Module 1, Specific Objective 1

Location and Definition of the Caribbean Region and Diaspora:

There are Several Definitions of the Caribbean Regions:

1. Geographical.
2. Geological.
3. Historical.
4. Political.
5. Diaspora.

Each Definition has Advantages and Disadvantages. Each Definition Adds Something Unique about the
Caribbean but No Definition is Complete, i.e., No Definition Provides an Absolute Definition of the
Caribbean since each One has its Limitations.

Overview:

Geographic Definition: The Core / Central Point is that the Caribbean Sea is the "Common
Denominator". It deals with all Above the Surface. E.g. Landforms, Rivers.

Geological Definition: The Subterranean Earth is inspected in terms of Geological Evolution: The
Formation and the Crustal Dynamics of the Caribbean Region.

Historical Definition: The History of the Caribbean is a Shared Commonality between the Caribbean
Nations. The Historical Definition Encompasses Geographical, Geological, Political and Diasporic
Definitions and is hence the most Complete of all the Definitions

The Historical Definition Factors in all of the Major Historical Events from Pre-Colombian to Now, i.e.,
all of the Catalytic Events that Shaped the Caribbean to what it has become. Among these are:

1. Migration: Movement of People to a New Area or Country in order to find Work or Better Living
Conditions.

2. Colonisation: The Process of Settling among and Establishing Control over the Indigenous
(Native) People of an Area.

3. Imperialism: A way of Governing in which Large / Powerful Countries seek to extend their Authority
beyond their Own Borders.

4. Labour Systems.

5. Cultural Impact: Economic and Political.

Political Definition: This Seeks to Examine the Impacts of Organised Governmental Structures in the
Evolution of the Caribbean. An Assessment of how European Politics Leads to Political Diversity, Political
Structures, Nationalism and even Political Models that Exist Today.

Diasporic Definition: This Seeks to evaluate and understand how the Movements of People Overtime
have affected the Caribbean Society Socially, Culturally and Racially. The Diasporic Definition is based
upon an Appreciation that the Caribbean is a Plural Society with Unique Benefits and Challenges.

In Depth:

Geographical Definition: The Caribbean Lies in the Latitudes of 2oN to 24oN. The Southerly part of the
Caribbean Begins in South America with Suriname on the Mainland and the Northerly part of the
Caribbean Ends in Turks and Caicos.

One of the Primary Features of the Geographic Caribbean is the Archipelagic Nature of the Islands. An
Archipelago is a Chain of Islands that is Closely Related at a Subterranean Level.

The Archipelago of the Caribbean Stretches between 2 Continents: The North and South American
Continent. The Archipelago of the Caribbean has a Unique Geological Foundation that is not Consistent
for all Caribbean Territories. The Geographical Caribbean must also include the Isthmus of Panama.

The Weather Patterns is also a Factor of the Location of the Caribbean Territories. Generally, the
Caribbean is said to enjoy a Tropical Type Climate because we are in a Tropical Region lying between the
Equator and the Tropic of Cancer. Even though the Majority Enjoy Tropical Climate, the South American
Countries enjoy an Equatorial Climate.

Rainfall therefore differs, which Impacts the Flora and Fauna. The Majority of the Caribbean Region has:
Dry and Wet Seasons. The Dry Season is from January to May and the Wet Season is from June to
December.

The Caribbean is governed by One Prevailing Wind System: The North Eastern Trade Winds. The Trade
Winds give Rise to the Hurricane Season. Torrential Rains occur as an effect of these deadly Hurricanes.

The Caribbean is thus Susceptible to similar Meteorological Hazards. A Hazard is the term given to a
Naturally Occurring Event that Proposes a Potential to cause Damage. A Disaster is when the Hazard has
impacted upon the Society. Temperatures Range from Low Twenties to Mid Thirties. Rainfalls Vary by
Size of Territory, Highlands, Vegetation and Season.

One Distinct Feature of the Geographical Definition is the Body of Water that is contained by the
Archipelago and the Isthmus of Panama: The Caribbean Sea. The Caribbean should be every area that
the Caribbean Sea touches but this is not so (E.g.: Barbados, Turks and Caicos).
Historical Definition: The Most Complete Definition. It truly engages all Countries we Consider
Caribbean since the Islands share a Common History. History has impacted the Past and still is Impacting
on us today, thus, the Events Range from Pre-Amerindian to Current.

Migration of Amerindians into the Caribbean took place starting at the South American Mainland, from
the Isthmus of Panama and Florida. Historically, the Caribbean was Populated by Migration, and this still
Continues on Today since People are Constantly Moving Into / Out of the Caribbean in Seek of Enhanced
Opportunities.

Overtime, several Migratory Movements have been noted: European, Forced African Migration, East
Indian and Chinese coming to provide labour. Also, there would have been several Labour
Organizations:

1. Repartimiento (Amerindian).
2. Encomienda (Amerindian).
3. Slavery (African).
4. Indentureship (Chinese, East Indian, Whites).

All these Labour Systems were triggered by European Imperialism. In order for the Europeans to Gain
Control of the New Land, European Policies and Politics had to be superimposed. Therefore, the
Historical Definition is an "Umbrella" of the Political and Diasporic Definitions.

Political Definition: Formal Politics Entered the Caribbean in 1492 with the Spanish Coming. The
Discovery of New Lands Triggered a Wave of Exploration until 1502.

These Expeditions led to Ownership of the New World (Canada to Chile) Territory. The Europeans came
with an Attitude of "Ownership.". The Intentions of the Europeans were to exploit the New World. Their
Policies therefore became Exploitative.

The Goal of the Europeans was to take from the New World to make them Wealthier. The Exploitations
that began in the 15th Century became a Legacy that lasts even until this day. The Tremendous Amount
of Wealth being extracted from the New World led to other European Nations fighting for the New
World.

They began to Challenge Spain for this Wealth. By the end of 1503, there were 4 European Countries
(Spain, England, Holland and Portugal) fighting to get a Foothold in the New World. European Politics
and Policies thus entered the New World. Policies made Governance real; to bring Change.

One of the 1st major policies regarding the Caribbean is the "Treaty of Tordesillas, 1494". This
Referenced the Roman Catholic Nations of Europe: Spain and Portugal. At that time, the Roman Catholic
Church was the Powerhouse. The Treaty States that the Pope came in to Resolve Problems with Spain
and Portugal. The Pope Agreed that the Wealth should be Shared between Spain and Portugal.

He drew an Imaginary Line 2,193 kilometres to the West of the Cape Verde Islands, gave Portugal the
Land to the East of this Line, and gave Spain the land to the West of this Line. This Treaty was Signed at
Tordesillas, which is how the Treaty got its Name. This is why Brazil is Portuguese (2 nd Formal Political
Power in the Caribbean: Brazil).

Repartimiento Labour System and Encomienda became Policies Crafted by European People to Pursue
Wealth.

Repartimiento: This is Translated to "The Requirement" in English. It was a Superimposed Agreement

Crafted by the King of Spain which Required Amerindians to Work for him as his Subjects.

This Labour Policy caused: Exploitation, Repression and Inhumanity. The Repartimiento lead to
Genocide of the Amerindians. There was no Emphasis on Taking Care of the Amerindians (Since they
were "Extra" {Originally, the Spanish Searched for Wealth and then Found them as well} and thus Easily
Replaceable)

1492   Discovery of the New World.

1494   Tordesillas

1512   Laws of Burgos

The Laws of Burgos Stated that the Ill-Treatment of the Amerindians would no Longer Occur. The Laws
of Burgos was a Policy that came into Effect since the Repartimiento nearly Killed all the Amerindians.
Bartolomew De Las Casas spoke to the King of Spain and the Repartimiento ended.

Encomienda: This is a Spanish Labour Policy that came after the Repartimiento in 1512. It Differed from
the Repartimientoi Theory; not Practice. The Enconiendero (Creator of the Encomienda) was
Responsible for Turning Amerindians to the "One True Faith." It was a Continued Exploitation.

The Spanish Monarch Decided that the Native Population should be Divided amongst Spaniards, who
had the Right to Extract from them Forms of Tribute: Produce, Gold or Personal Service. In Return, the
Spaniards would Guarantee Religious Instruction in the Roman Catholic Faith.

In Reality, the Amerindians were Treated as Slaves and put to Work in the Mines. They Quickly Died
from Hunger, Overwork, Harsh Punishments, European Diseases and Suicide. The System of Production
was a "Get Rich-Quick" Scheme where Resources were taken from a Conquered People By Forced
Labour and sent to Spain to Increase Spain's Power and Prestige in Europe.

The Encomienda Lasted only a Few Years. In 1518, the Asiento Marked the Permission by the King of
Spain to Bring in African People to Work in the Caribbean. In 1518, the Africans were the 3 rd Set of
People in the New World.

In the Course of European Labour Policies, the Labour Vacuum Triggered the Importation of New
People. The Africans were the First to come in. After they were Emancipated in 1830s, another Vacuum
Began: The East Indians.
The Interlopers: European Nations (except Portugal) became Jealous of Spain's "Get Rich Scheme."
Thus, a new Challenge Arose to Spain's Ownership of the New World.

An Interloper is a Person who Interferes in the Affairs of Others.

The Interlopers (England, France, Holland) Challenged Spain and hence, European Politics and
Animosities Entered the New World. Warfare in the Caribbean Occurred and Territories Changed Hands;
Leading to Political Turmoil.

Because of the Interlopers, there have been Several "Parents" of the Nations, ie, Changing Hands of the
Territories (Eg. Trinidad   From Spanish to French to English, Until it Settled Down Today). We are
Justified in Saying that there is a Diversity of Political Structures Present in the Caribbean.

Eg. There are Political Democracies and even Colonies such as Montserrat.

British Territories: Westminster Whitehall Parliamentary Democracy.

French: Departements.

Breakdown of Political Affiliations:

Country. Caribbean Islands Associated with the Country.

Netherlands Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao (ABC Islands)

Suriname, St. Eustatius.

French Martinique, Haiti, French Guyana, Guadeloupe.

England Cayman Islands, Jamaica, Bahamas, Turks and Caicos, British Virgin Islands, Anguilla,
Antigua and Barbuda, St. Kitts and Nevis, Montserrat, Dominica, St. Lucia, St Vincent
and the Grenadines, Barbados, Grenada, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Belize.

Spain Cuba, Dominican Republic.

United States Puerto Rico, US Virgin Islands.

What Began 500 Years ago in Political Control, still Continues today. Even though there are Independent
Countries / Republics (Eg. Trinidad and Tobago), we are still Controlled by European Politics.

Social and Cultural Dynamics are Influenced by European Social and Cultural Norms. Therefore, we were
Controlled Politically by things such as European Politics, Religions and Languages.

The Political Systems such as British Democracy, French Departements and Associated States (Puerto
Rico) Displayed that we have Borrowed Forms of Government from them.
The Interlopers became Formalized in the New World when Spain Conceded Its Monopoly. In 1605, a
Political Treaty called the "Treaty Of London" Stated that Spain gave up their Privileges to the New
World.

However, Spain Held on to the South American Territories and the Greater Antilles (Jamaica, Cuba,
Hispaniola, Puerto Rico). Spain wanted the Greater Antilles because they contained Resources: Gold and
Silver namely.

Diasporic Definition: "Diaspora" Implies the Movement of People. With this, there is Inevitable
Movement of Social and Cultural Elements from One Place to Another. The Caribbean had several
Migratory Movements from South Africa, Europe and Asia and this led to a Racially Diverse Reality in the
Caribbean today, Known as "Cultural Plurality".

Cultural Pluralism is a term Associated with the Cultural Diversity Resulting from European Colonizations
when Different Groups were Brought Together either Forcibly or Under Contract. In a Plural Society,
There are Two or More Ethnic Groups who Share the Same Space and Interact Regularly.

Racial Diversity Leads to even more Pluralisation through Hybridization. It is True to say that in a Post
Emancipation Context, there has been a Greater Level of Outward Diasporic Movement.

Diaspora Deals with Movement in and out of a Country. Previous to all of the Labour Systems, there
have been African, Chinese and East Indians Diaspora. Today, there is only an Outward Moving Diaspora.
This is because when they Leave the Caribbean, they are no Longer "African, Chinese, East Indian" but
they have Created their own Identity as "Caribbean People".

Geological Definition: The Geological basis of the Caribbean expresses great diversity as there are
several factors responsible for the formation of Caribbean territories.

The Caribbean is comprised of mainland, continental territories, volcanic islands, coral islands and uplift
islands. The Caribbean can be broken up into parts or regions using a geographical basis.

In the Caribbean, there are certain groups created due to Geological Action, which may coincide with
Political Factors. Eg. The Greater Antilles, Lesser Antilles, Netherlands Antilles, South American
territories, Central American territories, Bahamas, Turks and Caicos   All have different geological
action.

The Greater Antilles are estimated to be older than the Lesser Antilles (Greater Antilles   60-90 million
years old, Lesser Antilles   40 million years old). Age is too far apart to be the same thing. The Greater
Antilles were formed out of Tectonic Movements (Folding and Faulting) on a scale more than the Lesser
Antilles.

Plate Tectonic Theory: The Earth is made up of several layers that differ in temperature and viscosity. At
the centre, there is a super hot core of metal that gradually cools and forms an outward layer which is
firm and cool. Plate Tectonics suggests the crustal shell is broken up in several places and allow
movements due to internal convection currents. Movements involve plates moving in relation to each
other, resulting in different plate margins:

Convergent: Plates move in opposite direction and cause Destruction.

Divergent: Plates move away from each other and are Constructive.

Transform: Plates Slip past each other.

The Caribbean Plate is an Oceanic Plate. It is bound on all sides by much larger, older and denser plates.
Due to the number of neighbouring plates, the Caribbean lies in a very active area. This can be
catastrophic in human society. The Caribbean is thus susceptible to Earth Activity, Volcanic Eruption and
Tsunamis.

The Lesser Antilles consist of Inner and Outer Arcs of islands that coincide with the Plate Boundaries.
The Inner Arc is Volcanic in nature and the Outer Arc is Limestone in nature. Because there are two
different Geological Bases, the Geological Nature will be different.

The Inner Arc possess Volcanic Features such as Dormant and Active Volcanoes, Sharp Relief, High
Mountains, Rich Black Volcanic Soil, Little or no Continental Shelf and Primary or Secondary Volcanic
Features.

The Geological Basis is important for Social and Cultural affiliations. Eg. Due to the Volcanic Nature of
some islands, there is Volcanic Tourism. Hot Springs and Sulphur Springs form part of Health Tourism in
Guyana. The Pitch Lake in Trinidad contains sulphur which aids in treat arthritis.

