitrificationwastes
NO3-
Chapter 6: SULPHUR CHEMISTRY
Sulfur is the second member of group VI, and comes just below oxygen. The atomic number is
16 and the electronic configuration is given as 2/8/6. This electron configuration reveals valence
6 electrons with 2 single electrons.
Sulphur is widespread in nature where it is found in several forms:

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Sulphur exists in free form in volcanic lands and some sedimentary lands.
It exists also in combined form in substances like H2S (hydrogen sulphide), FeS2 (iron
pyrite), ZnS, CuS2 (copper pyrite), PbS, and sulfates such as BaSO4, gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O)…
6.2. Allotropic forms of sulphur
An element is said to have allotropic character if it can exist in different forms called allotropic
forms.
Sulfur has three allotropic forms, 2 of which are crystalline. These are:
Alpha sulphur or orthorhombic sulphur or octahedral sulphur (Sα)

Beta sulphur or prismatic sulphur or monoclinic sulphur (Sβ)
Another is amorphous sulphur known as plastic sulphur (Sµ).
In the case of sulphur, it is the temperature that determines the allotropic form to be obtained in
an experience: Sα ⇌ Sβ ⇌ Sµ
Note that Sµ is prepared by: H2S(s) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l) + 2 S(s)
Comparison of the two crystalline allotropes of sulphur
Rhombic(octahedral) Monoclinic
Yellow translucent crystals Transparent amber (yellowish-brown) crystals
Density 2.08g/cm3 Density 1.98g/cm3
Melting point 114 ˚C Melting point 119˚C
Stable at temperatures below 96˚C Unstable at temperatures below 96˚C, reverting
to rhombic variety.
6.3. Extraction and production
2 main processes help us to extract sulphur: Frasch process and Sicilian process. The Frasch
process takes priority over the Sicilian process since it produces high purity sulphur that needs
no further purification and thus more preferred.
More about the Frasch process
In this method, three concentric pipes are used:
The outermost pipe which contains superheated water. This water is used to melt the
sulphur

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The central pipe which is filled with hot compressed air. This air serves to create foam
and pressure necessary to expel the resulting sulfur melt through the middle pipe.
The middle pipe in which runs a stream of compressed air, water and molten sulfur.
The mixture is run into large tanks where sulphur solidifies and separates out.
Note: The Frasch process produces sulfur with a 99.5% purity, which obviously needs no
further purification.
Figure: Apparatus for the Frasch process
6.4. Chemical properties of sulphur
In this unit, we shall bring our focus to specific chemical reactions undergone by sulphur.
Combustion: sulphur is burnt in air to produce a suffocating gas (SO2)

S(s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)
Reaction of sulfur with hydrogen: this produces hydrogen sulphide
H2 (g) + S(s) ⟶ H2S (g)
Reaction with metals: this produces sulphides of corresponding metals
Fe(s) + S(s) ⟶ FeS(s)
Sulphur is warmed with concentrated nitric acid to form sulphuric acid
S + 6HNO3 ⟶ H2SO4 + 6NO2 + 2H2O
Sulphur is warmed with concentrated sulphuric acid to form sulphur dioxide and water:
S + 2H2SO4 ⟶ 3SO2 + 2H2O
6.5. Uses of sulphur
S is used in the manufacture of sulphur dioxide and sulfuric acid.

S is burnt to give SO2 which in turn is used in the contact process to produce H2SO4
SO2 got from the combustion of S in the manufacture of Ca (HSO3)2. The latter is used
to bleach wood pulp in the manufacture of paper.
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S is used in the vulcanization of rubber. i.e. to make it harder and tougher

S is used in the manufacture of explosives (in guns) and matches’ powder
Many medicinal drugs contain sulphur. Examples include sulphadimidine, sulphadiazine…
S is also used as a germicide (to kill germs of bacteria)
Agricultural uses of sulphur: fruit trees are normally sprayed with sulphur necessary to
kill some harmful insects and fungi which are responsible for fungal fruit invasions
(diseases).
6.6. SOME COMPOUNDS OF SULFUR
a) Sulphuric acid: H2SO4
H2SO4 is a bit yellow liquid, almost colorless when it is pure and freshly prepared. It is sticky
and dense (1.84). H2SO4 is not easily prepared in laboratory; it is rather prepared in industry by
Contact process.
Contact process for the preparation of H2SO4
The contact process consists of three main steps among other things:
Oxidation of S to produce SO2. The equation is:

S + O2 → SO2 (g)
Conversion of SO2 to SO3 by the oxidation of SO2. The equation is:
_A Q5 ;2:0
SO2 (g) + O2 (g) CDDDDDDE 2 SO3 (g)
Vanadium (V) oxide is preferably used because it is less susceptible to poisoning by impurities
mixed with SO2 and, at the same time, it less expensive.
Absorption of SO3 by water: sulphur trioxide is a white solid which has a great affinity
for water and thus it is readily combined with water to produce H2SO4. The equation is:
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
Since the reaction of SO3 with water is a very vigorous reaction and that SO3 is not very soluble
in water (in fact, it forms droplets of sulphuric acid), this last step is often replaced by the
absorption of SO3 by conc. H2SO4 to form oleum (pyrosulphuric acid). The reaction is:
H2SO4 (aq) + SO3 (g) → H2S2O7 (l)
Finally, the oleum formed is carefully diluted to form concentrated sulphuric acid 98%. The
equation is:
bX<cAXQ7 de ?@AB5
H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l) CDDDDDDDDDDDDE 2H2SO4 (l)

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Properties of sulfuric acid
Physical properties of H2SO4
Concentrated H2SO4 is an oily, colorless and odorless.

It has great affinity for water. A lot of heat is evolved when it is diluted. Thanks to this
property, H2SO4 is used as a drying agent for gases which do not react with it such as
SO2, Cl2, HCl, and H2
H2SO4 is a very dense liquid with a density of 1.84g/cm3
Chemical properties of H2SO4
H2SO4 is a dehydrating agent.
E.g.: H2SO4 dehydrates ethanol to ethane:
92f:3
CH3CH2OH (l) CDDDE C2H4 (g) + H2O (l)
H2SO4 dehydrates sucrose and changes it to carbon seen (a black residue):

gQ7g.92f:3
C12H22O11(s) CDDDDDDDE 12C(s) + 11H2O (l)
H2SO4 is an oxidizing agent. Some examples are given below:

Cu(s) + 2H2SO4 (l) → CuSO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l) + SO2 (g)
S(s) + 2H2SO4 (l) → 3SO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
H2SO4 dehydrates carbohydrates (e.g.: sugar) leaving carbon

E.g.: C6H12O6 + H2SO4 → 6H2O + 6C + H2SO4
Hydrogen of dilute H2SO4 is displaced by active metals
E.g.: Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
Uses of H2SO4
H2SO4 is used in the manufacture of fertilizers such as (NH4)2SO4

H2SO4 is used in the manufacture of textile fibers
H2SO4 is used in the accumulators (batteries)
H2SO4 is used in the removal of impurities from crude oil in the manufacture of
petroleum and petrochemicals
H2SO4 is used as a dehydrating agent (to remove water)
H2SO4 is used as a catalyst in various reactions, especially organic ones

Page 62
b) Hydrogen sulfide H2S
Preparation
H2S is prepared, in laboratory, by the reaction between iron (II) sulphide and dilute hydrogen
chloride. The gas is then collected by downward delivery. The reaction is: FeS + HCl → H2S +
FeCl2
Figure: apparatus for the preparation of hydrogen sulphide
Pure hydrogen sulfide can also be prepared by warming the mixture of concentrated sulfuric
acid and antimony sulfide
Sb2S3(s) + 6 HCl (l) ⟶ 3H2S (g) + 2SbCl3 (aq)
Properties of H2S
Physical properties
H2S has a very unpleasant gas having a strongly repulsive odor characteristic of a
putrefied egg.
H2S is a colorless and very poisonous gas
H2S is slightly denser than air
H2S is fairly soluble in cold water to form a weak acidic solution and only slight
ionization takes place thanks to its weak strength.
H2S + H2O → S2-(aq) + 2H3O+ (aq)