The Outer Arc of Islands is more westerly, hence, there was a different geological origin. The Outer Arc
of Islands is Emergent Islands: They came out of the Sea over 10 million years ago due to convergence of
American Plates.

Because of the slow emergence, it facilitated the formation of Coral Islands on underwater Plateaus. The
Tectonic Nature of the Caribbean has resulted in the formation of Volcanic and Limestone features. This
is exclusively for the Lesser Antilles.

The Caribbean has several active volcanic sites and earth movements that occur in the Greater Antilles.

Major Earthquakes in the Caribbean:

1. Fort Royal: Old Capital of Jamaica destroyed in 1602.

2. Kingston: 1907.
3. Kingston: 1957.
4. Haiti: 2010.

Earthquakes are centered on Greater Antilles in the Northern part of the Caribbean. The Kick em' Jenny
volcano threatened recently. Hence, the Caribbean Plate is a very active plate and it is surrounded by
four major, denser tectonic plates.
The Dominican Passage separates the Leeward Islands (French) from the Windward Islands (English).
The Dominican Passage is a virtual, linguistic and political division. "Leeward: and "Windward" have
nothing to do with "Winds".

There are two submarine geological structures that mark the Caribbean Plate: The Caiman Trough and
the Puerto Rico Trench. The Puerto Rico Trench is estimated to be 8400 metres deep due to folding.

The deep waters attract special fish since they prefer these territories. Sport Fishing begins and this
attracts Tourism while other people benefit from the creation of jobs.
Module 1, Specific Objective 2
The Historical Process

Migratory Movements and Settlement Patters from Pre-Colombian Times:

There are several different major migrations that took place over time. To best examine this, one should
look at large periods of time.

Pre Columbian: This is before Christopher Columbus. The Caribbean is said to be populated due to
movement from South America and Central America.

The New World came to be populated due to movements of the Asiatic (Asian) People from Bering Land
Bridge. The first people to populate the Americas were believed to have migrated across the Bering Land
Bridge while tracking large animal herds. The first Americans migrated into North America from Asia
more than fourteen to twenty thousand years ago via an overland route across the frozen Land Bridge.
The bridge formed ice due to long periods of icy weather. This puts a pre-dominant characteristic on the
New World. Migration thus became a pattern.

The oldest known remains in the Caribbean were found in Rock Road, Penal, Trinidad (Banwarie Man).
He was about 7000 years old.

The first group of people found was called the Ciboney and they primarily existed in the Lesser Antilles.
The next known migration was the Tinos (Note: Arawak is the language.) and the last group of
Amerindians was the Kalinagos (Caribs). Their movement was from around 1000 BC.

The Tinos primarily inhabited the Greater Antilles and the Caribs inhabited the Lesser Antilles. When the
Europeans first came, they met the Tinos. The large concentration of Tinos in the Greater Antilles meant
more labour for Europeans.

The Caribs were "war like" in nature. The Caribbean was hence named after the "Caribs". The Tinos
people were able to achieve a high level of cementary living in contrast to the Caribs who were still
moving.

The Tinos had a very Dependable Advanced Scientific Agricultural Practice. One of their main crops was
the cassava. The Kalinagos were very fierce people and often times exploited Tinos. They would capture
Tinos people for sacrifice (Eating them for Ceremonial Purposes).

The Kalinagos became a major part of European history because they resisted European Oppression
much more than the Tinos. The Caribs introduced a sense of Resistance, Resilience and Rebellion into
the Caribbean Socio-Cultural Spectrum. This lasts even till this day.
The Amerindians suffered under Europeans and this then led to Genocide of the Amerindians at the
hands of the Europeans. The Amerindians would have succumbed due to one way or the other:

1. Diseases brought by Europeans: Amerindians were initially isolated from diseases ravaging
Europe as they were no Influenza in the New World. After interaction with the Europeans,
some Amerindians died due to STDs, and Air Borne Diseases. These diseases wrecked havoc
on the Amerindians.

2. Wars of European Conquest: Amerindians defended their homes. The Europeans, however,
had advanced metal, guns and gunpowder. The Amerindians were totally annihilated and they
died.

3. War Animals: Eg. Dogs, Horses let loose on Amerindians. The military might of the Europeans
far exceeded that of the Amerindians.

4. Destruction of Food Supplies: Corns and Potatoes were destroyed by the Europeans and the
Amerindians starved to death.

5. Slavery in the Mines: Repartimiento or Encomienda.

1492: This year signalled a turning point in history. It is the year of "Discovery". There was a
Superimposition of a Eurocentric / Ethnocentric Attitude of Ownership, Domination and Exploitation
upon the Caribbean since the Caribbean was described as being inferior.

The New World opened up avenues for European Wealth Exploitation. Europeans look upon the New
World with the attitude of Ownership. This becomes a Pattern / Legacy that goes on in the Caribbean
today. In the Pursuit of Wealth, Labour Systems (Eg. Repartimiento, Encomienda) become necessary.

The 3rd major movement into the Caribbean was the African Forced Movement preceded by the
Europeans and Amerindians, in the year 1518. More and more Ethnicities created a Plural Society and
this becomes a Legacy. There were more European Nations in the Caribbean.

New Political Powers and new Races meant that the Social and Cultural Reality of the Caribbean began
and remains in a Diversified Manner.

African Slavery firstly existed in Brazil. The Portuguese brought the first major Plantation type Crop:
Sugar Cane. Although Brazil isn't a Caribbean country, Slavery and Agriculture became a Paradigm in the
Caribbean.

Spain used their Slaves for Mining while the French, British and Dutch used their Slaves for Agriculture.

1807: In this year, there was the creation of the Abolition Act. This ensured closure of the Slave Trade,
meaning, no more African Slaves were brought. However, it does not mean the End of Slavery. The
Current Slaves, as well as Children of those Slaves, remained Slaves.
1834: The Apprenticeship Program started. This was considered the Transition Phrase from Slavery to
Freedom. Elements of both Freedom and Slavery were contained. The Apprentice had to work 40 hours
of the week for the Master and the Master pays him in return. This, to the Africans, was a Perpetuation
of Atrocities as harsh Working Conditions and terrible Personal Treatment didn't change. The
Apprenticeship program was the beginning of the end of Slavery.

1838: The Passage of the Emancipation Act was signed. This is the freedom of African Slaves. For the 2 nd
time, a Labour Vacuum was created for the New World. There were Two Types of Movements taking
place: African People moving out while Chinese People were moving in. Chinese were the first Asians,
followed by East Indians.

Because they were Emancipated, Africans began to move away from the Plantations. They sought
opportunities in places such as Brazil, Panama, Venezuela, Cuba and Guyana (Larger places with more
land).

Additionally, the Africans, after Emancipation, were seeking land to hide from the Europeans. They
started a Self-Sufficient Type Living; creating a new group in the Caribbean called the Peasantry. The
Africans resisted European control.

The Coco Penòl comes to fill a labour vacuum left by the Africans in the Cocoa fields. These people were
typically "Red"   A mixture of White and African.

6000 – 4000 B.C.   Amerindians into the Caribbean.

1492   Europeans into the Caribbean.

1518   Africans moved into the Caribbean by force.

1838   Africans out of the Caribbean (1st Outward Caribbean diaspora).

1838   Chinese Indentureship into the Caribbean.

1838   Coco Penòl from Venezuela into the Caribbean.

1845   East Indians into the Caribbean.

There are Sociological Impacts (How People Think, Live, Operate) across the Caribbean due to
Movements into, out of or between Caribbean Countries. Because the Europeans had the reigns of
Power Overtime, they would have influenced the Social, Institutional and Cultural Norms and
Frameworks.

Social Institutions, which comprises of Culture, are the big ideas that people use to structure their lives.
Because of European Social Institutional and Cultural Norms, Cultural Imperialism was formed. Due to
the White Man's Power and Ability to Dominate and Oppress, his Culture and Habits become perceived
as "Superior". As the saying goes, "What is White is Right, What is Black is Blank."
The number of Inputs into the Caribbean creates many Variables that are still being worked out: Socially
and Culturally.

Sociological Phenomena Operating in the Caribbean Today:

Sociological Phenomena Definition

Cultural Imperialism The practice whereby a Dominant Culture (usually a Technology Superior
Group) attempts to promote their own Culture and Belief over that of
Another (Usually a Country with Fewer Resources).

Hybridization The Fusion of two or more groups of People or Cultural Practices to produce
a New Entity with Elements of each of the Parent Influences.
Eg. Mixed Ethnic Groupings.

Creolization The Meeting and Mixing of Cultures to produce something new out of the
Fusion.

Transculturalation Cultural Change involving the Whole Society, sometimes due to Political
Upheavals. The steady import of enslaved Africans into the Caribbean
drastically altered all aspects of Society and Culture.

Interculturation The Cultural Mixing that occurs in a Plural Society where Ethnic Groups may
live with Limited Mixing yet elements of their Cultures become Incorporated
into each other's way of Life.

Syncretism The Mixing of Cultural Practices from different Ethnic Groups to create a
Hybrid or a different Entity Fusing Aspects of the Original Practices. Eg.
Musing, Culinary Arts, Religion.

Cultural Pluralism Different Cultural or Racial Groups in a Society mixing only to a certain
extent, with limited Social and Cultural Integration.

Cultural Diversity Different Ethnic Traditions (Evident in Race, Language, Religion, Customs,
Family Practices) found in one Society or Religion.

Cultural Erasure Practices that have died out or are dying out.

Enculturation The process of Socialization that Enable (or coerce) us to learn the ways of
life of a Cultural Group.

Assimilation The Absorption of a Cultural Group into the Norms and Values of a
Dominant Group through Acculturation.

Acculturation is the imposition of a dominant's group way of life on another

group.
Socialization The Process whereby Members learn to be Human; they learn the Rules that
Society has devised for Living and Interacting in Society.

Social Stratification / Social Stratification is the ranking of Social Groups according to Wealth,
Social Mobility Status and Prestige.

Social Mobility is the Movement of an Individual or a Group from one Socio-

Economic Class to another, usually higher up in the System of Social
Stratification.

Class Consciousness and Classism is the Belief or Attitudes that relegate Persons to Limited Options
Classism; Colour or Portray them Negatively because of their Socio-Economic Class.
Consciousness.

Socio-Economic and
Political Models being
Hybridized.

Social Institutions A set of Valued Ideas and Beliefs which varies from one Society to another
and from which Members create their Social Organizations.

Social Organizations Arrangements that Society makes to carry out its Basic Functions and which
are based on the Ideas and Beliefs of its Social Institutions. Eg. The ideas a
society has about Religion may be reflected in Organizations such as
Churches.

Material Culture The Objects that a Group produces and which differ significantly from the
Material Culture of other groups. Eg. Clothing, Art, Tech. Products.

Non-Material / Symbolic The Ideas, Beliefs, Values, Assumptions and Behaviours of a People.
Culture

Race Politics The Practice of Politicians exploiting the issue of Race to forward an Agenda.

Formation of Minorities: A Minority Group is a group, usually an Ethnic Group, that may or may not
Sub-Cultures and be Numerically Inferior to a more Dominant Group, which Limits their
Alienated Groups Access to Education, Employment, Land and other Rights.

They have no Political Power and their Values and Traditions are Marginal to
the Society.

Subculture is a smaller Group within the Mainstream who is Distinguished

by Characteristics and Values that set them apart.

Class, Gender, Political Affiliation, Sexual Orientation, Religious Minority and

Age are the bases for kinds of Subculture.
The previous Phenomena couldn't exist without Migration. There are Legacies of European Intervention
and currently pose Development Challenges today.

Movement out of the Caribbean:

This has always been stimulated by the Desire for Better Opportunities. The 1st movement out of the
Caribbean was by the Africans in 1838. After 1838, there have been several other Movements out of the
Caribbean such as: Building of Panama Canal (1900 Onward), World War One (1915 – 1920) and World
War Two (1939 – 1945). In more recent times, such as the 1980s and 1990s to the more present day,
people have been Seeking Opportunities in the Metropolitan Nations.

1838 and the Peasantry became Significant; as this signals the beginning of the Movement towards
Independence. This Movement lasted for more than 100 years.

1838 witnesses the Importation of Chinese Labourers. They went to Larger Territories as Africans would
have been moving away from Plantations and since the Smaller Territories have little place for
settlement. Chinese Labour lasted from 1838 onward but there was a Major Shift to East Indians in 1845
because Chinese weren't able to cope with the Rigors of Plantation Work.

During the Outward Movement Time, Caribbean People were starting Diasporic communities wherever
they went. Consider the post Cuban Revolution. This trigged a Diasporic community as large numbers of
Cubans were moving into Miami in 1959. This created a Clearly Defined Sub-Cultural Identity.

Slavery and Plantation:

Slavery was meant to fill the Labour Vacuum caused by the Genocide of the Amerindians. African
Diaspora followed to fill the space. The Amerindians had the Repartimiento and Encomienda Labour
Systems while the Africans had the Slavery Labour System and Agriculture Business Model.

Slavery advances the Imperialistic Thrust so Europeans can make as much Money as possible.

Slavery and the Plantation System were part of the Capitalist Economic Structure. Capitalism is an
Economic Way of thinking to get as much money as possible. Slavery becomes a Unique Way of
Increasing the Profit Margin.

Labour is Bought (until Death) instead of Regular Payment for Services. As an Economic Structure,
Capitalism prospered. African Slavery and Oppression is a Perpetuation of what was started by the
Amerindians. It is a Continuation of Domination.

African Slavery began in 1518 in the New World. With Slavery, there is further Pluralisation of the Socio-
Cultural Caribbean since there is importation of Material and Non-Material Culture.

Diversity of Culture has a Long Lasting Effect that lasts today. African Culture has Impacted more than
any other Culture, besides European Culture.
There was need for the Removal of African Identity (Cultural Erasure) for Domination; else the Africans
may have Rebelled. The European went about Brainwashing African people and slowly, but surely, and
in its place, putting in their own Pseudo Norms and Values.

There is now Cultural Supplantation. This leads to the Creation of many Identity Problems in the African
People; leading to Hybridization. The Africans were Herded; there were no Socialization and no
Opportunity for Individuality. This was Dehumanization.

The Plantation existed in the Southern part of America all the way down to Argentina. Via the
Plantation, New Crops (Eg. Sugar Cane, Cotton, Oranges) became a Cultural Spectrum that goes on till
this day. Some Crops become Synonymous with their country. Eg. Cuba has tobacco, Trinidad has World
Famous Cocoa.

Crops became part of the Caribbean Peoples' Identity. Plantations became important for the Economies.
The Plantation was based upon a clearly defined Structure of Hierarchy and Rank.

The Pyramid Structure of the Plantation:

The Plantation Structure becomes a Rigidly Divided Economic / Business Structure, hence, Divisions
between Groups. This is known as Social Stratification. Social Mobility and Social Stratification are
Directly Intertwined. The factors listed above become a major part of the Caribbean with the Plantation.
Education becomes the major Social Mobility and Social Stratification factor due to Competitiveness. A
Plethora of Social problems and Divisions then started. Classisms are the form of classes based on
certain variables.

The Plantation Ideology and Pre-Occupation of the Caribbean still permeates in the Caribbean Society
today in terms of Treatment of People. The Plantocracy is also proposed to exist in Political Structures
today.

Social Stratification is Regulated and Policed within the Plantation Structure with no Group encouraged
to ride beyond their Station. The Plantation is Restricted to Upward Social Mobility.

Slavery and Plantation introduced Colour Consciousness. There is a Preference for White people while
Dark Pigmented Skin is associated with Inferiority, and Unattractiveness.

There is already a Pre-Established Way of Judging People. Many Sociological Phenomena become part of
our Identity due to the Plantations:

1. Social Stratification.
2. Pluralization of Society.
3. Addition of Material and Non-Material Elements.
4. Cultural Diversity.
5. Cultural Imperialism.
6. Colour Consciousness or Pigmentocracy.
7. Culture Erasure.
8. Social and Cultural Tension.
9. Fear of Authority.
10. Mis / Dis Trust of Power.
11. Hybridization and Syncretism.
12. Enculturation.
13. Acculturation.
14. Assimilation.
15. Social Mobility.

People of Colour were branded with Inferiority. They spent their lives trying to get away from that
Stigma. People are always seeking to improve Social Mobility and this Influences Diaspora.

Easily Observed Legacies of the Plantation in the Caribbean Today:

1. Patterns of Settlements and Patterns of Towns: Laid out according to Plantations.

2. Monocrop Agriculture: Many Caribbean countries depend on this for the Gross National Product
(G.N.P.). Eg. Sugar Cane earns about 60% of Guyana`s G.N.P.
 3. Multi-Ethnic / Multi-Racial Societies: Due to Importations of Labour from Different Parts of the
World.

4. Division of Societies: Europeans invented the Divide and Conquer Strategy. Groups were always
weary of each other. It is the same for Mis / Dis Trust.

5. Racial and Cultural Intolerance.

6. Cultural Imperialism: Eg. Everything European is Superior while everything Black is Inferior.
There are Two Dimensions: Psychological and Economic.

7. European Social Institutions: Eg. Language – There is no Language which is seen as Standard that
is Caribbean. Dress Code, Political and Legal Structures, Education and Language are all
European in Nature. The Plantation and Capitalism are responsible for Economic
Underdevelopment. The Plantation takes the Wealth from the Caribbean and carries it to the
Europeans.

8. Social Stratification: Distinct and Numerous Divisions, Sub-Divisions, Classes and Groups. The
same Pyramid Structure exists today, except it has been Expanded.

9. Hybridization.

Post Emancipation:

There is no longer Importation of Africans in the Caribbean. However, the Labour of Africans remains an
Important Commodity. In the Post-Emancipation era, there are lots of Issues occurring at the same time:

1. Formation of Peasantry.
2. Indentureship.
3. Wage and Labour Upheavals.
4. Riots and Political Disturbance.

Indentureship: This is not restricted to only Eastern People (Chinese and East Indians). Even during
African Slavery, there was Indentureship. Indentureship was a Program of Labour that existed in the
New World and Europe.

It can be described as a Policy where a Person signs a Contract; Selling his Labour for a Period of Time, at
the end of which, he is Paid.

At the end of Slavery, a Labour Vacuum was left and East Indians and Chinese came to fill this. During
1838 - 1845, a large amount of Chinese came from Guangdong Province in Southern China.
The Chinese went mainly to the larger Caribbean Islands (Eg. Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Belize,
Suriname, Greater Antilles) since those are the areas where the African Labourers Abandoned and fled
to the Jungles. This began the Peasantry (Evolution).

Chinese came from Singapore, Malaysia, and Java. This signals the 4 th major Diasporic movement into
the Caribbean. In every new Labour Group, Socio - Cultural Pluralisation becomes as Material and Non-
Material elements are brought.

African Labourers were moving away from the Plantation and leaving certain Territories in search of
better Opportunities in the Region. During the Post-Emancipation era, they went to Guyana, Brazil and
Venezuela. They sought places with Large Scale Projects (Eg. Panama) and places with Better Wages /
Land (Eg. Cuba). This was the 1st Outward Diasporic Movement.

Three Reasons why Africans left the Caribbean:

1. They couldn't tolerate the Ongoing Oppressive Labour System.

2. They were Restricted from Owning Land.
3. Large Territories were offering Better Wages.

Later on, Indentured Labourers came from India. Just like the Chinese, East Indians brought Material and
Non-Material Elements to add to the Socio-Cultural Spectrum in the Caribbean. Like every other Group,
the Indentures had their Impact on the Caribbean Reality of today.

This resulted in a Chinese and East Indian Presence. These Persons would have an Impact on the Cultural
Ideologies of today. Additionally, Hybridization added to the Socio - Cultural Spectrum. This led to the
Caribbean being characterized as being a Hybrid-Socio-Cultural Reality.

Evolution of the Peasantry:

The Peasantry was Important in the Socio-Cultural Evolution of the Caribbean. It represents a Transition
group between the Plantation and Independence. The Peasantry becomes a Catalyst towards
Independence. This embodies an Aggressive Desire for Freedom.

The Treatment of the Liberated African Slaves was a Perpetuation of Inhumanity and Injustice. So, they
Abandoned. Africans, even after Emancipation, Maintained a level of Mis / Dis trust. Africans initiated an
Attitude of Distrust for the Social Institutions of Europe.

They realized that the Law and Justice suited the Europeans. They saw how Christianity was meant to
Brainwash them. The European Social Institutions were meant to be Exploitative and Oppressive.
Because of the African Peasantry, an attitude of Resistance and Resilience develops within them that
still occur today.

The Peasantry has to seek Opportunities to achieve Economic Independence, ie, they have to make their
own Money. They entered into Entrepreneurial Activities such as Sole Trading and Selling their Labour
for a Wage while Working for Companies.
Sole Trading Activities include a Broad Spectrum: Bakery, Carpenters, Fast Food Businesses. Many
Africans worked as Handymen, or even working in the Docks. They sold their Labour as they recognized
that their Labour has Worth. They didn’t want to go back to the Plantations as it was Associated with
Oppression. The African Women would be Sewing, Washing Laundry and even partaking in Culinary
Action.

Many Africans went to the Outskirts of Towns and Squatted. Eg. In Trinidad: Sealots, Belmont, San Juan,
Laventille, Betham are all squatting areas that occurred in a Post-Emancipation era. Because of the end
of Indentureship, East Indians found the largest estates in places such as Siparia and Tunapuna.

The Africans found ways to Pool their Resources to form Economic Institutions. Eg. Susu (Savings and
Loans) aka Partner (In Jamaica) and Box (In Guyana and Barbados). This allows Africans to Circumvent
European Institutions, ie, they become Independent of the Banks. This becomes the Basis of Resistance
and Rebellion.

Susu becomes Important in the Acquisition of Land. That carried a little bit of Trickery, since the
Europeans didn’t want to sell lands to Africans (They didn’t want Africans owning anything). So, the
Africans used the Church as a Vessel to undergo Negotiations.

In a Post-Emancipation era, Africans moved away from Christianity. However, Christianity was a means
of owning Land, so, they moved back to Organized Christian religion. The Church also benefitted as it
was fulfilling the Main Objective of Spreading the Gospel.

The Africans got the White Missionaries to buy the land for them and then the Church re-distributed the
land to Africans who paid. Eg. Rio Claro, Mayaro, San Juan, Maracas Valley. The Church was happy to get
a Congregation. The Susu allowed the Africans to get Personal Independence from European Power and
Authority.

The Peasantry becomes Responsible for Culture Creation. The Peasantry formed Communities based
upon Values: Trust and Cooperation. These are known as the "Peasant Values" or the "Long-Time
Values." The Peasants are associated with the Hinterlands.

The Hinterlands were places that were Cheap to Buy (Eg. Forests, Swamps). During the early 19 th
century, United States of America was experiencing the Internal Civil War. Africans Slaves in the US were
Promised Liberty if they fought for the North.

They were Promised: Land and Properties. These were known as the "Buffalo Soldiers". However, they
were exported out of the US to, for example, Trinidad and Tobago. They formed Company Villages such
as in Moruga.

Peasants created the Language: The Creole, and the Creative Arts: The Steel Pan. The Steel Pan was an
Effort to Regain part of the Africans Historical Legacy. It was part of Hybridization and Creolization. The
Steel Pan became part of the Rebellion in the Caribbean.
Positive Contributions of the Peasantry:

1. Culture Creation: The Peasantry is a transition from Plantation to Caribbean Free Society. This Group
would be tasked with Culture Creation and creating new Interactions, Norms and Beliefs between
Peoples.

2. Hybridization of Religion: Africans lost the Majority their Religion when the Europeans Enslaved
them. The Europeans took the Fight off the African men when they Removed Religious Activities to a
large extent. Religion is seen as a Source of Strength. Additionally, it is a Congregational Activity
which allowed a lot of Africans to Gather and Interact.

The Europeans Supplanted Christianity as a form of Psychological Control. Christianity was only
provided and depicted in ways and means that allowed Europeans to suit their Long term Objective
of Control.

Even so, the Africans held on to aspects of their West African Beliefs in secret and they still practiced
their Beliefs in secret. This means that when there was Emancipation, the Africans were allowed to
practice their Religion. However, much was lost overtime.

When they practiced it again, their practices got mixed with Christianity and other Norms. Eg.
Spiritual Shouter Baptists practiced their Religion with Loud Singing, Dancing and "Catching of the
Spirit". Orisha is another African Religion present in Tobago while there is Rastafarianism in Jamaica,
Santeria in Cuba and Brazil and Shango Baptist in Grenada.

Hybrid Religion becomes a Basis for Resistance and Resilience since the Europeans couldn't control
and predict the African Religion. Those who control Religion, control the People. Religion is used as
the Africans Antagonize the European Community. The Africans would not bow to the Europeans.

The European Christianity is docile while the Spiritual Shouter Baptist religion is noisier. The
Europeans condemned this. The Africans had to resist Stereotypization, as well as Physical, and
Psychological Opposition to their Religion.

3. Beginning of Political Consciousness: The Africans wanted to Escape Oppression, Live in Freedom
and Live in the Jungles; rather than to Work for a Wage while belonging to someone else and
treated as Slaves.

Overtime, the Peasants would have formed Groups which had their Seeds in Labour Organizations.
The Peasantry, because of Overwhelming Support, would have become a Voice of Resistance.
Africans would have had an Understanding of not wanting to be Controlled by Europeans; which is a
Political Stance.

4. Formation of Society: There is a Desire to get Freedom; which is shared among Africans. There are
Pockets where Families get Together and form a Community; which steadily grows Overtime.
 The Communities were based upon an Understanding and shared Cultural Interaction. They face
Common Challenges, have Common Aspirations and this forms a basis for Co-Operation.

5. Peasant Agriculture / Subsistence Type Farming: This Type of Farming is where a Person lives off a
Small Piece of Land and Plants food for Himself / Family. If there are any Extras, there are Sold.

Peasant Farming became part of the Cultural Identity of the Caribbean. Peasant Agriculture is
primarily important in the Lesser Antilles and Guyana, etc... It formed a Basis for Livelihood and
allowed for Economic Enfranchisement. Eg. The Susu allows for Pooling Resources and forming a
Basis of Resistance.

6. Music: There were mainly Calypso and Reggae.

The Calypso began out of the African Work Song. To keep Rhythm and make Work seem less, the
Africans sang Work Songs. The Calypsos utilized these Work Songs but a Change in the Lyrical
Content occurred.

The Calypso became the Basis for Verbal Assault among the European Power Structures, ie, the
Calypsonian uses his Craft to Rebel, Ridicule, and Antagonize the European Powers.

Kaiso is a Real Social Commentrary where the Calypsonian uses his Knowledge of Language to "bad
talk" Someone. The Lyrics of Kaiso have always been Scathing those who own Power. Up to this day,
Kaiso is still practiced.

Calypso has moved into "Party" Context while the Kaiso is left to the older Calypsonians.

Reggae has the same Origins in the African Work Song. The Music and Intention is similar to Kaiso;
to show Authority Figures where they are going wrong and show how people are being Oppressed.
Africans created song as a Basis of Coping and Resisting Oppression. The lyrics of the Calypso and
Reggae were similar.

The Maroon Society stands out as a Sub-Cultural Identity in Jamaica. The Maroon Society was
formed by "Run Away" Slaves, hence, the Basis for the Maroon Society is Rebelliance. They created
Rastafarianism and Formed / Evolved the Reggae Music.

The Cockpit Country was made up of Limestone. Because of Limestone features such as Caves and
Caverns, the Cockpit Country produced Protection for some People.

The Runaway Slaves kept more of their African Identity than those who remained on the Plantation.
The Africans who would have remained on the Plantations have been Assimilated into the European
Identity whereas Residents of the Cockpit Country kept their Culture. They Evolved separately from
the rest of Jamaica and became an Epitomisation of people to not be Other's Property.
 Negative Impacts of the Peasantry:

1. Culture of Squatting: The Peasant doesn’t own land. Squatting becomes part of the Settlement
Pattern. Squatting was Prevalent outside of the Urban Areas; whether it be Trinidad and Port of
Spain or Jamaica and Kingston. There has always been a Concentration of African People. These
areas have been Tenured.

These areas would be Stereotypically poor. They may be Associated with Uncertain Activities.
When these places, Eg. Laventille / Beetham, were Formed, Residents had to find Jobs and when
they couldn’t, Criminality was formed. Squatting is a Problem for Private Land Owners and the
Government.

2. Cultural Dependency: The Squatter's Beliefs that things were owed to them Increased Problems.
This goes hand in hand with Historical Exploitation; as People Lack Initiative.

3. Negative Agricultural Practices: Peasant Farming can take place anywhere. Slash and Burn and
Shifting Agriculture are Negative Aspects. This is where Large Areas of Land are Cut Down, used
Fertility for about 5 Years and then never used again.

4. Formation of Gangs, Violence, Criminality: Burglary, Prostitution, Drugs were means to "get by".
These still occur today. The Culture of Resistance served for the Basis of Caribbean. We resisted
European Oppression but Lawlessness still occurs today.

Culture of Resistance and Resilience:

This is a Historical Feature that began with the Amerindians as they dealt with European Oppression.
This started the Resistance and Resilience. There are both: Active and Passive Resistance. Active
Resistance requires Participation while Passive Resistance takes steps to do nothing.