Page 63
Chemical properties
H2S is a reducing agent: it gives away its hydrogen to other elements or compounds.
When a solution of H2S is left exposed to air for a few days a white precipitate of
amorphous sulfur is formed which is so fine that it can pass through a filter paper. The
equation is: H2S (aq) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l) + 2S (g)
H2S gas burns with a pale flame to form sulphur (IV) oxide and steam.
2H2S (g) + 2O2 (g) → 2 H2O (g) + 2SO2 (g)
H2S reacts with concentrated acid
E.g.: H2S react with HNO3 to form a pale yellow precipitate of sulfur and reddish- brown
fumes of nitrogen (IV) oxide. The equation is:
2HNO3 + H2S → S(s) + 2NO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
H2S react with H2SO4 to form a yellow precipitate of sulphur. The equation is: H2SO4 (l)
+ 3H2S (g) ⟶ 4H2O (l) + 4S(s)
H2S reacts with halogens to form hydrogen halides in addition to sulphur.
Cl2 (g) + H2S (aq) → 2HCl (aq) + S(s)
Test for sulphides
When sulphides react with hydrochloric acid, hydrogen sulphide gas is liberated. The latter
(H2S) is readily detected by its smell.
Example: FeS(s) + 2HCl (aq) → FeCl2 (aq) + H2S (g)
c) Oxides of sulphur
There are two important oxides of sulphur (SO2 and SO3)
i. Sulphur dioxide: SO2
Preparation of SO2
SO2 is mainly prepared in the laboratory by the reaction of copper with concentrated sulphuric
acid. The reaction is:
`JLI
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4 (l) CDE CuSO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l) + SO2 (g)
The gas can also prepared by the action of an acid on a metal sulphite:
Na2SO3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l) + SO2 (g)
The apparatus for this last preparation is the following:

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Properties of SO2
Physical properties of SO2
SO2 is colorless gas with irritating/choking smell

SO2 is poisonous. It should not be allowed to escape from the laboratory
SO2 has a very high density (about the double of that of air)
SO2 is readily liquefiable at -9˚C
SO2 is highly soluble in water
Chemical properties of SO2
SO2 is very soluble in water: SO2 (g) + H2O (l) ⇌ H2SO3 (aq)
This acid is responsible for the formation of acid rain. Hence, sulfur dioxide is an
atmospheric pollutant.
SO2 combines with oxygen in the presence of vanadium (v) oxide to form sulphur
trioxide: SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
SO2 reacts with bases to produce sulphites
E.g.: 2NaOH + 2SO2 → 2NaHSO3
Test for SO2
The presence of SO2 can be indicated when the gas is bubbled through:
An acidified solution of K2Cr2O7. The solution changes from orange (golden yellow) to
green.
Acidified solution of KMnO4. The purple solution turns colorless (decolorized).

Page 65
Uses of SO2
SO2 is used in the contact process for the manufacture of sulfuric acid
SO2 is used as a bleaching agent for wool, silk, straw and sponges which would be easily
damaged by chlorine.
SO2 is used as a preservative of canned food and fruit juices.
SO2 is used in refrigerators as an alternative to ammonia because it readily liquefies by
pressure.
ii. Sulphur trioxide SO3
S has less affinity to oxygen, because when it burns in air the greatest product is SO2 and not
SO3. But SO2 and oxygen can combine in the presence of catalyst (Pt or vanadium (V) oxide) to
give SO3. SO3 is prepared by passing a mixture of dry SO2 and dry air or oxygen over a heated
vanadium (V) oxide or platinum. This is:
SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → SO3 (g)
SO3 is very important because it combines vigorously with water giving sulphuric acid according
to the reaction: SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (aq)
Sulphates
They are prepared by the action of sulfuric acid on
A metal
An oxide, hydroxide or carbonates of the metal.
Insoluble salts are prepared by precipitation. Ba, Pb and Ca sulphates are insoluble while
others are soluble.
Uses of some important sulphates
Na2SO4 is used in the treatment of wood pulp in the manufacture of papers

Na2SO4 is also used as a purgative
(NH4)2SO4 is an important fertilizer

Page 66
Chapter 7: CHLORINE CHEMISTRY
Chlorine is the second member of group VIIa called halogens’ group and comes just below
fluorine. Just like other halogens its chemistry is dominated by the tendency to gain 1 extra
electron to fill its outermost shell. The name chlorine comes from a Greek word chloros which
means green. In fact, chlorine is a green gas in color.
Chlorine is known as a very reactive element since it can readily react with both metals and non-
metals.
7.2. Preparation of chlorine
Chlorine is often prepared in the laboratory by 2 main methods:
Reaction between potassium permanganate and concentrated hydrochloric acid, without

heating the mixture, according to the equation:
2KMnO4(s) + 16HCl (l) → 5Cl2(g) + 2KCl (aq) + 2MnCl2 (aq) + 8H2O (l)
Figure: apparatus for the reaction between KMnO4 and HCl
Reaction between manganese (IV) oxide and concentrated hydrochloric acid while
heating the reaction mixture:
MnO2(s) + 4 HCl → Cl2 (g) + MnCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
The procedure for this last preparation is the following:
Put powdered manganese (IV) oxide in a round bottomed flask

Pour concentrated HCl acid in the flask through a thistle funnel
Heat the flask. Chlorine gas is given off.
Page 67
Commercially, Cl2 is prepared by the electrolysis of strong brine (aqueous solution of table salt:
NaCl). (See electrolysis of aqueous NaCl).
7.3. Properties of chlorine
Physical properties of chlorine
Cl2 is a green-yellow gas with an unpleasant, irritating or choking smell

Cl2 is (heavier) denser than air; this is why it is collected by downward delivery.
Cl2 is a poisonous gas commonly used in water treatment for desinfection
Cl2 is fairly soluble in water
Chemical properties of chlorine
Reaction of chlorine with water: Chlorine dissolves slightly in water forming a pale
yellow solution. The solution turns blue litmus to red, which means that the solution is
acidic. The solution is commonly referred to as chlorine water. The equation is: Cl2(g) +
H2O(l) → HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)
If the chlorine water is exposed to the sunlight, oxygen is given off as chlorine (I) acid is reduced
to hydrochloric acid. The equation for this is:
GHh`I
2HOCl (aq) CDDDDDE 2 HCl (aq) + O2 (g)
Chlorine combines with hydrocarbons in the presence of the sunlight to produce

hydrochloric acid.
E.g.: CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl
Reaction with metals: Cl2 reacts readily with metals to form chlorides.
E.g.: Mg(s) + Cl2 (g) → MgCl2(s)
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2 FeCl3(s)
Reaction with non-metals: Cl2 reacts readily with all non-metals except oxygen, carbon
and nitrogen.
E.g.: 2P + 3Cl2 → 2PCl3 or 2P + 5Cl2 → 2PCl5
Cl2 + H2 → 2HCl
2S(s) + Cl2 (g) → S2Cl2(s)
Chlorine has strong oxidizing properties. Crucial examples include:
Cl2 (g) + H2S (aq) → S(s) + 2Cl-(aq)
Cl2 (g) + 2 Fe2+ (aq) → 2Fe3+ (aq) + 2Cl-(aq) or simply 2FeCl2 + Cl2 → 2FeCl3

Page 68
7.4. Test for chlorine
Chlorine is a green-yellow gas which rapidly bleaches (destroys the color of) moist litmus paper.
7.5. Uses of chorine
Chlorine is used:
In the manufacture of plastics (PVC for ex.), insecticides and many organic compounds
As a bleaching agent in the pulp and textile industries (cotton)
Waste water treatment and purification as an antiseptic or disinfectant
In treatment of swimming pools to kill many bacteria (coma vibrio…)
In the commercial manufacture of hydrochloric acid: HCl
7.6. SOME IMPORTANT CHLORINE DERIVATIVES
a) Hydrogen chloride: HCl
Chlorine is a colorless gas at room temperature, but it misty fumes in a wet environment due to
its reaction with water droplets.
Preparation of chlorine
Hydrogen chloride is prepared by the action of concentrated sulfuric acid on any chloride. In
practice it is cheaper to use common salt (NaCl). The reaction for this last alternative is: NaCl(s)
+ H2SO4 (l) → HCl (g) + NaHSO4(s) or in excess NaCl,
2NaCl(s) + H2SO4 (l) → HCl (l) + Na2SO4(s)
Figure: apparatus for the laboratory preparation of HCl

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Properties of HCl
Physical properties of HCl
HCl is a colorless gas with a pungent chocking smell and acid taste
HCl is very soluble in water
HCl is heavier than air
HCl forms white fumes in moist air
Chemical properties of chlorine
HCl reacts with ammonia to produce a dense white fume of ammonium chloride. The
equation is: NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl(s)
This constitutes a test for the presence of HCl
HCl forms a white precipitate with silver nitrate solution acidified with HNO3:
AgNO3 (aq) + HCl (aq) → AgCl(s) + HNO3 (aq)
HCl turns blue the red litmus paper

HCl does not support the combustion
HCl decomposes carbonates to produce carbon dioxide
E.g.: Na2CO3 + HCl → 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O
When passed over heated metals, HCl is decomposed to form anhydrous chlorides and
hydrogen
Tests for hydrogen chloride
When a test tube containing HCl is opened in moist air, misty fumes are formed. These
are droplets of hydrochloric acid. The ionic equation is:
HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl-
When the mouth of test tube containing HCl is brought near the mouth of a bottle
containing ammonia gas, white fumes of ammonium chloride are formed. The equation
is: NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)
When silver nitrate solution acidified with nitric acid is added to the test tube containing
HCl, white precipitate of silver chloride is formed:
Ag+ (aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)
Uses of HCl
HCl is widely used in the removal (descaling) of rust from iron before it is galvanized.
HCl is also used in cleaning metals before they are electroplated.
HCl is used in the manufacture of plastics such as polychloroethene (e.g.: PVC).

Page 70
HCl is used as a source of chlorine in the manufacture of organic compounds containing

chlorine.
b) Sodium chloride: NaCl
Preparation
NaCl is prepared, in laboratory, by the reaction between caustic soda (NaOH) and water: NaOH
+ H2O → HCl + NaCl
NaCl can also be prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid on sodium carbonate according to
the following reaction: Na2CO3 + HCl → NaCl + CO2 + H20
Uses of NaCl
NaCl is used as a food preservative and as a condiment as well commonly known as

kitchen or table salt
NaCl is used in textile industry as a mordant (to destroy or fix colors)
NaCl is used in soup manufacture
NaCl is used in the preparation of Na and Cl2 by electrolysis of molten salt
NaCl is used in the preparation of Cl2 and NaOH by the electrolysis of aqueous solution
of NaCl
Chapter 8: INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
8.1. Generality on the Organic chemistry
Historical perspectives of the organic chemistry and definition
Organic chemistry was launched for the first time by Berzelius (a Swedish chemist: 1779-1848)
and Balm (a French chemist: 1728-1804) as a branch of chemistry that deals with compounds
that constitute living beings.
This was because chemists were convinced that only living things were able to synthesize this
category of compounds in their organs during their vital processes such as digestion, breathing,
photosynthesis…
8.2. Introduction and definition
Organic chemistry is the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactivity and
preparation of chemical compounds consisting primarily of carbon and hydrogen, commonly
referred to as carbon compounds.

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However, other elements can be involved such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and some halogens.
This composition was discovered from the time when a number of chemists managed to
synthetically prepare some compounds well known to be constituents of the organism.
These are for instance urea (synthesized from ammonium cyanate by Friedrich Wöhler), formic
acid (synthesized by Bertholet) whose composition was studied and it was realized that carbon
and hydrogen were every time the primary constituents of most organic compounds.
From then on, the synthesis of the artificial organic compounds continued up to now.
8.3. Properties and characteristics of organic compounds
The following are the major characteristics of organic compounds that even differentiate them
from inorganic or mineral compounds:
Most organic compounds are liquid, others are gases and only a few are solid
A generally low density ( close to one ≡ generally less than one) characterizes organic
compounds
Organic compounds frequently exhibit isomerism (interconversion between almost
similar structures) while inorganic ones do not
Organic compounds experience lower boiling and melting points compared to inorganic
compounds
Organic compounds usually are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as
benzene, chloroform, hexane, acetone, ether…
Atoms in organic compounds are held together by covalent bonds while atoms in mineral
compounds are often ionic with a few of them comprising covalent bonds.
This is the main reason why organic compounds do not allow the electricity to pass
through their solutions.
Organic compounds consist generally of very complex structures compared to mineral
compounds
Organic compounds are more volatile than mineral compounds
When burnt, organic compounds produce black residues that witness the presence of
carbon atoms in their structures.
8.4. Applications and goal of organic chemistry
Organic chemistry finds many applications in our everyday life among other things:
Carry out extractions of many organic compounds, including drugs, from living things
E.g.: extraction of quinine from peels of quinine
Manufacture of petroleum and its processing to get good quality fuels, kerosene, mazout,
gasoline…
The study of the mechanisms of many biochemical as well as biosynthetic reactions in
the manufacture of natural and commercial products
E.g.: knowledge about the stages of aspirin or quinine manufacture
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In the pharmaceutical industry, organic chemistry is used in the synthesis of drugs and
other kinds of medicines like antibiotics, additives…
In agriculture, organic chemistry is used in the manufacture of pesticides (insecticides,
herbicides, fungicides…) and fertilizers
In the plastic industry, organic chemistry is used in the synthesis of rubber, plastics like
PVC, polyethylene, papers…
Manufacture of paints, dyes, varnishes, and solvents
In cosmetic industry, organic chemistry is used in the manufacture of soaps (a process
known as saponification), detergents, perfumes…
In nuclear industry, organic chemistry is used in the production of explosives like TNT
(trinitrotoluene, a grenade powder) and TNG (Trinitroglycerine, dynamite).
8.5. Functional groups and homologous series in organic chemistry
A functional group in organic chemistry is defined as a group of atoms in a molecule which

determines its properties; such that all compounds containing it present almost the same
characteristics.
Example: -OH is a group called hydroxyl group and it explains the alcoholic properties for
compounds containing it.

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The first series: consisting of hydrocarbon

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A. THE HYDROCARBONS
Definition
A hydrocarbon, also called hydrogen carbide, is an organic compound which only consists of
carbon and hydrogen.
Three types of hydrocarbons do exist and are differentiated by their structures. These are:
Aliphatic hydrocarbons: these consist of open chain hydrocarbons; i.e. composed of a

non-cyclic hydrocarbon backbone
Cyclic hydrocarbons: these consist of closed chain hydrocarbons; i.e. composed of
closed rings (cycles) of carbon atoms. They can also be called alicyclic hydrocarbons.
Aromatic hydrocarbons: they contain cycles of 6 atoms of carbon run by a sequence of
double bonds.
Source of hydrocarbons
The main source of aliphatic hydrocarbons is the natural gas and crude oil or petroleum while
coal is one of the main sources of the aromatic hydrocarbons.
Note also that a lot of plants give some hydrocarbons directly as metabolic products.
Example: natural rubber, essential oils….
Petroleum (from Latin" Petro=stone" and oleum=oil)
Petroleum or crude oil is a bituminous liquid composed of various organic chemicals and
considered as the main source of most organic compounds.
Petroleum is used as a fuel and as a raw material in the chemical industry. It is found in large
quantities below the surface of the Earth especially in sedimentary basins.
Origin
Petroleum is formed under the Earth’s surface by the decomposition of marine organisms. These
organisms include mainly the fossils of tiny and large aquatic organisms such as fish, algae…
and, to a lesser extent, land organisms that are carried down to the sea through the rivers.
These organisms are enmeshed with sand and are forced to settle to the bottoms of the sea basins.
These deposits are rich in organic compounds and are piled up to form rocks that constitute
important sources of crude oil. As additional deposits pile up, the pressure and temperature of the
lower ones increase exponentially. Mud and sand harden up as the remainders of dead organisms
are transformed into crude oil and natural gas.