Active Resistance include: Suicide, Infanticide, Homicide, Maroonage (Bush Negros in Guyana and
Maroon Society in Jamaica), Revolt and Rebellion

Passive Resistance include: Pretending Illness, Playing Ignorant, Making Music, Economic Structures (Eg.
Susu), Pooling Labour, Shared Responsibilities (Eg. Neighbours looking out for each other), Creating of
Trade Unions / Labour Organizations, and the Development of Anti-colonial Sentiments.

The Peasantry is a vital aspect of the Socio - Cultural, socio - economic and Socio - Political part of the
Caribbean Identity today.
Examples of Revolt and Rebellion in the Caribbean History:

1. Arena Uprising of 1699: "Arena Massacre" The Amerindians Slaves / Labour were quelled by Spanish
Forces. This was the 1st Uprising in the Caribbean.

2. The Haitian Rebellion: Haitai was called "St. Domingue" and this Rebellion took place from: 1791 –
1803.

3. Morant Bay Rebellion of 1865 in Jamaica.

4. Hoosay Riots of 1884: St Madeline, Trinidad.

5. Labour Riots of 1937: Fyzabad, Trinidad.

6. Cuban Revolution of 1959.

Factors Affecting the Movement towards Independence: After 1838, there was much turmoil in the
Caribbean:

1. Actions of the Peasantries.

2. Abandoning of the Plantations.
3. Impact of Early Education Systems.
4. High Levels of Unemployment.
5. Lack of Opportunities.
6. Impact of Early Education Systems: The Europeans have newly Emancipated Africans education.
7. Formation of Trade Unions and Trade Unrest.
8. Anti-Colonial Sentiments.
9. Lack of Expenditure by Caribbean Governments.
10. Formation of Political Parties (1930s).
11. Diminished Importance of Agriculture: Due to Less Profits.
12. Impact of WW1.
13. Social and Political Lobbying.
14. Impact of WW2.
15. Failure of Federation.
16. Universal Adult Suffrage (1944).

People were becoming Literate and this provided a Basis for Logical Argument against European
Colonisations.
Steps towards Independence:

One of the 1st moves in the British West Indies was the Acquisition of a viable Political Model. This was
an important step in the British Granting Independence since a Stable Structure to govern oneself was
necessary. To achieve this, the British went through a process of Decolonization.

The British Government Incrementally gave Power over to Local Government. 1944 marks a huge
stepping stone to Internal Self - Government. This is predicated upon the idea that the British Supervise
the Transition from Colony to Independent Nation. However, the British were first interested in
Federation as opposed to Independence.

1944: i. Internal Self-Government.

ii. Federation Ideology.

iii. Independence.

The Federation was supposed to be an Umbrella Government Institution. This means that there would
be a Collective System where all British Colonies would Govern themselves, ie, all Territories would
participate with same Laws, Language, etc..

After the Federation failed, there was a Movement towards Independence. This came at a Chaotic Time
during the after effects of WW1, a Global Depression and WW2. There were Shortages of Goods,
Hunger, Government and Private Workers not being paid their Salary, thus, causing a Labour Riot.

The 1940s – 1950s was an Era of Massive Anti-Colonial Action and Anti-Colonial Sentiments. People
were organizing themselves into Groups and this gave rise to Seminal Political Parties. Labour Trade
Unions go hand in hand with Seminal Political Parties and Political Ideas found confrontation with
Colonialism.

There was a Growing Black Intelligentsia, meaning, Caribbean People can now recognize themselves
Internationally. Because of this, Caribbean nations believed that they were Academically Equipped to
deal with Independence. 100 years after Emancipation, the "Black" People were Equipped enough to
push for Independence.

In the Post-Emancipated era, Emancipated Africans were introduced to Education. 1838 started the
Education Process and in 1944, there were enough Educated Caribbean People to strive for
Independence. A Growing Anti-Colonial Sentiment   People rather Suffer and Govern themselves.

During 1944, European Nations were directing their Money towards the War and neglected the
Caribbean, hence, Money was Scarce.

In the Caribbean, there are many Political Structures (Refer to Political Definition). Many Ex-English
territories are Democracies. Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana are Republics. All French Territories are
not necessarily Colonies or Independent; They are part of France. Puerto Rico has the Associated States.
All these Political Structures were Borrowed or Given from European Nations to Caribbean Nations.

In the Caribbean, all Caribbean Nations, even though we have Different Models, are impacted by:

1. Legacies of Conquest: The Genocide of Amerindians. They were Beat Up and Exploited by the
Spanish.

2. The Division of the Plantation System: Those who were Fair held power.

3. Stratification: This started in the Plantations. Eg. In Trinidad, there are Clear Divisions in African
and Indian parties; the Plantation Perpetuates Division.

4. Plural Society: Governing for all becomes a Problem. A Leader will always be Challenged since
whatever Decision is made, is Challenged by a Portion of the Population.

5. Persistent External Influence: Even though we are Politically Independent from USA and UK, we
are Economically Dependent since the US and UK have Economic Power.

Important Events / Institutions on our way toward Independence represent a transition from one thing
to another. The Process towards Independence started from the Abolition of Slavery (1833). This is
because the Thought of Slavery entered and as such, Resistance and Resilience started.

In 1838, the Emancipation Act allowed the Movement towards Independence. This occurred from 1833
– 1962. It was a Long, Drawn Out, Bloody Exercise. In the Caribbean, the 1 st Organized Political Structure
was: The Old Representative System.

There would have been a Governor appointed by the King / Queen. The Governor had to be White and
had to be Wealthy, have a Well-Known Family name or had "Connections" to be chosen to Represent
the King / Queen. He had the Power to Govern the Plantation Economy. The Governor's Role was to
promote Economic Stability. The Old Representative System was directed towards White or Plantation
Interest.

The Crown Colony Rule occurred after. The Local People were participating in Government. A Locally
born Governor was chosen and hence, Locally Born Legislative (Local People helped crafted Policies).
However, these Governors still reported to the King / Queen. There was a Movement from White
Government to Black Government.

Internal Self Government followed; co-incidental with Adult Suffrage of 1944. Local Persons formed
Political Parties. The Locals created Policies to govern themselves; instead of using the Queen's Policies.
This gave transition to the Federation Ideology; which only lasted a few years until 1956.
Pre – Requisites for Independence:

For Independence, the Imperial Nation required that certain things were in place. The British action in
ensuring these things were in place is important for passing on a Viable and Political Model and to make
sure "things don't fall flat":

1. Organized Political Structure with Viable Democratic Processes: Creation of Party Politics.

2. Drafting of a Constitution that Governs the Running of the Governmental Structure.

3. Acquisition of a Military: A Nation couldn't depend on the Metropolitan Country to fight their
Wars.

4. Self – Efficiency in Food Production.

5. Display a Positive Balance of Payments: This is the Difference between National Income and
National Expenditure. A Positive Balance of Payments appears when the Income is more than
the Expenditure.

6. The 1st Governmental Structure, The Federation, Failed.

Reasons why the Federation Failed:

1. Distance and Communication: There were no Cell Phones and there were Unreliable Landlines.
Hence, there was no Collective Decision Making.

2. Lack of Coordinating Development: Some Nations were Wealthier and thus Advanced and
Developed faster than Others.

3. Parochialism and Xenophobia: Parochialism is the feeling of Contempt of People of other

Nationalities whereas Xenophobia is the Fear of Strangers.

4. Personality Conflicts: There were many Strong Leaders; each a Leader of his own Nation. In the
Federation, they had to put away their views and take orders from one man. This didn't work
well with everyone.

5. Monetisation of Economies: In order to have a Common Currency, each Nation had to be

Theoretically Monetized else Inflation would have occurred.

6. Migration Challenges: People from the Small Islands began to Storm the Wealthier, Larger
Nations due to a lack of Opportunities and hence a search for Better Opportunities. Eg. Some
People came in Trinidad to work in the Oil and Gas Industry.
Module 1, Specific Objective 3
Characteristics of Society and Culture:

The concept of Society and Culture can be studied from Two Major Perspectives:

1. Culture of Country or Group.

2. The Individual.

Society and Culture, as well as the Physical and Social Environment, play major Roles in Shaping an
Individual into who he becomes. This gives Values, Habits and Ambitions to someone. Every individual
is Enculturated or Socialised into the Norms, Values and Behaviours of his Environment / Society.

Society and Culture can be used Interchangeably, although they have Different Meanings. One of the
Key Features of Culture, therefore Society, is that it is Self – Perpetuating. In other words, the Teachings
passed on to One Generation will be Passed on to the Successive Generations. Cultures, Attitudes and
Values are Self – Perpetuating.

Society and Culture are regarded as being Dynamic; constantly Evolving. Habits, Norms, Values and
Ways of Thinking slowly change. This is called Cultural Relativism. Even though Culture is always
Changing, there is a Thread of Values that Connect each Generation.

Society can be explored / defined as:

1. Geographical Perspective of Society: Geographically, Society depends upon a Collection of

People sharing a Defined Territorial Space. Eg. Trinidad and Tobago surrounded by Clearly
Defined Water Boundaries.

People living in these Areas develop Certain Traits. Eg. They develop a Psychological Attachment
to the Place: a Feeling of Belongingness, Identity, Inclusive. These Feelings are shared by
Everyone in the Territorial Place. This is called a Shared Common Values Systems and it
produces a feeling of Citizenship within a Space.

Culture is Intangible; a set of Feelings, Values, Attitudes, that may be Unique to your
Geographical Area. Every Society may have different Culture.

Culture, while it depends on Geographical Society for Creation, it doesn't depend on Society for
Perpetuation. Eg. The Large Cuban Society in Florida, Haitian Society in Florida, West Indian
Society in New York, London.

2. Society Cultural: Sociological Society depends upon a Collectivity that is based upon a Consensus
of Ideas, Beliefs, Values, Principles, Morals and Behaviours that is acceptable to the Group.
 The Consensus depends on Citizenship as Everyone develops Same Ideas, Beliefs, Values,
Principles, Morals and Behaviour. This is regarded as Shared Common Purpose; Everyone
thinking the Same.

The Sociological Aspect of Society stresses that they must be Social Interaction of People in the
Group. This Interaction is possible as people share the Same Set of Ideas. This is known as Non –
Material Culture.

When Individuals share the same Ideological System, it allows for the formation of Social
Groups. The development of Cultural Activities is based upon the values that occur.

In any Society, there are Large groups of Ideas. These Ideas become the Programming of an Individual;
where the Person   Hardware and Ideas   Software. These Large Groups of Ideas are Social Institutional
Ideologies. Eg. Education, Family, Religion, Politics, Economics, Justice Systems.

Social Institutions help People in Society:

1. To Organize their Lives.

2. It allows a Platform for Persons to Interact.
3. It allows Commonalities among Individuals.
4. It provides for the Development of Consensuses.
5. It can reduce Division among Individuals.

Social Institutions help to add Purpose to our Lives and these are based upon Norms and Values. Four
Social Institutions are:

1. Family.
2. Education System.
3. Justice System.
4. Religion.

Social Institutions are Intangible; they exist only in the Realm of Ideas. Eg. Education is an Idea. Social
Institutions are the most Cherished Ideas in Society. Some Social Institutions evoke even greater levels
of Emotional and Psychological Attachment than others.

Social Institutions become Internalised; they Inform Behaviour. Because Social Institutions are passed
on from One generation to Another, Culture may be regarded as Learnt Behaviour.

Culture can only develop when a Group in Society agree that a Social Institution is important. Society
provides the Framework upon which Ideas, Culture and Interactions are produced. Culture is dependent
upon the passing of values to the next generation.
Socialisation: There are 2 kinds of Socialisation:

1. Primary.
2. Secondary.

Socialisation is Essential to the Perpetuation of Society.

1. Primary Socialisation: This occurs when a Child is very Young. It is often considered as Personal /
Family Oriented Values.

2. Secondary Socialisation: This is associated with Formal Schooling; where an Individual is made
aware of the Values that are Important to HIS Society whereas in Primary Socialisation, he learns
Values Important to Society.

Primary and Secondary Socialisation Coincide and Cause Conflict sometimes.

Roles: A Role is a set of Behaviours / Characteristics associated with a Particular Status.

A Role dictates what is considered Acceptable and Unacceptable Conduct.
A Role is part of Culture Creation. It may said to be dependent on Roles and vice – versa.

A Role is a Formula by which a Person Conducts or Lives his Life. If he is Straying from the Formula, it
may result in Sanctions. A Role allows Interaction between Members who Share the same Social
Institutions. Roles allow for Social Institutions, Working Values and thus become part of one's Culture.

Roles Evolve and we see Cultural Relativism. Cultural Relativism is the principle that an individual
Human's Beliefs and Activities should be Understood by others in terms of that Individual's
own Culture. Culture may be divided into 2 broad Sub – Divisions.

1. Material Culture: These are the Tangible Aspects of People's Customs and Traditions. Eg.
Architecture, Food, Food Preparation Techniques, Economic Organizations, Forms Of
Technology Unique to them, Games, Musical Instruments, and Music. Material Culture is all the
things that one can interact with; even Religious Customs and Language.

2. Non – Material Culture: The Intangible Aspects that are Shared by a People. Eg. Attitudes,
Ambitions, Folk Lore (Stories), Religion.

Culture may be known in several different ways:

1. A Pattern of Behaviour that is Learnt.

2. A Way of Life.
3. Festivals and Customs.
4. Tradition.
5. A Person's Outlook on Life.
6. Behaviour.
Gender Practices:

Gender Practices is the Stereotypes created based on Gender. It is People's ways of Thinking about
Gender Issues. These Gendered Practices are part of Cultural Identity.

In the Caribbean Society, there is an Androcentric Preoccupation, ie, there is a Preference for all Things
Male: "It is a Man's World." This creates a Perception that Women / All Things Female are Inferior. A
Gender Gap is formed that permeates all things in Society that may lead to Tension / Conflict / Negative
Effects.

Women are Alienated and Ostracized from being represented in Society. This Negative Attitude
towards Women is as old as Time itself and was inherited from the Original Cultures of the East Indian,
Africans and Chinese. These Attitudes are even found in Religious Books. Eg. In the Bible, a woman's role
is the house – worker.

Women's Roles and Possibility of Potential is thus Restricted. Gender Practices are Deeply Entrenched
in our Social and Cultural ways of Thinking. Masculinity is Highly Prized and Promoted in the Caribbean.
Having said that, there is a High Level of Intolerance for Men who do not display Masculine Properties.
These Men are seen as less than Masculine.