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Extraction of petroleum
Crude oil can reach 5000m to 7000m of depth under the earth surface. It is extracted using
metallic tubes with a help of a Trepan fixed to their extremity. The Trepan is used to drill a well
(hole) in the rocks which reaches the oil layer. Very soon, oil is brought to the surface under the
influence of pressure due to different gases mixed with petroleum.
Fractional distillation of petroleum (in refineries)
Crude petroleum obtained by mining is a very viscous, sticky and impure liquid. In fact, it is just
a mixture of a number of components including even some which have no interesting use like
sands and brine (sea water).
It must then be submitted to distillation in order to split it into different volatile products. The
latter are sequentially condensed as they are packed for further use. The process as a whole is
known as refining of petroleum. It consists of heating the mixture to about 4000C in a furnace.
The produced vapors are directed to a fractionating tower which arranges them according to their
respective densities. The resulting fractions rise in the tower as they are condensed starting from
those with lower boiling points.
Table: The main products of the fractional distillation of crude oil
Fraction Number of carbon Boiling points range uses

atoms
1. Natural gases C1-C4 <300C fuel
2. Naphta: C5-C15 30-2500C Fuel and fuel for
illumination
i. Petroleum ether C5-C6 30-600C Fuel and solvents
ii. Gasoline C6-C8 70-1200C Fuel and illumination
3. Kerosene C10-C15 150-2500C Fuel and diesel
4. Light gas oil and C12-C18 250-4000C Fuel for diesel
diesel oil engines
5. Heavy gas oil, C17-C40 >4000C Bitumen (used for
grease wax, making roads and
lubricating oil and roofs) and lubrication
vaseline

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A.1. STUDY OF ALKANES
a) Definition
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with a general formula CnH2n+2 where n is the number of
carbon atoms. They are said to be saturated because all the 4 valences of carbon are involved in
single bonds; i.e. all carbon atoms are bonded each to 4 other atoms.
Alkanes consist of 2 types: aliphatic (open chain) alkanes and cycloalkanes or cyclic alkanes
or cyclanes. We shall bring our focus on aliphatic hydrocarbons.
Examples: For n = 1, CH4 CH4: methane
n= 2, C2H6 CH3 - CH3: ethane
n= 3, C3H8 CH3-CH2-CH3: propane
n= 4, C4H10 CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH3: butane
n= 5, C5H12 CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH3: pentane
n= 6, C6H14 CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH3: hexane
n= 7, C7H16 CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2- CH3: heptane
n= 8, C8H18 CH3- CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH3:
octane
n= 9, C9H20 CH3- CH2 -CH2 -CH2 -CH2 -CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3:

decane
b) Nomenclature of alkanes
Saturated straight chain alkanes form a homologous series: a series in which all members have
quiet similar properties; the preceding differs from the next only by a methylene group (-CH2).
The 4 first alkanes have got their names by IUPAC (International Union for Pure and Applied
Chemistry); see them in the series above. From C5 and above, alkanes are named by using Latin
prefixes which indicate the number of carbons followed by the suffix “ane” of the alkanes.
Some examples are given here below:
CH4: methane gas

C2H6: Ethane gas
C3H8: Propane gas

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C4H10: n-butane gas or normal Butane

C5H12: n-Pentane
C6H14: n-Hexane
C7H16: n - Heptane
C8H18: n - Octane
C9H20: n - Nonane
C10H22: n - Decane
C11H24: n - Undecane
Aliphatic alkanes can be branched out; that is, carry some side branches. If such is the case, the
alkane is called a branched-chain alkane. Note that these branches can have different sizes and
are referred to as alkyl groups. Alkyl groups get their names from the corresponding alkanes
with the same number of carbon atoms by replacing the suffix “ane” of alkanes by “yl” for
alkyls. We get an alkyl group when one hydrogen atom is removed from an alkane.
Some examples of alkyl groups also called radicals are given here below:
Example: CH4 - 1H CH3 - Methyl
CH3 - CH3 - 1H CH3 - CH2 - Ethyl
CH3 - CH2 - CH3 - 1H CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - Propyl
CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH3 - 1H CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - Butyl…
IUPAC rules for alkanes’ nomenclature
Choose and name the longest carbon chain

Identify and name the all the alkyl groups attached to this chain
Number the longest chain starting from the end nearest most of the substituents
The name of the alkyl group is preceded by a dash thereby indicating its position on the
main chain.
The names of these groups are listed based on their alphabetical order. If 2 groups are
similar, we just consider one of them preceded by the prefix di, tri, tetra…depending on
their number.
For cyclanes (cyclic alkanes), the prefix “cyclo" is recommended before the name of the
alkane of the same carbon number. But in the case of ramified cyclanes, the seniority is
for the ring.

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3 CH3 CH3
1 5 4 3 2 1
2
CH3 CH CH3 CH CH2 C CH3
3 CH3 CH3 CH3

2-Metyl propane or isobutane
2, 2, 4-Trimethyl pentane
CH3 CH3 CH3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CH3 C CH3
CH3 C CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH2 3C CH3
10 9 8 7 4
6 5 2 1
CH3 CH3 CH2CH3 9 CH2CH3
2,2-Dimethyl propane or neopentane 10
4-Ethyl 2,2,8,8 tetramethyl decane
not 7-Ethyl 2,2,9,9-tetramethyl decane
5 CH3 CH3
7 6 4
H H
3 2 1
CH3 CH2 C C C C CH3
H H
cyclobutane
CH3 CH2CH2CH3
cyclopentane
Cyclopropane
:2,3,5 Trimethyl-4-propyl heptane
Some examples of special alkyl radicals/groups
Remember that one gets the name of the radical by replacing the suffix –ane of the
corresponding alkane by the suffix -yl
* Isopropyl or secondary propyl: CH3 - CH -
CH3
* Isobutyl or secondary butyl: CH3 -CH - CH2 -
CH3
CH3
* Tertiobutyle or Tertiary butyl: CH3 - C -
CH3

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*Phenyl: C6H5- or Benzyl: C6H5-CH2 or

H2
C
C
H
Structural or developed formula of a compound
The structural formula also called developed formula of a molecule is a formula which shows not
only the number of atoms constituting the mo0lecule, but also the nature and structure of the
bonds in the molecule (spatial disposition).
Example: the structural or developed formula of ethane is:

H H
H C C H
H H
Semi-developed formula of a compound
This does not represents all the bonds involved in the molecule; it rather shows only bonds
between carbon atoms and groups together all hydrogen atoms attached to the same carbon.
Example: the semi-developed formula of ethane comes to be: CH3-CH3
Other examples: CH 3 − CH 2 − CH − CH 2 − CH 3
| : 3 - methyl pentane
CH 3
CH 3 − CH − CH 2 − CH 2 − CH 3
| : 2-methyl pentane
CH 3
Condensed or empirical formula of a compound
This is simply a formula which only shows the number of atoms (both H and C) present in the
molecule. Some examples are given here below:

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CH4: Methane
C2H6: Ethane
C6C14: n-hexane or 3-methyl pentane or 2-methyl pentane…
Note that the condensed or empirical formula does not give a clear distinction between different
molecules. Thus, for example, n-hexane, 3-methyl pentane, 2-methyl pentane…have the same
empirical formula. This makes the object of what we shall call isomerism.
Table: different formulae used in organic chemistry
Molecul Condensed Structural formula Stick formula

ar structure
formula
H H
C 2H6 CH3CH3
H C C H
H H
H H
C4H8 CH3-CH2- H
CH=CH2 H C C C C
H
H H H
c) Properties of alkanes
1. Isomerism
As we talked about it at the beginning, alkanes experience isomers. Isomers are substances that
have the same empirical formula and differ by their developed or structural formulae.
Alkanes show structural isomerism. The easiest way to find isomers is to draw the longest
chain of carbon atoms first and then reduce it by one carbon first until repetition begins to occur.
E.g. C6H14 can be differently written as:
(a) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 hexane (A straight chain isomer)
(b) Reducing the length by one carbon gives 5 carbon atoms:

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CH 3 − CH − CH 2 − CH 2 − CH 3
(A branched chain isomer)
| : 2-methyl pentane
CH 3
(c) CH 3 − CH 2 − CH − CH 2 − CH 3
| : 3 - methyl pentane
CH 3
(d) Reducing the longest chain further to 4 carbon atoms gives:
CH 3 − CH − CH − CH 3 (Highly branched)
| | : 2,3 - dimethyl butane
CH 3 CH 3
CH
3
e) | : 2, 2-dimethyl butane
CH − C − CH − CH
3 2 3
|
CH
3
Thus C6H14 has 5 isomers, namely CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3,
CH 3 − CH − CH 2 − CH 2 − CH 3 CH 3 − CH 2 − CH − CH 2 − CH 3 CH 3 − CH − CH − CH 3 CH
3
|
, |
, | | , |
CH 3 CH 3 CH 3 CH 3 CH − C − CH − CH
3 2 3
|
CH
3
Notice: When the number of carbon atoms increases, the number of isomers also increases as
much as possible. This can be summarized in the following table:
Table: Isomers in alkane series
Molec Molecu
ular Structural Isom lar Structural Isome
Alkane Alkane
Formu Formula ers Formul Formula rs
la a
methane CH4 CH4 0 hexane C6H14 CH3(CH2)4CH3 5
ethane C2H6 CH3CH3 0 heptane C7H16 CH3(CH2)5CH3 9
propane C3H8 CH3CH2CH3 0 octane C8H18 CH3(CH2)6CH3 18
CH3CH2CH2CH
butane C4H10 2 nonane C9H20 CH3(CH2)7CH3 35
3

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pentane C5H12 CH3(CH2)3CH3 3 decane C10H22 CH3(CH2)8CH3 75
Eicosan CH3(CH2)18CH
C20H42 36448
e 3
Exercise 1: Give all the possible structures of C3H8, C4H10, C5H12 and C7H16 and provide their
names according to IUPAC
Exercise 2: State and name all the possible 18 structures of octane.
2. Physical properties of alkanes
i. Alkanes occur naturally in petroleum (crude oil) and natural gases.
ii. Melting points, boiling points, density and physical state of alkanes:
The melting point and boiling points of alkanes increases as the chain increases
Alkanes have variable densities depending on the temperature; but, in general, their
density increases with the chain length
The 4 first members of alkanes are gases, then from C5 up to C17, they are liquid and
finally from C18 and above, they alkanes are solid at room temperature.
3. Chemical properties of alkanes
Alkanes are quite inert towards common reagents. This is the reason why their reactions are very
slow. The important reactions experienced by alkanes are:
Combustion: the combustion of alkanes gives carbon dioxide and water if oxygen is
enough to burn the whole quantity of the hydrocarbon. Otherwise, carbon monoxide is
formed. The general equation for the combustion of alkanes is:
3n+1 O2(g) n CO2(g) + (n+1)H2O(l) + heat released

CnH2n+2 +
2
Example: CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
Reaction with halogens (halogenation): the general equation of alkanes is:

R-H + X2 → RX+ HX avec X = Cl, Br, I
Case study of Methane: CH4
Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon.

Page 83
Physical properties of methane
Methane is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, insipid and non-poisonous gas. It is lighter than air. It
is insoluble in water but soluble in other liquid hydrocarbons. It boils at -164º C and cannot be
solidified.
Chemical properties of methane
Oxidation of methane: methane is burnt in oxygen according to the equation:
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + 210,8Kcal
Halogenation
* The reaction of methane with chlorine is self-achieved directly with the light of the sun.
CH4 + 2Cl2 → C + 4HCl
The gaseous mixture burns with a smoky flame and one observes deposits of carbon on the wall
of the tube.
* Substitution reaction between CH4 and chlorine
This reaction is made possible by the presence of the UV (ultra violet) light which permits the
formation of a mixture of chlorinated products. The reaction is sequential with 3 main steps:
Initiation: CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl (used as a local anesthesia) + HCl

Propagation: CH3Cl + Cl2 → CH2Cl2 (used as a solvent) + HCl
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 → CHCl3 (chloroform used as a solvent and anesthesia) +
HCl
Termination: CHCl3 + Cl2 → CCl4 (used as a solvent) + HCl
Uses of methane
Methane gas is combustible. It is an essential constituent of natural gas (gas found

underground and used as a fuel). In fact, the combustion of methane is an endothermic
reaction which produces energy that can be used for different purposes such as food
cooking, source of energy in thermal power stations…
Its reaction with halogens produces good quality solvents and other important organic
compounds

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A.2. STUDY OF ALKENES
a) Definition
Alkenes, also called olefins (oil forming hydrocarbons) or ethylene’s hydrocarbons, are
hydrocarbons which present one or more double bonds between 2 or more carbon atoms.
Consequently, they have 2 hydrogen atoms less than the corresponding alkanes and they have the
general formula: CnH2n where n is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
C =C
Their functional group is:
The simplest alkene has two carbon atoms. This is ethylene (CH2=CH2).
b) Nomenclature of alkenes
The following are rules followed in naming alkenes:
Alkenes are named by replacing the suffix -ane of the corresponding alkane by “ane” of
alkene.
The longest chain is the one the biggest number of double bonds (C = C).
Carbon atoms are then numbered in such a way that the carbon atoms carrying the double
bonds are assigned the smallest collective number.
With this in mind, the following alkenes can easily be named:
CH2=CH2: Ethene, CH3-CH=CH2: propene, CH3-CH2-CH=CH2: but-1-ene or 1-butene,
CH3-CH=CH-CH3: But-2-ene or 2-butene
Other examples:
CH2=C-CH=CH2: 2-methyl buta-1, 3-diene (technical name: isoprene)

CH3
CH3-CH=CH-: 1-propenyl
CH2=CH-: Ethenyl or vinyl
CH 3CH 2CH = CH 2 but-1-ene

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CH 3CH = CH -CH 3 but-2-ene

CH 3CH 2CH 2CH = CH 2 pent - 1 - ene
CH 3CH 2CH = CH - CH 3 pent - 2 - ene
c) Properties of alkenes
Physical properties of alkenes
Alkenes with less than 4 carbon atoms are gas at ordinary temperature; others are liquids
up to C18 while the remaining ones are solids.
Boiling points and melting points of alkenes are less than those of corresponding alkanes.
These increase as the molecular weight increases.
Alkenes are insoluble in water but soluble in most organic solvents.
Chemical properties of alkenes
Addition reactions: Alkenes undergo reactions in which the double bond is converted to
a single bond. These are called reactions of addition on the double bond.
(a) Addition of hydrogen (Reduction or hydrogenation)
This reaction occurs in the presence of a catalyst like Ni, Pt or Pd.
The general format for this reaction is: R − CH = CH − R'+ H 2 →

Pt
R − CH 2 − CH 2 − R'
C H 3 C H = C H − C H 3 + H 2  P
t
→ C H 3 C H 2 C H 2 C H 3 ∆ H = − 2 8 .6 k C a l
C H 3 C H = C H − C H 3 + H 2  P
t
→ C H 3 C H 2 C H 2 C H 3 ∆ H = − 2 7 .6 k C a l
(b) Addition of halogens on the double bond
Alkenes react by addition reaction with halogens to produce vicinal hydrogen halides.
Example: H2C=CH2 + Br2 → BrH2C-CH2Br

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(c) Addition of hydrogen halides (hydrogen acids)
It is schematized by the following general equation:

X
C C
H 2S O 4
C C + HX H
C C
Examples are: X
H H
H 3C C C H (9 9 % )
H H
Cl H
H 2S O 4
C + HCl
CH3 H
H H
H 3C C C Cl (1 % )
H H
CH3-CH2-CH=CH2 + HBr 
→ CH 3 − CH 2CH 2CH 2 Br (anti-Markownikov mechanism)
CH3-CH2-CH=CH2 + HBr 
→ CH 3 − CH 2CHBrCH 3 (Markownikov mechanism)
Combustion of alkenes: this produces carbon dioxide and water.

The general equation of the combustion of alkenes is the following:
3n n CO2 + n H2O
CnH2n + 2 O 2
The example is: CH2=CH2 + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 2 H2O: oxidation of ethylene
CASE STUDY: Ethylene or Ethene (CH2=CH2)
Preparation of C2H4 from C2H5OH
Ethylene is prepared by heating the mixture of ethanol (C2H5OH) and excess sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) with Al2O3 as dehydrating agent at a temperature of 170ºC according to the equation:
92f:3
CH3CH2OH (l) + Al2O3 (s) CDDDE CH2 = CH2 (g) + H2O (l)

Page 87
Figure: Apparatus for the laboratory preparation of ethylene
Note here that H2SO4 plays the role of a catalyst and drying agent.
Properties of ethene
Physical properties of ethene
Ethene is a colorless gas which burns in air to produce a smoky, luminous flame accompanied
with a release of water droplets.
Chemical properties of ethene
Halogenation: this can be chlorination, bromination, fluorination…
It is just the reaction with any halogen the general equation of which is:
H2C = CH2 + X2 → CH2Cl - CH2X where X can be Cl, Br…
Examples: H2C = CH2 + Cl2 → CH2Cl - CH2Cl: Dichloroethane
CH2 = CH2 + Br2 → CH2Br – CH2Br: Dibromoethane
Hydrogenation: this is the reaction with hydrogen commonly known as a reduction

reaction. For the case of ethene, this produces ethane.