Girls are Traditionally Restricted to certain Types of Behaviours. Women / Girls are Deprived of
Opportunity. There is Inequity in Society. Women's Human Rights are taken away and the rest of
Society agrees with this. It can be then said, that, Gender Practices contribute to Dehumanization.

Gender Practices become a Developmental Challenge since our Cultural Attitude inhibits what we can
obtain as Caribbean Nations. Essentially, our Gender Practices is another example of Social
Stratification.
A Social Injustice Challenge arises. In the Caribbean Reality, there are several Sociological Concepts that
have become part of our Socio – Cultural Identity / Reality:

1. Assimilation: This is when a Group has been totally absorbed into a larger Group; where a
Subculture is Lost in the Super - Culture. Assimilation is dependent on Cultural Imperialism. Eg.
African and East Indian ways of life was lost and European Norms and Values were put in its
Place. Assimilation implies Cultural Erasure and Re – Socialization based on the Dominant
Culture, Norms and Values.

2. Cultural Imperialism: This is the situation where the Imperial Nation's Norms, Values and Social
Institutional Framework are seen as Superior to One's own Norms and Values. Assimilation
therefore becomes easier.

3. Hybridization: Cultural Hybridization is the situation where there is Merging of Cultural Forms
whereas Racial Hybridization is the Internal Relationships between two different Races, thus,
creating a New Species of Human. Racial Hybridization is a feature of Caribbean Society and
Results in:
a. Mestizo: Amerindian + European.
b. Mulatto: African + European.
c. Dougla: African + East Indian.

There are varieties of Culture and Races, so, Hybridization results in a Plural Society.

4. Cultural Erasure: This would have taken place during Re – Socialization.

Module 1, Specific Objective 4
Identity and Social Formation:

Identity can only be formed when one factors in the Tremendous Number of Inputs in the Formation of
Culture Creation. The Identity of the Caribbean is characterized by Hybridity. The Caribbean is a
combination of Cultures; making us Culturally Unique where we stand out in the rest of the World.

The Hybrid and Cultural Inputs that went into the Formation of Societies is the most Defining Feature
of the Caribbean. While the Caribbean may be Defined in different ways, the most Definitive Definition
that works for all Caribbean Nations is Cultural in Nature.

While every Caribbean Nation does have its Cultural Twists (Eg. Accents), the Core Features of Cultural
Identity are Shared. However, because of the Nature of the Caribbean being Islands, and therefore
Insulated, Caribbean Society tends toward a more Separated View rather than a Cohesive View.

In a way, this Insulated View pose Challenges for the Caribbean even today; especially when we
consider out Platforms for Development have Failed. Eg. Federations.

The Challenge that faces the Caribbean is Changing our Perception from Insularity to one of Acceptance
to the Commonalities of our Evolution. The following are the Core, Shared Characteristics of our Social
Evolution that are due to our History. There are also Input Factors in the Creation of a Caribbean
Identity and Characteristics of Caribbean Society.

1. Discovery.
2. Genocide.
3. Slavery.
4. The Plantation.
5. Mono – Crop Agriculture.
6. Enculturation.
7. Acculturation.
8. Assimilation.
9. Hybridization / Syncretism.
10. Eurocentrism / Ethnocentrism.
11. Cultural Imperialism.
12. Emancipation.
13. Development of the Peasantry.
14. Indentureship.
15. Plural Society and Cultural Diversity.
16. Colonialism.
17. Dependency.
18. Social and Economic Underdevelopment.
19. Social Stratification and Social Mobility.
20. Cultural Retention.
 21. Cultural Erasure.
22. Cultural Renewal.
23. Creation of Minorities.
24. Impacts of Globalisation.

Cultural Retention: A Conscious Effort by a Minority or Subculture Group to hold on to Elements of its
Unique Cultural Identity. Eg. Chinese from the Indentureship Period still speak Tangerine to each other.

Cultural Renewal: An Active Effort to Recapture or Promote a Unique Cultural Form. This is usually
Applicable where a Cultural Form or Norm is at Risk of being Erased and its Purpose is to Remind
Future Generations of the Legacies of the Past. Eg. Tobago Heritage Festival.

Minorities and Subcultures:

Both Minorities and Subcultures are closely related and are based on the fact that there is Exclusion of
Groups in Society. This is formed when these Groups find a place to exist. A Minority can only exist if
they have been Accommodated and not Wiped Out completely.

Eg. Hybrid Religions: Shouter Baptist (TnT), Myal (Jamaica), Santaria (Cuba). Subcultures and Minorities
may exist in Cultural Groups. Eg. The Maroons and Rastafarianism (Jamaica).

These have become a Reality because of the Caribbean's Past. The Caribbean has become Hybrid and
Plural with many Socio – Logical Issues still at work. Thus, the Caribbean has not reached the Maximum
of the Evolution. Since Culture is Dynamic, Globalisation and Impact of Foreign Cultural Ideologies are
placing Challenges on the Caribbean Cultural and Social Reality.

The Process of Hybridization (Syncretism) is Continuous. In the Caribbean, one of the most Important
Concepts that Impacted on the Cultural Reality is the Plantation.

The Plantation:

The Plantation is the Most Recognizable Institution that Impacted on the Socio – Cultural Reality.

The Plantation becomes a Reality due to a Labour Vacuum created by the Death of the Amerindians.
Previous to this, there was Amerindian and European Plurality. Then, came the Africans which created
Racial Complexity.

The Plantation is based upon a Rigid System of Social Stratification. The System is divided upon certain
Principles. Race and Colour becomes part of Social Stratification. Colour of Skin introduces:
Pigmentocracy; allowing Social Upward Mobility. Wealth, Money and Property were equal to Power.

Pigmentocracy   Persons of Fairer Complexion enjoyed More Prestige and Wielded More Power in
Society.
Social Stratification and Social Mobility Factors / Agents:

1. Race and Colour of Skin.

2. Pigmentocracy: Hybrid   Colour Consciousness.
3. Wealth + Money + Property = Power.
4. Education: This is a facilitator to get out of an Oppressive Past.
5. Position / Authority.

While the following factors are Specific for Plantation, they have been expanded:

1. Age.
2. Gender.
3. Sexual Orientation.
4. Political Affiliation.
5. Religion.

These form Divisions in Society. Social Stratification must Vie for a Space in which to exist or be Erased
out of Existence.

Edward Kannau Brathwaite: He was a World Famous Barbadian Scholar (Sociologist) who did Research
in Jamaica. He observed that on the Plantation, with the Africans, there would have been Tremendous
Pressure to Enculturate and Erase Identity and Assimilate them into a Pseudo – European Identity or a
Creole Identity.

According to Edward, the Emphasis of the Europeans was to Use Culture to Brainwash and Control the
Africans. However, Edward regarded that During Enculturation, Africans used Active and Passive
Resistance.

A Passive Method of Rebellion is Hybridization. It means that the Africans would make a show of the
following of the European Ways, but, in truth, he would follow African Cultural Identity. Overtime, the
Line Separating the European and African Culture is Blurred. Thus, a Creole Society is Formed.

The Creole is Unique and stands out on its own. Creolization is a process that will occur when there is
more than one Culture Group. Once a Cultural Identity has been Influenced by another, but not
completely Assimilated, they would be Creolized.

All Groups have been Modified from their Original Culture. Every Group experienced Social Change and
Creolization to some extent. Anyway along the Timeline of Change, Creolization occurs.
Creolization implies Cultural Erasure and Enculturation. Change can lead to a person losing his Identity
entirely. A Creole is therefore a State of Reality that is an Incorporation of Socio - Logical Aspects of
different Cultures.

Africans: They came into the Caribbean from West Africa. Creolization and Hybridization has led to
Syncretic or Hybrid forms of Religion, Language, Food, Dress and Ways of Thinking. There were Higher
Levels of Hybridization in Africans since they were Resilient.

Language has a large amount of Creolization. Over time, in the Caribbean, the Patois developed which
created a Unique, Lexical, Hybrid Background. Eg. In St. Lucia, the Patois (Combination of French,
Spanish and English) is a 1st Language.

East Indians: They were slowly Absorbed into a Pre – Dominant Cultural Setting. The Amerindians were
Creolized from: Amerindian to Pseaudo – Amerindian (They were the 1st set of People to be Creolized).

Thus, East Indians were brought into an already Creolized Society and were put under Pressure to
Adjust. East Indians Adopted Elements of an already Creolized Society. The East Indian is a sub –
Culture. They came in 1845 into an already Eurocentric and Ethnocentric Society.

The Rapid Conversion to Christianity is seen as a Social Mobility Tool for Upward Mobility. East Indians
primarily settled in Belize, Grenada, Trinidad, Guyana and Suriname.

Ethnocentrism: The Belief that One's Culture and Group is Superior to Others.

Eurocentrism: The Belief that One's Culture and Group is Inferior to the Europeans'.

Both are linked directly to Cultural Imperialism.

Chinese: They illustrated a Divergence from Other Groups in the Caribbean. They were small in number
and preferred Large Caribbean Territories such as Guyana, Suriname, Trinidad, Hispanola and Cuba. The
Chinese Resisted Creolization; resisted being Culturally altered. They held on to their Culture more than
any other Group.

Africans, East Indians, Amerindians: Loss of Cultural Elements, Cultural Erasure and Assimilation.

Chinese: Cultural Retention, Maintain Belief Systems and Cultural Practices.

In the Caribbean, it may be considered that Creolization was Adopted. The Europeans could have
Superimposed themselves but the Other Groups Looked at their Own Culture with Inferiority / Scorn.
Creolization is part of becoming more Socially Stable.
In the Caribbean, Social Stratification has been present in the Past. There are several Groups that have
existed then and still exist today:

1. Plantocracy: Plantocracy refers to the Influence Wielded by Planters in the Society as

Effectively the Ruling Class. It is present in Haiti and Jamaica. There is Inequity in Ownership
and Wealth. Locally Born White People in Jamaica have their own Political Party. Open Violence
even occurs.

2. Bourgeoisie: Bourgeoisie are People who Own Huge Amounts of Wealth and Power. They could
have been Black as well. Bourgeoisie and Plantocracy are the Groups that Own Society and
they Make the Rules to Serve Them.

3. Intelligentsia: Intelligentsia are the Educated People in Society. They are NOT Restricted to a
Colour. There was an Important Black Intelligentsia in the Post – Emancipation Society. A few
Blacks were Educated. They pushed for Internal Self Governance and then Independence. Eg.
Dr. Eric Williams, Sir Ellis Clarke, Noor Hassanali.

Intelligent People had to hold Leadership Positions. The Intelligentsia has Morphed Society to
become what it is today. They are still Legacies. Education is Important for Social Mobility and
Social Stratification.

4. The Middle Class: This is a Strata of People that has come into being in Recent Times. These are
people that Strive for Social Mobility by trying to get certain Management Jobs, for example.
They try to Become like the Bourgeoisie Class while Pushing Away the Lower Class.

The Middle Class has Jobs, Occupation, Education and Wealth. There is an Attitude of
Contempt. In Trinidad, Middle Classes are Associated with Certain Areas. Eg. San Fernando,
Palmiste.

5. Working Class: The People are Characterised by Minimum Levels of Education, Little Wealth
and Low Status Jobs (Physical and Redundant Jobs for Little Money). These are Equated to the
Largest Portion of Society. Society is a Modern Day Version of the Plantation. The Working
Class is Defined by Certain Geographical Areas and they also Pose Greatest Development
Challenges for Governments.

6. Underclass: These are Equated to the Dis – Enfranchised, Powerless, Voiceless, Ostracized
Groups in Society. They are a Minority Group for two Reasons: They are Small in Number and
Their Rights are Neglected by those in Society. Eg. Disabled, Homeless, Old and Young People.

These Elements of Stratification Persist in the Caribbean today due to the Introduction of Stratification
by the European Plantation. However, another type of Stratification was brought by the East Indians.
The Caste System was an Eastern Social Stratification System. The Caste System, like Caribbean Social
Stratification, is based on certain Commonalities.

However, The Caste System Didn't Allow Mobility. Similar to the Plantation, People in the Caste System
Can't Leave their Caste. They are Born Into It and have to Stay Into It. They Can't Rebel against it.

The Caste System is built into Hinduism; over 5000 years ago. Observers realised that the Generation
Long Division created by the Caste System encouraged People to Convert to Islam; as there were no
Caste Systems present in that Religion.

The Caste System has certain Names:

Brahmins (First)

Dalits or Chamar Class (Last)

Each Class is given Certain Commonalities and Functions. Eg. The Brahmins are primarilty the Religious
Practitioners (Eg. Pundits). The Chamar Class was Restricted from any kind of Ownership, Education
and Mobility. Most of the East Indians that came to the Caribbean was of Chamar Class but to avoid
Absolute Alienation, they Changed Names.

There is Injustice in the Caste System and the Plantation. Colour / Class are the Basis that Divides
Society: Caste System and The Plantation introduce Classism. The Class in which someone is present in
the Caste System is Hereditary while the Plantation is based on a number of factors.

After Emancipation, when the Plantation System ended, Social Stratification Factors now became Social
Mobility Factors. Social Stratification Factors are:

1. Race.
2. Colour.
3. Wealth.
4. Occupation.
5. Religion.
6. Education.
7. Political Affiliation.
8. Gender.
9. Age.
10. Status / Position.

Social Stratification and Mobility are nearly indifferent. Social Mobility is where a person uses the
factors listed above to be Seen in a more Favourable Light in Society. There are both: Upward and
Downward Social Mobility Factors.
Eg. A Person, such as Dwight Yorke, may marry someone of a Perceived Superior Race to be seen more
Favourable in Society. Eg. In Jamaica, Black Women marry White Men so that they children will have
better Opportunities. There is a Eurocentric Occupation.

The European Religion, Christianity, has much Violence and Brutality and has therefore become the
Religion of the Destroyer. Christianity has become a Social Mobility Factor to those who want better
Opportunities.

In Politics, it is beneficial to be Affiliated with One Party over the Other due to Race or who is in Power.

Via Education, a Person may achieve Occupational Mobility and Wealth. As such, Education has a lot of
Value and Emphasis in Society. Education therefore creates further Strata. It is Empowering and also
causes Division.

Plural Society: This is where Many Religions and Races Exist in One Place. There are many Variables at
work at the same time.

Positives of Cultural Diversity:

1. Tolerance: This is the Ability to Endure. Tolerance gives our Society a Characteristic of
Compassion; an Acceptance of Differences among People. This Perspective gives a Positive
International Perception. Accommodation Results out of Tolerance.

Accommodation is important because it implies that Every Creed and Race has a Space to Exist;
Every Race and Religion is given a Place to be Represented and Visible. In the Caribbean,
Tolerance is Illustrated in many Activities; especially those Social Significant Activities.