Page 88
This is: CH2 = CH2 + H2 → CH3 - CH3 Ethane. This reaction can be catalyzed either by Ni, Pd
or Pt.
Hydrohalogenation: this is simply a reaction with hydrogen halides like HCl, HBr…
In the case of ethene, this produces either a chloroethane, bromoethane…
Example: CH2=CH2 + HCl → CH3-CH2Cl: chloroethane
Oxidation of ethene: this produces carbon dioxide and water. The equation is:
C2H4 + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 2H2O
Polymerization
Compounds with double bonds can combine repeatedly, 2 or more times, to form long chain
molecules. This reaction is called “polymerization reaction”. This is simply the combination of
a big number of small molecules called monomers into one bigger molecule called a polymer.
Ethylene units can add up to form a polymer called polyethylene according to the equation:
n(CH2 = CH2) → (- CH2 - CH2 -) n
The polyethylene is used as a fiber, in the fabrication of textiles...
Uses of ethylene
Ethylene is used to synthesize polyethylene and other synthetic rubbers having a crucial
role in the rubber industry.
Ethylene is also used in the manufacture of ethanol
Ethylene is used in the manufacture of detergents for hygienic perspectives
A.3. STUDY OF ALKYNES
a) Definition
Alkynes are hydrocarbons which contain at least one triple bond (C ≡ C) and they correspond to the
general formula CnH2n-2, where n is the number of carbon atoms which is obviously always greater than
one. Alkynes are divided into 2 main groups:
Terminal alkynes (with a terminal triple bond): R-C ≡ C − H

Non-terminal alkynes: R − C ≡ C − R '
b) Nomenclature of alkynes
Alkynes are named by replacing the suffix –ane of the corresponding alkanes or more accurately, the
suffix – ene of the corresponding alkenes by the suffix –yne.

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Note that other rules like the choice of the longest chain are not dropped. For alkynes, the longest chain
is of course the one that contains the biggest number of triple bonds (provided that no double bond is
present).
Examples: C2H2: Ethyne or acetylene
C3H4: Propyne
CH 3 − C ≡ C − C (CH 3 ) 2 − CH 3 : 4, 4-dimethyl pent-2-yne
CH 3 − C ≡ C − C ≡ C − CH 2 − CH 3 : Hept-2, 4- diyne
CH 2 = CH − CH 2 − CH 2 − C ≡ C − H : Hex-1-ene-5-yne
NB: In the case of any molecule that contains at the same time double and triple bonds, the double bond
takes priority on the triple bond when assigning the number, but the compound is named as alkyne.
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
: Hept-2-en-6-yne
E.g.: HC C CH2-CH2-CH=CH-CH3
Reactivity of alkynes
Hydrogenation: this results in the formation of alkenes and the alkanes depending on the
reactional conditions
Example: CH≡ CH + 2H2 → CH3-CH3 (with nickel as a catalyst)
Halogenation
Example: CH3 - C ≡ CH + Cl2 → CH3 - CCl = CHCl (with nickel as a catalyst)
Action of HCl on alkynes
Example: H- C≡ C - H + HCl → CH2 = CH - Cl
Note that all these are addition reactions

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B. STUDY OF ALCOHOLS.
1. Definition.
Alcohols are organic compounds that derive from hydrocarbons. In fact, alcohols can be thought
to derive from hydrocarbons by the simple replacement of one or more hydrogen atoms by one
or more –OH (hydroxyl) group(s).
They correspond to the general formula: CnH2n+1–OH or R-OH where R is a radical (alkyl or
aryl ≡phenyl).
2. Types of alcohols
Alcohols are called monohydric if only one hydroxyl group is present (e.g.: CH3CH2-OH).
Dihydric alcohols or diols are those with two hydroxyl groups, trihydric alcohols or triols and
polyhydric alcohols are those with 3 and many -OH groups respectively.
Monohydric alcohols are classified as follows:
Primary alcohols: These have only one alkyl group attached to the carbon carrying the –
OH group.
Example: CH3OH, CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH…
Secondary alcohols: these have two alkyl groups attached to the carbon carrying the –
OH group. The general formula is:
R
HO C '
R
Examples are:
H H
HO C CH3 HO C CH2CH3
CH3 CH3 OH Or
OH
the last 2 are cyclic alcohols.
Tertiary alcohols: these have three alkyl groups attached to the carbon carrying the –OH
group. The general formula is:
R
HO C '
R
''
R

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Examples are:
OH
CH3
HO C CH3 phenol
CH3
3. Nomenclature of alcohols
Alcohols are named by replacing the final<<e>> of the parent hydrocarbon with<< ol >>, and
then specifying the position of the -OH group (s) before putting -ol.
Examples are:
CH3OH: Methanol
CH3-CH2-OH: ethanol
CH3-CH2-CH2-OH: Propan-1-ol and CH3-CHOH-CH3: Propan-2-ol
H
HO C : butan-2-ol
CH2CH3
CH3 ; CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2OH: Butan-1-ol

OH
CH3
HO C CH3 :2-methyl propan-2-ol or Cyclohexanol

tertiobutanol
CH3
HOCH2-CH2OH: Ethan-1, 2-diol commonly known as ethylene glycol used as

antifreeze in some radiators of vehicles (especially in the rain season in European
country).
HOCH2-CHOH-CH2OH: propan-1, 2, 3-triol commonly known as glycerin or
glycerol.
CH3-CH=CH-CHOH-CH2-CHCl-CH3: 6-Chloro hept-2-en-3-ol
(CH3)2 CH-CHOH-CCH: 4-Methyl pent-1-yn-3-ol

Page 92
4. Properties of alcohols
Physical properties
Volatility
Alcohols’ members from C1 up to C11 are liquid at room temperature while others are
solid due to the presence of strong hydrogen bonds in their molecules.
Alcohols have relatively high boiling points (just about 100 times higher than those of
the corresponding hydrocarbons) which increase with the chain length. This is due to the
presence of the hydrogen bonds throughout their structures.
Solubility
Methanol, ethanol and propanol are miscible with water in all proportions and their
dissolution in water is an exothermic phenomenon.
Alcohols’ members beyond C5 are almost insoluble in water.
Chemical properties of alcohols
The reaction of alcohols can concern either the O-H bond or the C-O bond cleavage.
a) Reactions which involve the O-H bond cleavage
Action of very electropositive metals on alcohols
Electropositive metals like Na, K… react with alcohols to produce an alcolate along with
the evolution of the hydrogen gas characterized by the production of a “pop sound”. The
general equation for this reaction is:
2 R-OH + 2 Na 2 R-O-Na + H2(g)

Alcolate
Esterification reaction
The reaction of an alcohol with organic acids in the presence a mineral acid like H2SO4
(acting as a catalyst) produces an organic compound called ‘ester’. This reaction is
referred to as esterification reaction in that it produces an ester.
Esters are characterized by the fact that they have a palatable smell like that of a perfume.
The following are the alternatives of how this can happen:

Page 93
H 2S O
R ,- O H + R -C O O H
4
R -C O O R , + H 2O
0
100 C E s te r
R '- O H + R -C Cl
R -C O O R , + H C l
R ,- O H + R -C O O R R -C O O R , + R -C O O H
b) Reactions which involve the C-O bond cleavage
Action of a hydrogen halide (a hydracid) on an alcohol
This involves the substitution of the –OH group by a halogen to produce an alkyl halide.
An example is:
CH3CH2CH2CH2-OH + HBr CH3CH2CH2CH2-Br + H2 O
Action of phosphorus halide on an alcohol
This produces an alkyl halide as well. The examples are:
3 R-OH + PCl3 3 R-Cl + H3PO3

R-OH + PCl5 R-Cl + O=PCl3 + HCl
Similar reaction occurs with PBr3, PBr5, PI3 and PI5. In these reactions, the HCl gas
evolved suggests the presence of -OH group.
Action of thionyl halide on an alcohol
Alcohols react with thionyl chloride or bromide to form alkyl halides (chloride or bromide)
E.g.: R-OH + SOCl2 R-Cl + SO2 + HCl
Elimination reaction of alcohols
When heated with concentrated sulphuric acid, alcohols are dehydrated to form the
corresponding alkenes and a molecule of water. This often occurs at high temperature
(around 170oC).
An example is:

Page 94
H2SO4 CH3-CH=CH2 + H2O

CH3-CH2-CH2-OH 0
170 C
Dehydration of alcohols also occurs when vapors an alcohol are passed over a hot
aluminum oxide at about 3000C. The example is:
Al2 O3
CH3-CH2OH(g) CH2=CH2
3000C
c) Oxidation reactions of alcohols
This concerns mostly the carbon atom which carries the –OH group.
Primary and secondary alcohols are oxidized to aldehydes and ketones respectively in the
presence of K2Cr2O7 or CrO3 or KMnO4 acidified by concentrated nitric acid.
O
C r 2 O 7 2 - /H + C r 2 O 7 2 - /H +
R -C H 2 O H R -C R -C O O H
H e a tin g
p rim a ry H e a tin g H A C ID
a lc o h o l AA LD EH YDE
C r 2 O 7 2 - /H +
R -C H O H -R R -C O -R '
II n d a lc o h o l R'
H e a tin g K e to n e
C r 2 O 7 2 - /H +
R C R
'' n o re a c tio n
H e a tin g
O oHh o ls
te rtia ry a lc
Notice:
Tertiary alcohols resist oxidation

Aldehydes formed by oxidation of primary alcohols tend to undergo a further
oxidation to carboxylic acids.
This reaction helps us to distinguish between the primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols.

Page 95
CASE STUDY: ETHANOL (C2H5OH)
Preparation of ethanol
Like other alcohols, ethanol can be prepared by the following means:
Hydrolysis of an alkyl halide such as chloroethane (a substitution reaction)

Hydration of an alkene (here ethene) in the presence of conc.H2SO4 as a catalyst.
Reduction (hydrogenation) of a carbonyl compound, either a ketone or an aldehyde,
in the presence of a suitable catalyst like Pt, Ni or Pd to form a primary or a
secondary alcohol respectively.
aX/9B@A
Example: CH3CHO + H2 CDDDDE CH3CH2OH
By fermentation of carbohydrates (here glucose)
This method is mainly used to prepare ethanol industrially. Ethanol is prepared, by

fermentation process, from starch obtained in maize, cassava, millet, sorghum… and
sugar obtained in molasses.
Fermentation can be defined as a sequence of chemical changes in organic substances produced

by the action of enzymes produced by living microorganisms on biological substrates.
Alcoholic fermentation is particularly the process in which enzymes act on carbohydrates
to give simpler compounds like ethanol (alcohol) and CO2.
Alcoholic fermentation can start with 2 different types of raw materials, namely: starch
and sugar.
10. from starch
Malt obtained either from maize grain, millet, or cassava contains an enzyme called
diastase which catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch to maltose
(C6 H10O5 )n + n H 2O → n (C12 H 22O11 )

2 2 Maltose
At room temperature, yeast is added and one of its enzymes called maltase catalyzes the
hydrolysis of maltose to a simple sugar so called glucose. The equation for this is:
maltase
C12H22O11 + H 2O 2 C6H12O6
maltose Glucose
Page 96
Finally, another enzyme of yeast called zymase catalyzes the decomposition of glucose
Zymase
into ethanol. This is: C6H12O6 2 CH3CH2OH + 2CO2
20. from sugar
Molasses containing sugars is mixed with water and yeast. Leave the mixture free to
ferment.
One enzyme of the yeast called sucrase catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose present in the
molasses to glucose and fructose. The equation for this is:
Sucrase
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sucrose glucose fructose
Another enzyme of yeast called zymase catalyzes the decomposition of glucose to
Zymase
ethanol. This is: C6H12O6 2 CH3CH2OH + 2CO2
The ethanol obtained by fermentation process is only about 11%. This is made concentrated by
distillation which brings it at about 95% ethanol.
Properties of ethanol
a) Physical properties of ethanol
C2H5OH is a clear, colorless liquid with a characteristic pleasant smell.

Thanks to its low freezing point, C2H5OH has been used as a liquid in thermometers for
temperatures below -40oC (the freezing point of mercury).
b) Chemical properties of ethanol
C2H5OH is combustible. The reaction produces water and carbon dioxide as it is the case
for almost all organic compounds. The equation is:
C2H5OH + 3O2 → 3H2O + 2CO2
C2H5OH reacts with Na metal to produce hydrogen gas and sodium ethanoate:
2CH3 - CH2OH + 2Na → 2CH3 - CH2ONa + H2 (g)
C2H5OH reacts with organic acids to form esters in a reaction called esterification.
Example: CH3CH2OH + HOOC-CH3 → CH3CH2 – O- CO - CH3 + H2O

Page 97
Uses of C2H5OH
The ethanol is an ingredient of all fermented drinks. It is even a favorite drink for many people.
C. STUDY OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
1. Definition
Carboxylic acids or organic acids are organic compounds represented by the general formula
R-COOH, where R is an alkyl radical and COOH is the functional group for carboxylic acids.
Using the structural formula, the general formula for carboxylic acids is written as follows:
R OH
A carboxylic acid can have one, two or three carboxylic acid groups. In this way, we can have a
mono, di, tri or polyacid.
O
Note that the carboxylic acid contains both a carbonyl function ( ) to which a hydroxyl
group –O-H is attached.
2. Nomenclature of carboxylic acids
All in all, the carboxylic acid function is located at the end of the chain. During the numbering of
the main chain, the carbonyl carbon is assigned the number 1. The next thing is to name the acid
in a similar way as for the corresponding hydrocarbons by replacing the ending <<e>> by
<<oic>>.
For polyacids, the ending becomes <<dioic, trioic…>>.
Examples:
HCOOH: methanoic acid or formic acid.

CH3COOH: ethanoic acid or acetic acid
CH3-CH2-COOH: propanoic acid or propionic acid
CH3-(CH2)2 -COOH: Butanoic acid or butylic acid (butter)
CH3-(CH2)10 -COOH: Dodecanoic acid or lauric acid

Page 98
CH3-(CH2)12 -COOH: Tetradecanoic acid or myristic acid

CH3-(CH2)14 -COOH: hexanedecanoic acid or palmitic acid
CH3-(CH2)16-COOH: octanedecanoic acid or stearic acid.
HOOC -COOH: Ethanedioic acid or oxalic acid.
3) Chemical properties of carboxylic acids (reactivity)
10. Carboxylic acids react with electropositive metals, metal oxides, sodium carbonate, sodium
hydrogen carbonate, NH4OH and alkalis. The products for all these reactions are given in the
diagram below:
N a2C O 3
2 R -C O O N a + C O 2 + H 2O
Na
O R -C O O N a + 1 /2 H 2
Z nO Zn
R -C O O + H 2O
2
R OH
N aO H R -C O O N a + H 2O
N H 4O H R -C O O N H + H 2O
4
N aH C O 3 R -C O O N a + H 2O + CO 2
Note: a) The reaction of carboxylic acids with Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 are used:
(i)In qualitative analysis as the test for the presence of -COOH group. The evolution of a gas
(CO2) which turns lime water milky indicates the presence of a carboxylic acid.
20. Carboxylic acids react with phosphorus halides, thionyl chloride and ammonia and the
products are summarized in the following diagram:

Page 99
O
+ H 3 PO 3
PCl 3 R Cl
Cl
PCl 5
O + POCl 3 + HCl
O
R
SO Cl2
Cl R
+ SO 2 + HCl
R OH
O
NH 3 O
0 + H 2O
heat at 100 C
R NH 2
O O
P 2O 5 + H 2O
R O R
30. Carboxylic acids react with alcohols to produce esters in an esterification reaction. An
example is: CH3CH2OH + HOOC-CH3 → CH3CH2 – O- CO - CH3 + H2O
40. Reaction involving carbonyl group
Carboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols on treatment with LiAlH4, NaBH4 (sodium
borate), or by the use of hydrogen in the presence of Ni, Pt or Pd as a catalyst. The products are
summarized in the following diagram:
O H
H
L iA lH / e th e r
4
R H p ri
O H ma
O H ry
N aB H 4 /E th e r
R H
R O H al
Ni O H co
H hol
heat
R H
50. Reaction involving the carboxylic group as a whole.
This is mainly the reaction of a carboxylic acid with caustic soda (NaOH) in the manufacture of
alkanes. Na2CO3 is given as a by-product.
The example is:

Page 100
O
O NaOH NaOH
H + Na2CO3
R
R ONa heat at high T
Alkane
R OH
NaOH NaOH
CH3CH2COOH CH3CH2COONa CH3-CH3 + Na2CO3
T
Ethane
propanoic acid sodium propanoate
4. Methods of preparation of carboxylic acids
Carboxylic acids are often prepared from primary alcohols and/or aldehydes. Primary alcohols
are oxidized first to aldehydes and then the further oxidation of aldehydes results in the
formation of carboxylic acids.
The example is:
+ +
R − CH 2OH    → RCHO 
K 2Cr2O7 / H / Heat
  → RCOOH
K 2Cr2O7 / H / Heat
+ +
CH 3 − CH 2OH    → CH 3CHO 
K 2Cr2O7 / H / Heat
  → CH 3COOH
K 2Cr2O7 / H / Heat
Note: With the use of very strong oxidizing agents like acidified K2Cr2O7 or CrO3, the primary
alcohols are immediately oxidized to carboxylic acids.
D. ESTERS AND SAPONIFICATION.
1. Definition of an ester: RCOOR’
An ester is the product of the action of an organic acid on an alcohol accompanied with the
elimination of a molecule of water. The general equation for this reaction is:
R C OOH + R' – OH → R - CO - O - R' + H2O
Carbonic acid alcohol ester water
Example: CH3 - CH2 - COOH + H - OC2H5 → CH3-CH2- C O-O-CH2-CH3 + H2O
Propyl ethanoate or propyl acetate
2. Nomenclature of esters
The name of an ester is found by replacing the ending ‘’oic’’ of the acid by ‘’oate’’ preceded by
the name of the hydrocarbon radical.

Page 101
Examples: HCOOCH3 Methyl methanoate or methyl formiate
CH3COOCH3 Methyl acetate or methyl ethanoate
CH3COOCH2CH3 Ethyl acetate or ethyl ethanoate
CH3CH2COOCH2CH2CH3 Propyl propanoate or propyl propionate
3. Hydrolysis and saponification of esters
* Hydrolysis: this is the decomposition by water of the ester into originating alcohol and
carboxylic acid. The general equation for this is:
R –COOR ' + H2O → R-COOH + R'OH
Example: CH3CH2-OOCCH3 + H2O → CH3COOH + CH3CH2OH
Ester carbonic acid alcohol
* Saponification: this is the reaction between an ester and a strong base or alkali like NaOH or
KOH to produce a soap. The general equation for this synthesis is:
R -COO- R' + NaOH → R -COONa + R'OH
Ester base soap alcohol
Industrially, one prepares glycerin by the following reaction:
CH2 O C R CH2 OH
3 N aO H
HC O C O -R HC OH + 3 R -C O O N a
R H e at so ap
H 2C O C H 2C OH
fats stru c tu re g ly cerin e
O
W h e re R is of th e g e n era l fo rm u la: CH3 (C H 2 ) n : if n = 1 4 :p alm itin e fat

if n = 1 6 : stea rin fat

Page 102
POLYMERIZATION
1. Introduction and definition.
Compounds with double bonds can combine repeatedly, 2 or more times, to form long chain
molecules. This reaction is called “polymerization reaction”. This is simply the combination of
a big number of small molecules called monomers into one bigger molecule called a polymer.
Example: Ethylene units can add up to form a polymer called polyethylene according to the
equation: n (CH2 = CH2) → (- CH2 - CH2 -) n
In the above equation, n indicates the degree of polymerization or Index of polymerization

which stands for the number of monomers used to produce the polymer.
For most of polymers, the degree of polymerization is often > 1000.
2. Types of polymers
Depending on their origin, 2 main types of polymers do exist, namely:
Natural polymers such as natural rubber…

Synthetic or artificial polymers such as synthetic rubber, plastics…
1º Natural Polymers
Natural polymers are those naturally found often in plants and/or, to a lesser extent, in animals.
These include among other things polyisoprene, cellulose, chitin, natural rubber…
2º artificial polymers
Artificial polymers are those ones which are chemically and synthetically manufactured using
modern synthetic methods. These include synthetic rubber, polyethylene, nylon-6, 6, PVC…
RECAPITULATION EXERCISES
IT IS BY HERE THAT THE SYLLABUS ENDS. THE NEXT TASK COMES TO YOU!
IT CONSISTS OF THE APPROPRIATION OF ALL THE DEVELOPED THEORIES SO
AS TO MAKE THEM YOURS. REMEMBER THAT THE SUCCESS LIES IN THE
QUALITY OF YOUR OWN WORK. SO, TAKE CARE AND BE LEARNING
EVERYTIME.
THANK YOU!!!

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Chemistry Syllabus For Year Three (1

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Chemistry syllabus for senior three ordinary level

Chapter 1: CONCEPT OF A MOLE

a. The relative atomic mass and relative molecular mass.

a.1. Relative atomic mass

Other examples of absolute masses: N has 23.3×10-24g, C has 19.9×10-24g…

Prepared by Christopher NSENGIYUMVA, a teacher at Kayumbu Secondary School

The RAM of H is 1.67×10-24g/1.66×10-24g=1.

a.2. Relative molecular mass

Examples: For water (H2O), the Mr=1×2+16×1=18.

For NaCl, the Mr=23+35.5=58.5.

b) Average atomic mass

Prepared by Christopher NSENGIYUMVA, a teacher at Kayumbu Secondary School

c) Avogadro constant, Avogadro number and definition of a mole

The Avogadro constant is noted NA=6.023.1023 entities/mole.

By definition, a mole of a substance is the quantity of material containing 6.023.1023ultimate

A mole of carbon-12 contains 6.023x1023 atoms of C-12 and has a mass of 12 g.

A mole of 35Cl contains 6.023.1023 atoms of Cl and has a mass of 35 g.

Therefore, the Avogadro constant can be calculated as NA=12 g /2.0×10-23 g = 6.023x1023.

An atom-gram: It is the mass (expressed in grams) which contains 6.023.1023 atoms.

2˚ Molar mass and calculation of number of moles

E.g.: The molar mass of water is 18 g/mole

The molar mass of H2CO3 is 62 g/mole

3˚Normal molar volume of a gas

Prepared by Christopher NSENGIYUMVA, a teacher at Kayumbu Secondary School

c) 49gr of H2SO4? d) 1kgr of sugar?

2. Calculate the number of atoms contained in

a) 2gr of H2O b) 15gr of H2 c) 2gr of CO2

3. Calculate the number of atoms contained in: a) 12gr of Zn b) 6.755 moles of Pb

4. How many moles of atoms are equivalent to each of the following:

b) 2.225× 1023 atoms of Ba

5. Calculate the mass corresponding to the quantity of:

b) 300moles of C3H8 c) 2.10-2 Moles of NaClO

B. STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS (STOICHIOMETRY)

1) Molar and mass reading of a reaction

Given the reaction: A + B → C

Answer: The equation of the reaction is: Fe + S → FeS

Prepared by Christopher NSENGIYUMVA, a teacher at Kayumbu Secondary School

This is recorded in the following table:

2) Concept of LIMITING REAGENT/REACTANT

i. What is the limiting reactant in this reaction?

xii. The number of moles of O2 reacted

Answer: Data: 25 L of O2 are mixed with 15 L of methane.

The balanced equation is: CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

CH4 O2 CO2 H2O

Prepared by Christopher NSENGIYUMVA, a teacher at Kayumbu Secondary School

3) Determination of the centesimal mass composition

Exercise: Determine the centesimal composition of each element in aluminum sulphate:

4) Determination of empirical, molecular and structural formulae

a) The empirical formula

Prepared by Christopher NSENGIYUMVA, a teacher at Kayumbu Secondary School

b) The molecular formula

1) Determine the empirical formula.

The empirical formula is C1H2 or CH2

(MmCH2) × n =Mm of the whole compound.

Prepared by Christopher NSENGIYUMVA, a teacher at Kayumbu Secondary School

Determine the empirical formula of the substance

a) The empirical formula b) The molecular formula

6) A hydrocarbon contains 82.8% of carbon and the rest is hydrogen

a) Determine the empirical formula

Being given the molecular formula of glucose as C6H12O6,

a) Determine its empirical formula

b) Determine the centesimal composition in C, H and O for glucose

Prepared by Christopher NSENGIYUMVA, a teacher at Kayumbu Secondary School