Eg. Integrating Carnival in the School Curriculum. Knowledge Promotes Appreciation and
therefore Tolerance.

2. Hybridization: This is the Creation of New Forms; as Synthesis is Prevalent. Hybridization can be
seen in every aspect of the Caribbean. Eg. Race, Food, Music, Language

Racial Hybridization causes Division while Hybridization in Food (Eg. Doubles, Roti) , Music (Eg.
Reggae, Calypso), Language (Mixed Words such as: Jumbie, Chunkie) makes our Culture Richer
and brings Positive International Attention.

3. Creativity: In the Caribbean, all nations have Creative Festival Events. Eg. Carnival. Due to several
Cultural, Social and Racial Inputs, a more Creative Artist is Created. Eg. Calypsonian. More
Creativity attracts Positive International Attention. Eg. Two Famous Masked Men: Peter
Minshall and Brian McFarlene.

Trade Opportunities, Investment Opportunities and Tourism are therefore Positive Results
that occur. Eg. In 2014, Trinidad and Tobago had $800 Million US Dollars generated in Carnival.
Negative of Cultural Diversity:

1. Intolerance: This can be based on any number of Variables (Eg. Race, Politics). Intolerance shows
us to be an Unaccepting Society; shows us to be a Group that Alienates Persons that are
Different. It becomes an International Stain on Perception.

Intolerance Manifests into Tension and even Violence. Eg. Open Violence in Jamaica,
Discrimination against Old, LGBT. This creates a Negative International Picture. It causes
International Observers to Withdraw Aid. It causes them to Deny our Trade.

Political Instability results in Developmental Challenges. Eg. Only in 1996 was the Shouter
Baptist Community given a day of Recognition. Since Emancipation, they were Treated as
Outsiders.

Because of Minoritization of Groups, People's Human Rights were taken away; leading to Social
Injustice Infringements.
Module 1, Specific Objective 5
Impact of Geographical Phenomena:

This examines the Relationship between Physical Environment and Human Cultural Perceptions
(Values and Belief Systems); how Man is Impacted by his Environment and vice versa.

Human Ecology implies that there is a Man – Land Relationship. It can also be based on Historical
Precedent. In this regard, we examine the Legacies of History, Settlement, Agriculture, as well as the
Impact of Natural Disaster.

Geological Hazards:

1. Tsunamis.
2. Volcanoes.
3. Earthquake.
4. Landslips / Volcanoes.

Meteorological Hazards:

1. Torrential Rains.
2. Droughts.
3. Hurricanes.
4. Flooding.
5. Tidal Flooding.
6. Astronomical Tide.
7. Impacts of Wind.
8. Erosion.

Any kind of Natural Disaster will have Economic, Social, Cultural and Political Impacts.

Economic Impacts of Natural Disasters:

1. Infrastructural Damage: There is Unforeseen Cost of Rebuilding. Since Money has to be allocated to
this, Other Areas become Neglected. There is an Opportunity Cost of Re – Building. There can be
Loss of Essential Services which causes a Negative Impact on Quality of Human Life. Eg. If the
Hospitals are Destroyed, where would the Sick go?

The Nation experiences Stagnant Development. There is no Money to redirect to Buildings. The
Nation is Unable to Pay Existing Loans or Access Future Loans. Because of no Loan Repayment, the
country can be Blacklisted as a "Poor Risk". A "Grace Period" implies that Interest has Stopped.

With Damage to Infrastructure, you can Lose Important Industries (Major Income Generators) such
as Tourism and Agriculture.
 Eg. In 2004, Hurricane Ivan destroyed Grenada's Tourism Infrastructure. People will go elsewhere for
Tourism. If a Place gets a Bad Reputation, it is Difficult to Re - Gain its Reputation.

Hurricane Ivan destroyed the "Marinas"- Facilities of Yacts, etc.. It means that Grenada Lost a Niche
Tourism Market.

Hurricane Ivan destroyed Jamaica's Nutmeg Trees (Their Largest Export). Nutmeg takes 5 years to
bear and 40 years for Maturity. This placed Jamaica in a Negative Economic Position, until the Crop
is back again.

In 2010, Tropical Storm Tomas destroyed St. Lucia's and St. Vincent's Banana Crops. However,
Bananas only take 1 year to produce fruit.

There can be Loss of Industries Regarding Eco – Tourism Industries. Eg. Destroying Beaches. Eco –
Tourism is the most common Tourist Attraction.

The Primary Attractions are: Sun, Sea and Sand. These Settings may be gone in the Event of a
Natural Disaster.

There is Difficulty in some Countries: Unemployment   Heavy Dependence on Government

Produced Services and Goods. The Damage to the Agriculture Sector may lead to Starvation and
other Crises.

Haiti, because of Human Action, has created its own Soil Loss. Their fuel is Wood. Due to large Scale
Deforestation, Soil Erosion and Flooding is now common. The Western Ocean of Haiti is now Red
due to Soil Pollution.

Social, Cultural and Psychological Impacts of Natural Disasters:

1. Death: Loss of Manpower   Less Work Done   Longer Time to Rebuild. This affects the
Psychological / Emotional Impact of Survivors. They will suffer Trauma and become Broken,
Vegetables and cause PTSD, thus, becoming less Productive.

2. Loss of Employment / Industry: Loss of Services   Decrease of Quality of Life of People. Amenities
that One is normally Accustomed with may now be Absent.

3. Inconvenience of a Post – Disaster Life: Loss of Routine. Humans enjoy Routine and base their Lives
upon Routines.

4. Depression: With the Destruction of the Environment, there is a Feeling of Hopelessness. This can
be an Emotional Strain on People; causing them to Suicide.
5. Long Term Effects: Long Term Resultant Disasters can take a Psychological Turn. Eg. Disease after
Flood. People may Continue Dying and this Prolongs the Emotional Strain.

6. Diseases: With an Outbreak of Diseases, there is Loss of Productivity (Can be Caused by PTSD).

7. Social Dislocation / Social Displacement: People have lost what makes up their Identity or at least
part of it. Eg. In Jamaica, after the Earthquake in Fort Royale, they had to relocate the entire Capital
(Fort Royale was the previous Capital). Additionally, in 1970, a Relocation of most of Belmopan to
Belize City. Surprisingly, in 1995, Montserrat had to be Evacuated.

Political Impacts of Natural Disasters:

1. Destabilization of the Political Structure: Political Impacts Revolve around Political Stability of the
Affected Nation. In a case of a Natural Disaster, People will look toward the Government for
Assistance. If the Government cannot attend to the Critical Needs of a Population (Eg. Food, Shelter,
Medical Assistance), Rapid Disapproval and Unpopularity of that Government can occur.

In the Minds of the People, the Government will be seen as Negative or Unwilling. This can lead to a
Population Unleashing their Anger on the Government; leading to a Destabilization of the Political
Structure of that Nation. Eg. Cuba.

When this happens, everything crumbles. Political De - Stability Nullify Law and Order. If there is
No Political Head, Policing will not function and this can lead to Rampant Criminality and
Unlawfulness.

Eg. In Haiti   Rampant and Widespread Crime. People Organized themselves into Gangs and Attack
People in Hospitals, Orphanages to Pillage Food, Water and Medications.

2. Reduced Development: A Nation needs a Political Head to Advance Developmental Plans of a

Nation. A Government is Tasked with certain Responsibilities; using Tax for the Benefit of everyone.

If there is Destabilization, the Development will be Stagnated (Best Case Scenario) and Retrograde
(Worst Case Scenario). Retrograde is where a Nation Reverts to an Earlier and Inferior Position.

If there is No Political Structure, Rebuilding Nations will be Stagnated and there will be no Co –
ordination of Efforts to Stabilize the Nation. If there isn't a Political Head, Aid from UN, Red Cross
and Friendly Governments, for example, there will be no aid since these bodies will have no one to
correspond with.

With any kind of Political Instability, there will be Loss of Investor Confidence. Loss of FDI (Foreign
Direct Investment). With Withdrawal of Investors, there is Economic Crisis. Eg. Unemployment.
 Tourism will go into Hibernation when there is Political Instability. This is because no one will go to
a place without Law and Order for a vacation. Tourism is a Fickle Industry; it is hard to Regain the
Population's Confidence after it is lost.

Disaster vs. Hazard:

Hazard: Presents Potential for Danger to the Well – Being of Society.

Disaster: When a Natural or Human Induced Phenomena Acts on Society.

Plate Tectonics:

Volcanic Activity: This is an Ever - Present Hazard Reality in the Caribbean. It can Manifest into a
Disaster. Eg. Montserrat 1995. Several of the Islands in the Eastern Caribbean are Volcanic in Nature.
They sit on the Margin of the Plate Boundary. Some are Active (Eg. Soufriere Hills in Guadeloupe, Kick
em Jenny, Grenada) and Dormant (Eg. Pitons in St. Lucia).

The Threat of Volcanic Activity is an Important Political, Economic and Social Reality. The 1st Recorded
Eruption was in Montserrat, 1939. Volcanic Activity, just like Earthquakes, is Unpredictable. In the
Caribbean, there have been several Incidents of Volcanic Related Disasters:

1. 1718: Soufriere Volcano, St. Vincent.

2. 1902: Soufriere Volcano, St. Vincent. There were 1600 deaths and $200 Million US Dollars in
Damage to Agriculture and Infrastructure.

3. 1995: Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat. There were 20 deaths and $500 Million US Dollars in
Damages. There was also a Total Social Relocation.

The Tectonic Setting of the Caribbean means that with the 5 Neighbouring Tectonic Plates, the
Likelihood of Tectonic Activity is Multiplied by 5. The American Plates are Continental Plates, large in
Size and thus Stable. The Caribbean Plate is Oceanic. Much of the Caribbean Plate is Water, thus,
factoring Tsunamis.

Type of Tectonic Plate Scenarios:

Steps That Occur for a Volcanic Eruption / Features of a Volcanic Eruption:

1. Ejection of Material (Rock, Stone, Debris): This Volcanic Eruption may contain Hot or Cold Debris.
Cold Materials become Projectiles causing Death, Infrastructural Damage. Hot Materials cause Fire
and Possibility of Igniting.

2. Pyroclastic Ejection: The Expulsion of Large Quantities of Gas, Dust and Ash. The gas is Super Hot.
Because the Gas is in tremendous quantities, it goes up and flows down the side of the volcano,
 causing Pyroclastic Flow. It Vaporizes anything it comes in contact with, causing Death,
Infrastructure Damages, Agricultural Damages. The Sulphur Gas produced is very Toxic.

3. Lava Flow: There is Magmatic Magma flowing over the Caldera resulting in Loss.

4. Ash Fall: Much of the Debris goes Up in the Sky and Falls Back. Much of the Lighter Material Falls
Down and causes Damage. Eg: In Montserrat, There were 12 metres of Ash.

5. Acid Rain: This occurs due to Rapid Rise of a lot of Gas. It reaches Thousands of Feet in Minutes. It
mixes with Atmospheric Gases and Water and falls back as Sulphuric Acid on Earth. It is Corrosive
and can Damage Metallic Structures. The rain will Mobilize the Ashes, creating Volcanic Slurry (A
Thick Mud).

The Tremendous Volcanic Slurry moves down the Sides of a Volcano Destroying Stuff. The Rain
Implies the Loss of Agriculture and Vegetation. There is Damage to Aquatic Ecologies. The ph of
Water is Altered Dramatically.

Tsunamis and Tidal Waves / Seismic Sea Wave

Eg. India (2004); Japan (2011)

A Tsunami can be Triggered by only a few kinds of activities since the Energy required to Trigger this is
Tremendous. Tsunamis Displace a lot of Water Rapidly.

Under-Water Eruptions/ Explosions or sudden Tectonic shifts (sea floor changes rapidly):

A tsunami becomes Dangerous as it approaches Continental Shelf. The Ripple Effect is increased closer
to the Shelf (when it becomes dangerous) as compared to Deep Sea. Tsunamis can travel far distances
(x1000km). Eg: In Japan 2004, the Tsunami impacted Australia, Madagaskar, New Zeland. They travel at
rapid speeds; almost 310-375 miles per hour/500-600 kmh.

Tsunamis will leave scope for very little warning time. It can be sudden and leave tremendous losses.
The impact is same for any natural disaster.

1. Coastal Region: Much of the Development of Caribbean territories is Centered on the Coastline,
including countries from Tobago to St Kitts / Nevis. These areas are very Mountainous therefore the
Coastline has the most amounts of Densely Populated Societies.

2. Eco-Tourism: Sun, Sea, Sand, Sex. There is loss of entire Eco-Tourism Industry. Infrastructure and
Environment will be Damaged.
Environment:

1. Salt Water Intrusion: This is Inevitable along the Coast. It is Normal and many Plants Cope (Eg.
Mangroves, Coconut). When they Intrude Inland, Plants with No Protection / Adaptation will Die. In
the Short Term, Salt Water Damage Arable Land (at least until rain falls) and hence leaves a Nation
in Food Dependency. It may impact upon Potable Water.

Salt Water Intrusion occur mostly Above Grounds (Eg: Dams) and may be Cleansed by Machinery
but it would be Expensive and may NOT be Readily Available. The Fresh Water Ecology may be
Altered. When One Food Link is Disrupted, everything else Changes causing a Ripple Effect. Animals
will be sent into a Chaos.

2. Introduction of New Species: Tsunamis may bring Animal Species from the Sea and that can
Contaminate Fresh Water and Ecology. There is Threat of Diseases. Tsunami Impact is Similar to
that of Astronomical Tides and Tidal Floodings. Tsunamis are Rare (never in Caribbean record).
However, Astronomical Tides and Tidal Flooding are More Common.

Eg. Trinidad and Tobago – Mayaro, 2014. Eg: In Guyana, Some Parts are below Sea Level.
Astronomical Tides caused Guyana to Buy Infrastructure. Eg. Georgetown Sea Walls to Protect the
Atlantic coast. Sea Walls at Mosquito Creek in Trinidad are used as Protection when Seas get
Agitated by Astronomical Tide.

Hurricanes / Typhoons / Willie Wille

This is an Important Meteorological Event in the Tropical Region.

A Hurricane is Formed by a Unique Coincidence of Factors. It Begins as a Low Pressure System

(Convection). With the Presence of a Large Volume of Water, this Low Pressure System Grows in Scale
due to Available Water Vapour.

The Atlantic Western Hurricane Belt has its Origin in Africa, Spanning form the Equator to Tropic of
Cancer. Hurricanes can Impact from Venezuela/Guyana to Boston.

A Hurricane requires an Oceanic Temperature of at Least 26o and an Ocean of Diameter: 400 km. A
Hurricane may have a span of 150 to 1000 km. Hurricanes can Achieve Wind Speeds of 150kmh on the
Outside, With Stronger Gusts at the Eye of the Hurricane. The Hurricane Derives its name from
Amerindian Vocabulary and the Mayan God of Storm: Hun Raken. There are several recorded hurricanes
in the Caribbean:

1. 1780: From Tobago to Cuba; resulting in 20000 deaths. The Destructive Potential of a Hurricane is
Manifold because High Winds Speeds results in Flying Debris and Damage to Infrastructure. Then,
there is Torrential Rain, Flooding, Inundation of Landscapes. There is Tidal Flooding due to High
Winds, when Seas get Agitated. There are serious Impacts resulting from Tsunamis.
 Eg. Hurricane Sandy in 2012: In NY, A Storm Surge resulted in Tremendous Infrastructural Damage.
Subways and Tunnels were Flooded Out. The Wind Damage has cost Caribbean Nations Immensely.
Eg. Hurricane Ivan 2004 Damaged Nutmeg Plantation and Hurricane Tomas in 2010 destroyed
Banana Plantations in St Lucia, St Vincent .

Recent Hurricanes:

1. 1964: Hurricane Flora in Tobago destroyed Cocoa Industry and Agriculture generally.
2. 1970: Hurricane Hattie in Belize resulted in the movement of Belmopan to Belize City.
3. 2004: Hurricane Ivan damaged more than 90% of Grenadian homes. The Grenadians did NOT
Utilize Good Construction Techniques since the majority of them are Squatters.
4. 2005: Hurricane Katrina Wrecked Havoc on Turks and Caicos and Bahamas.
5. 2012: Hurricane Sandy: Puerto Rico, Florida, Cuba, Eastern Sea Board.

Torrential Rain

There is No Singular Cause. It is so essentially Rainfall that Exceeds the Drainage Capacity of the Land. It
is Associated with the Movement of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

The ITCZ is a Belt of Low Pressure that Follows the Sun. It Allows the Creation of Several Major
Meteorological Events.

Torrential Rain is Normal in some places. Eg. The South American Territories (due to its Equatorial
Geographical Location). But Torrential Rainfall can impact on any nation. Eg. In 2014, Dominica (Volcano
Island), there were Widespread Floodings. There was Middle Course Flooding in the River (Normally
Lower / Upper Course).

Rivers Changed Directions. Eg. In several Consecutive Years, from 2009-2013 in Trinidad and Tobago,
Diego Martin was Flooded Out. In Haiti, their Problem is Worsened due to Removal of Agriculture.

Flooding will result in Loss of Livelihood, Infrastructural Damage, as well as Diseases. Flooding, just like
Landslide, can be Exaggerated due to Human Activity as it Worsens National Disasters. Because of
Human Activity, there is Ecological Disasters such as Deforestation and Hillside Deconstruction, Poor
Agricultural Practices (Slash and Burn / Shifting Cultivation).

In Grenada and Haiti:

1. Poverty.
2. Lack of Education.
3. Negligence (Poor Environmental Attitude).
4. Poor Garbage Disposal.
5. Alteration of Landscape for Building or Agricultural.
6. Earth Works and a Culture of Indifference.
These factors worsen or cause damage. Eg. Trinidadians have a Negative Attitude towards the
Environment.

There is a Culture of Dependency that Exaggerates the Negatives of Disaster. It means We Depend on
Government to Act. The Cultural Dependency means that We Show No Safeguard in Defending
Ourselves and it Shows our Unwillingness to Help National Initiatives (Eg. Clean Up Campaigns)

Storm Surge

This is Equated to Tidal Flooding. There are Similar Effects to Tsunami. It is a By-Product of High Winds
and Driving Waves. Storm Surge can be associated with Significant Meteorological Events. Much of the
Development of Caribbean Territories is on the Coast so there is much Damage.

Soil and Conservation

Historically, the Soil has been Economically, Socially, Culturally and Diasporically Important. The Soil
Agriculture is Directly Linked to a Caribbean Identity and Caribbean Development. Every Caribbean
Nation exports some kind of Agricultural Product. Eg. Trinidad and Tobago has 0.03 % on Agricultural
Exports on GDP but Guyana, St Lucia has up to 40% on GDP.

Soil Stability is an Important Part in the Sustainability of Caribbean Development. Sustainability means
Development Pursued Overtime, ie, Soil Stability is Important for the Future of Caribbean Societies.
The Loss of Arable Land is of Grave Concern for the Caribbean. Any Impact on Soil will have Impact on
the Economy and Identity of Caribbean People and their Quality of Life.

With Negative Impact on Food Security, People such as Farmers (or Anyone who is Directly or Indirectly
Impacted on Agriculture) will be Dependent. There is Ripple Effect on Society. Quality of Life will
Change. Due to Demand and Supply, Inflation on Food, Higher Food Import Bill and Price of Food will
mean Less Access to Food; Causing a Slowly Weakening Population.

Faming Gangs and Crime Reigns when Society Destabilizes. Shortages can Lead to Crime. Due to Failure
of Agriculture / Loss of Soil, the Creation of Dust Bowl (Land Exposed to Elements of Weather and then
Breeze take Soil Away) will occur. This is negative.

Challenges Facing Soil Conservation:

There are Natural and Man-Induced Challenges (Since Man Altered the Environment and faces Soil
Instability). Any Challenge in Soil has a Negative Impact on Mankind. There will be Social, Economical
and Development Challenges.

Natural Challenges:

1. Wind / Rain.

2. Vegetation.
3. Soil Erosion: Some level of Erosion is Inevitable. Soil Erosion occurs due to mainly: Overland Flow
and Street Wash / Sheet Erosion.

Overland Flow occurs when Water Flows over the Surface of the Ground. Sheet Wash / Sheet Erosion is
the Uniform Removal of Top Soil by the Forces of Raindrops and Overland Flow. It is an Effective
Erosive Process because it can cover Large Areas of Sloping Land and go Unnoticed for Quite Some
Time.

These Processes are Exaggerated due to Human Action: Clearing of Vegetation, Over-Grazing, Land
Clearing for Development and Agriculture. The Soil will be more Easily Removed if the Landscape is
Removed in anyway. Vegetation work to Reduce the Impact of Rain Drops. These Drops are like
Missiles and cause Physical Damage to Soil Structure. When these Missiles Multiply, it becomes Sheet
Wash.

Vegetation acts as a Barrier between the Raindrop and Earth. It Slows Impact Speed therefore Less
Erosion. More Gentle Raindrops Remove Less Debris. Because Rain Falls on Trees, there is Delayed
Run-Off and Interception, meaning, The Drainage System will NOT be Overwhelmed.

Vegetation will keep the Soil Together due to the Function of Roots; especially Surface Roots that will
Trap Surface Run-Off. Without Vegetation, Soil Loss will be Magnified as in Haiti and Mining Regions in
Jamaica, Guyana.

Man – Made Challenges:

Agriculture: Many Agricultural Practices leave the Soil Vulnerable. Eg. Animal Rearing: A Piece of Soil
will be under Grazing Stress. This can form Denudation of Pasture Lands; leaving the Lands Barren and
Fruitless. When this occurs, Exposure to Rains / Winds Elements lead to Soil Erosion.

Large Scale Monocrop Farming (Eg. Sugar cane) is Dangerous to Soil. Over 100 years, the Same Crop on
the same Soil Leads to Exhaustion of Particular Minerals of the Soil.

The Soil becomes Uneconomical and the Soil Structure Breaks Down over a Long Period of Time making
it Susceptible to Wind / Water Erosion.

Negative Farming Practices such as Slash and Burn Agriculture and Overgrazing are Legacies of the
Peasantry and Part of our Identity.

Poor Ploughing Practices help to Aerate the Soil gives Better Top Soil and Increase Erosion. Eg:
Ploughing Trenches are to be Perpendicular to Direction of Flow of Water.

Slash and Burn is a Widespread Practice to Remove Undergrowth. Burning Increases Fertility because
the Ash is Rich in Minerals, but this Leaves the Land Without Vegetation Cover and can Encourage Soil
Erosion.

Overgrazing is likely to occur when the Number of Animals on a Piece of Land exceeds its "Carrying
Capacity." The likelihoods are that the Animals will Remove all the Vegetation, leaving the Soil Bare.
The Carrying Capacity of a Plot of Land refers to the Maximum Number of Animals that can Graze
without Leaving the Land Bare.

Human Activities (Eg. Building, Land Preparation) require Total Removal of Vegetation. This Clearing
may be Temporary and in Short Term, the Soil is Destabilized and there are Exposed Elements. When a
Building is Built, there is Less Potential of Throughflow in the Soil.

Throughflow is the Sporadic Horizontal Flow of Water within the Soil Layer. It normally takes Place
when the Soil is Completely Saturated with Water. When there are Structures, Throughflow is
Inhibited and this Increases Surface Run Off.

Flooding is Exaggerated with Erosion. Because of Poor and Unregulated Building Practices, many Floods
occur. Eg: North Trinidad (Diego Martin, Port of Spain as the River is Choked with Debris).

Human Negligence: Human Induced Forest Fires place a Strain on the Ecology.

Negative Attitude to the Soil: People don’t Value the Soil. They Pollute, Remove and Use the Ecology
Irresponsibly.

Soil Conservation: This carries a Range of Activities in Maintaining Environmental Equilibrium. This
heavily depends on Changing our Attitude to the Soil; becoming Aware of Importance of Soil.

1. Afforestation: This is the Planting of Trees where they weren't any Previously. Eg. Planting of
Coconuts in East and South Coast in Trinidad.

2. Reforestation: This is the Planting of Trees in Areas where they were Previously Removed.

Reforestation takes place on the Hillsides in the Northern Range of Trinidad. Guyana's Previous
President, Bharat Jagdeo, was Nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize. He wanted to make the Forest
and Lumber Industry Economically Stable. He implemented a Policy: Cut Down One Tree; Plant Two
More. There was one drawback of this: The Trees being Cut Down in Guyana were more than 1000
Years Old.

The Goal of Afforestation and Reforestation is to use fast Growing Trees to Produce a Dense
Network of Roots to Bind the Soil Together and Produce a Substantial Amount of Organic Material
to Help in the Production of More Soil.

3. Constructive Farming Practices:

a. Crop Rotation: Each Crop Depletes the Soil of certain Minerals so if Different Crops are Planted
in Succession rather than the Same Crop Continuously, the Depleted Minerals will Regenerate
Naturally. Thus, Arable Value is Retained Longer.
 b. Inter - Cropping: This suggests Many Crops will be Utilized Simultaneously. It means the Soil will
Not be Exposed for a Long Time. The farmers Maximizes Yield while Maintaining Surface
Coverage. Additionally, he Reduces Risk from Disease and Natural Elements.

c. Fallowing: This is when the Land is Deliberately Unutilized. The land is hence Left for a Period of
Time until Vegetation grows back. There is a Rejuvenation of the Mineral Content of the Soil.

d. Green Belting: This is where Large Trees are Planted Around Arable Land. It is utilized in North
America and Serves Two Main Functions: The Large Trees act as Wind Breaks (Protecting from
Wind Erosion) and the Roots Hold the Soil Together while not Inhibiting Use of Top Soil. Green
Belting is used for large Areas of Land.

e. Terracing: There is Effort by Man to Reduce the Gradient of a Slope. Eg. Building Small Walls,
Ridges and Channels around Sloping Land helps to Prevent Rainfall from Running Freely
Downslope and Reduces the Chances of Soil being Removed. It creates more User Friendly
Land Spaces. Eg. China.

f. Contour Ploughing: Tilling Land around Hill Slopes along the Height of Contours breaks up the
Natural Channels and Grooves in the Soil which may Channel Water directly Downslope.

g. Paddocking in Animal Rearing: The Process of Establishing Stalls for Livestock on a Farm.
Paddocks are Designed to Ensure Short-Duration Grazing followed by an Appropriate (related
to Species, Soil Type and Weather Conditions) Rest Period for Re-Growth and Stand
Maintenance.

Conservation Strategies: These are Confined to Human Interaction with the Soil.

1. Creation of Legislation.
2. Education.

Legislation: Creation of Policies that will be Re-Enforced by Penalties, ie, the Government must Create
Legislation that Soil must Not be Removed in North Trinidad, for example. Legislation must be followed
by Repercussions. Eg. Policing, Fines, Jail Terms.

Government Aid / Education to those Persons most Involved with Soil. Eg. Giving Technical Advice to
Farmers such as Best Practices in Farming, Subsidization to Farmers, Hydroponic Farming (It requires
Huge Amount of Income). The Government may Create Forest Reserves with No Alteration to the
Landscape Allowed. It Safeguards the Soil and Ecosystem.

Education: Education about Soil Vulnerabilities can be an Important Agent in Changing Negative
Attitudes and Practices to the Soil. The Soil is Fragile and Important to the Caribbean.

Soil is the Basis for All Groups being here (European, African, Chinese, East Indian came for Agriculture
and Mining) and Soil has led to Farming; allowing the Development of the Peasantry. Soil indirectly
allows for Development of Community, Development of Economic Entrepreneurship and Economic
Enfranchisement.

The Soil can be seen as the Basis of Resistance and Resilience. Soil is the Basis of Cultural Identity for
Caribbean territories. Eg. Jamaica   Coffee, Grenada   Spice, Guyana   Rum, Sugar Cane. Soil is a Major
Contributor to the GNP. Many Caribbean Territories can get Significant Cash (up to 40%).

Because of Soil Fertility, there is Increase in Employment Opportunities. Because of the Soil, the Church
and Christianity became a Possibility. (To access Land Legally for Africans) Eg. In Haiti: The Haitian
Revolution (1791- 1803) The Europeans and their Social Institutions were Pushed Out, therefore, the
Church was not wanted. This is why they aren't many Christians in Haiti.

The Soil / Land becomes a means of Diasporic Dynamics (Settlements). During Indentureship, the East
Indians were the last one of the Land. According to the Contract, Either: Money and Passage to India OR
Money and Land in Trinidad and Tobago. Eg. In Guyana and Trinidad, the East Indians owned many
Arable Lands.

Sea Impact on Human Ecology: It is an Important Part of Human Landscape, thus, Inevitably becomes
part of our Cultural Identity and Impacts Human Ecology. Man develops a Relationship with the Sea.

1. It was due to the Sea that Caribbean Territories become Populated (Amerindians and Canoes).

2. The Voyages of Discovery were Facilitated by the Sea and North East Trade Winds.

3. The Sea facilitated the Triangular Trade and Importation of Different Groups from Different Places.
The Sea is Responsible for Cultural Pluralism.

4. The sea facilitated Movement of Goods. The Wealth of the Caribbean has been Moved Out.
Overtime, the Sea has become Important to different Groups in more ways than one. The
Amerindians used the Seas as Sustenance. The Peasantry used to Sea to Generate Employment
Opportunities. The Peasants went to the Coastline to be Free from Harassment / Persecution from
Europeans.

5. The Sea has facilitated a Human Ecological Response to the Sea Fishing. Fishing can be Recognized
as a means of Achieving Self-Efficiency, a Basis of Resistance and Resilience. Fishing is the Basis of
Formation of Communities. Eg. Sea lots, Caroni, Pointe-a-Pierre, Caroni, Cedros, Mayaro. Therefore
it brought People together. Fishing became Part of the Identity of different people from different
Villages.

Fishing is a Contributor to GNP. Eg. Belize and Guyana use Sea as a Basis of Income Generation.
Belize has a Coral Reef coinciding with the Gulf Stream, allowing Active Fishery Industries. Guyana,
due to Gigantic Rivers, Specialize in the Shrimp Industry.
 Fishery is the Basis of International Recognition in Caribbean Territories. Eg. Jamaica, Grenada and
Tobago has Sponsors of Sport Fishing,. In 2012, Mercedes sponsored the Tournament in Tobago.

6. The Sea constitutes a Major Part of our Tourism Magnet; Principally, Eco-Tourism. Because of the
Sea, Caribbean Nations that are Devoid of Mineral Resources are able to Make Money; they Rely on
the Sea. Eg. Barbados is a Developed Nation (First World) since They Met Certain Requirements.

7. Fishing and the Sea has Woven its way into the Christian Ideology and it has been Transposed to
the Caribbean Environment. Eg. St Peter’s Day: In many Fishing Villages, it has been Practice to Bless
the Boat.

Coral Reefs:

The Coral Reefs have an Important Economic, Cultural and Environmental Place in Society. Coral Reefs
have been formed over 10 000 years; through Tectonic Movement, Optimum Temperature and Water.
Coral Reefs have been Historically Relevant since the Amerindians utilized them in several ways:

1. Protected Coastline: A Fringe / Barrier Reef allows the Coastline to be Calm; permitting Amerindian
Settlement and Colonisation. The Reefs Shrinks Tidal Energy. This Reduces the Likelihood of
Erosion on the Coastline; acting as a Natural Preventative Method to Protect Against Natural
Phenomena such as Tsunamis, Tidal Waves.

2. Basis of Food: The "Rainforest of the Ocean" is a Habitat for Species of Edible Food such as Fish,
Turtles, etc...The Amerindians Developed Unique Fishing Techniques. Eg. The use of Remora Fish to
Bait and Catch Turtles; Cyanide Poisoning in Tidal Pools to catch Fish.

Today, the Coral Reef has Social, Cultural, Economic, Ecological (Physical) and Scientific Importance.
From a Developmental Point of View, Coastline Conservation helps to Sustain Physical and
Infrastructural Development. Eg. Tourism Sector   Focused on Eco – Tourism (Sun, Sea, Sand, Sex). Any
Means to Preserve the Tourism Magnet is Economical.

From an Economic Perspective, the Coral Reef provides many Avenues for Income Generation:

1. Employment.
2. Income.
3. Taxation.

These add to the Economic Well Being of a Nation. There are many Levels of Employment Generated
due to the Coral Reefs (Upstream and Downstream Employment).

The Multiplier Effect is an Economic Theory that suggests that Money Spent once, will be Spent over
and over again. Each time Money is spent, it will Add Value, Create Employment and Opportunities.
The Multiplier Effect will be Stimulated by the Coral Reefs.
Tourism Introduces Service Oriented Occupations such as Sight Seeing, Boat Operations, Beach
Recreational Activities, Resorts, Hotels, Rental, Jet-Skiing and Fishing Industries. The Coral Reef is the
Basis of Economic Activity.

Every Person that is Employed, is one less Person that the Government has to Attend to, meaning, the
Government can now Redirect its Limited Resources to Improving the Quality of Life Indicators (Eg.
Education, Healthcare).

The Coral Reef is part of the International Cultural Identity. It is Associated with the Landscape and the
People. Belize stands out as one of the most successful Nations using the Coral Reef as a Source of
National Income. Belize possesses the 2nd Longest Barrier Reef in the World.

Several Countries in the Caribbean utilize the Reef as Part of the Aesthetic of the Nations.

Scientific Importance of the Coral Reefs: There are Ambivalent Effects of Studying the Coral Reefs. Since
Coral Reefs are affected by Minute Temperature Changes, Scientists can Study the Impact of Global
Warming but at the same time, they Study how the Reefs Die.

Threats Facing Coral Reefs:

Coral is Composed of Millions of Tiny Organisms called Polyps. Polyps Secrete Calcium and Form an
Exoskeleton Shell. These are Built up over 1000 years. Due to Chemicals in the Air, the Exoskeleton Shell
turns to Limestone. Even though the Coral is Hard, it is a Biological Organism. It must have Access to
Light for Photosynthesis.

The Coral is an animal that sucks in Phytoplankton. The Phytoplankton and the Coral Polyps have a
Mutualism Relationship; the Phytoplankton excretes Waste and the Polyps use the Waste to Effectively
Photosynthesize and Grow.

Coral Reefs are Sensitive to Water Clarity, Salinity, Temperature and pH. Humans are Responsible for
the Destruction of the Reefs.

Direct Threats:

1. Theft: The Beauty of the Reef is its Own Worst Enemy. Due to its Natural Aesthetic Wonder, people
go to Observe them. Then, they Break Corals for Souvenirs. Additionally, Sight Seeing also results in
Humans Walking on Corals and Damage from Boat Anchors.

A Coral Pillar is Several Metres Tall but only the Few Inches on Top is Alive. Tourists break the Ones
most Accessible to them (at the Top). A Growing Industry has Emerged for Selling Coral. These
Corals are of a Variety of Sizes, Shapes and Colours. Craftsmen go after the All Kinds of Corals but
Seek the Most Attractive Ones more than Others, thus, some Species are under more Threat.
 Eg. Jewellery, Furniture. The Making of Souvenirs is Ironic; the Basis of the Craftsmen Employment
is Slowly Depleting as they Take Corals to Manipulate and Sell. It is noteworthy to know that it
takes 100 years for 3cm of Coral to Grow.

2. Harvesting of Sand: Coral Sand consists of Calcium and is Highly Prized (Eg. In Landscaping) due to
its Natural White State. The Longer it is in the Sun, the Whiter it gets.

Harvesting the Sand Alters the Equilibrium of the Coastline. One Change in the Sea will Lead to a
Compensation Elsewhere. This can result in Changes in the Coastline. As a Consequence, there will
be Total Loss of Coastline Ecology or Money Paid to Repair.

3. Invasive Species: Due to Global Trade, there are New Species Introduced to the Caribbean, They are
brought in Ballast Water. Ships Entering and Exiting the Caribbean Deposit Ballast Water.

The Red Anemone is an example of an Invasive Species that Originated in Japan. It Eats and Digests
the Polyps Present in the Coral Reefs. Another Example is the Venomous Lion Fish. Invasive Species
mean that there are No Natural Predators.

4. Construction: Because of Building and Construction on the Coastline, there has been an Altercation
of the Coast. Construction on the Coastline has become a Norm in the Tourism Industry. Eg. In
Tobago, Coco Reef, has 3 and 4 Star Hotels that are Near the Ocean.

Indirect Threats:

1. Pollution: Physical Garbage (Bottles, Cans, Clothes) get into Coral Reefs and Reduce Sunlight
Penetration and Water Exchange Capabilities of Corals. Bivalves exchange Water for Oxygen. If the
Environment becomes too Congested, it leads to Eutrophication or Suffocation.

Water Pollution   Organic Matter (Eg. Kitchen Waste) and Human Waste introduces Nitrogenous
Compounds. There is Large Amounts of Human Waste Deposited on the Coast.

Chemical Wastes Impact the Coastline. The Manufacturing Industries Inject Nitrogenous
Compounds in the Waterways. Eg. The Stink Smell of the Beetham Mangrove. The Injection of
Chemical Wastes lead to Algae Bloom.

Algae Bloom is where Naturally Found Algae is given the Ability to Grow Rapidly and Bloom Spores.
When this occurs, the Water Turns Red and Cuts Out all Sunlight while Consuming all Oxygen.
Chemical Runoff will lead to Chemical Imbalance of the Coastal Waters. There is Damage to Corals.
Coral Thinning   Due to the Change in pH, Coral Skeleton is Growing Thinner.
2. Runoff from the Land: Rain falls and Run into the Sea. The Water is Murky (Contains Debris, Sand).
This poses an Indirect Threat since it Reduces the Clarity of Water.

Due to Human Activities (Eg. Construction), there is Destabilization of Soil, therefore, more Erosion
and More Deposition into Coastal Environment. The Coastal Marine Environment is Covered with
Debris, resulting in Reduced Sunlight Penetration.

3. Fishing: Fishing has been a Tradition since the Amerindian Time. Fishing is a main part of every
Caribbean Nation's Identity. While the Coral Reef provides Habitat, Fishing (Including Dropping of
Anchors and Rolling of Boats) Damage the Corals. There is Breakage in Corals.

These Boats (with Powerful Engines) Stir up Debris; creating Unclarity in Water. Boats Introduce
Petroleum Products and By - Products directly into the Environment. Constant Introduction over a
Period of Time will Impact the Marine Ecosystem (Including Coral Reefs).

Some types of Fishing are more Dangerous than Others. Trawler Fishing is an example of these that
Damage Ecosystems. This presents Indiscriminate Capture of all Species of Fish; from Highly Prized
to Protected and Unwanted Species. There is obvious Breakage of the Fragile Coral Organisms.

Marine Aquaria is Specialised and Fish can sometimes cost $100 US. There is Over – Exploitation of
Particular Species. Certain Fish are at Risk due to Overfishing.

This provides Income and Employment but will have an Impact upon the Aquatic Food Chain. The
Overexploitation of One Species can lead to the Collapse of the Ecological System.

4. Sight Seeing and Boating: Dropping of Anchors, Introduction of Petroleum Chemicals.

5. Global Warming: Climate Change doesn't Foresee any Sustainability for the Coral Reefs. Caribbean
Waters vary from 25oC to 28oC. Corals, if exposed to Extended Time of Too Low or High
Temperatures, will Cease to Grow.

6. Removal of Mangrove Forests: This is becoming a more Pronounced Phenomenon due to Squatting
and Development of Private / Public Workers.

There is Lack of Recognition for Importance of Mangroves. For Private Developers, the Coastline is
Important for Manufacturing and an Easy "Pay Day". The Absence of Mangroves affects the Marine
Coastal Environment. Since there is an Opportunity to Dispose of Waste Easily, more Garbage will
get into the Oceans.
Protection of Coral Reefs

The Reef Ought to be a Priority on the Conservation List because of its Importance:

1. Economically: Fishing, Tourism, Handycraft.

2. Environmentally: Natural Habitat (Eco–Diversity), Natural Water Break, Protection from Erosion.
3. Culturally: Part of People's Ways to Understand the Ocean, Part of their Recreational Avenues.

In order to Protect the Reef, the Government must Play a Fundamental Role. The Government of any
Country is the only Agency with the Authority / Resources to Institute Change. The Government must
Participate in Ensuring the Sustainability of the Reef.

Caribbean Governments have been Reactive (Only when Something goes Wrong, they Act). Steps are
not taken to Prevent Something until Damage is already done. They need to be Proactive in order to
achieve Sustainability.

Any Government has to recognize the Importance of the Natural Environment. They have two Tools at
its Disposal:

1. Legislation.
2. Education.

Legislation: Laws to see about Protection of Coastal Environment. Eg. How People Build in the Northern
Range. Most Governments Lack the Potential Will or Ability to Construct Legislation to Protect the
Environment. Eg. How and Where Homes and Manufacturing Firms are Built (Zoning).

Laws regarding Utilization of Certain Products that can / cannot be used on the Market and Laws
regarding Garbage Disposal should be put into place. Establishing Recycling Laws might seem Trivial. As
an Oil Producing Nation, Trinidad has no Oil Recycling Laws.

Laws regarding Fishing and Tourism need to be created. Re – Enforcement, however, is the Challenge. A
Government needs to Police the Laws; Creating Jail Terms and Fines. Legislation can take Years to
Complete and become Enacted (Support is needed from both Government and Opposition).

Education: Education regarding the Frailty of the Environment is needed. Education about the
Environmental Awareness; not just the Reef System is needed. Eco – Tourism is Actively Important in
all Caribbean Nations. Eg. Pitch Lake, Reefs.

The Emphasis on Education is to bring about Cultural Change (Change how People View, Think and Deal
With the Reef). The Government also needs to Change the Education Curriculum. Government
Outreach Programs in Education; Stimulating Awareness through Outreach.

Eg. "Save the Reef" Program whereby Schools earn Money for Informative Reef Posters. Eg. School
Essays. Infomercials is where Information is given in a manner Appealing to the Audience. Public
Awareness and Education is Necessary.
Droughts

There are Environmental, Cultural, Social and Political Impacts of Droughts. The Caribbean is
particularly Susceptible to Droughts since most Caribbean Nations are Agrarian in Nature, ie, we
depend heavily on Agriculture for Economic Turnover and Occupation.

Additionally, most Caribbean Nations are Small and Lack Water Storage Capacity. The Caribbean may
have a Clearly Defined Drought Period (Dry Season is an Annual Drought). Drought impacts upon the
Ecology of a Place; the Natural and Agricultural Vegetation will Diminish.

These effects have Economic and Social Consequences. The Ones who are most Affected are the Ones
who are most Vulnerable, ie, those who are at the lower end of the Socioeconomic Spectrum (Eg. Poor
People, Sustenance Farmers).

Impacts of Droughts:

1. Reduced Crop Production or Failure of Entire Crops.

2. Contraction of National Income.

3. Famine.

4. Manufacturing Sector / Industries: Water is an Essential Component in any Manufacturing Process;

leading to Reduced Production. In 2010, in Trinidad and Tobago, to Facilitate the Continued
Refinery of Oil, Harvesting of Water took place in Ponds all over the Country.

Petrotrin was placed under difficulty to Refine Oil with lack of Water in Ponds. In 2010, there was a
Scarcity so Food Prices rose. There were Food Shortages; so Government had to Import Food.

5. Civil Unrest: There would be Migration. If the Land is No Longer Productive, People will move and
Trinidad and Tobago will be placed under Refugee Status. Because of Migration, there will be Social
and Cultural Dislocation, Loss of Identity and Post – Dramatic Stress Syndrome. In 2010, St. Lucia
and St. Vincent had to Import Water. Trinidad and Tobago gave them for free.

6. Diseases and Illnesses: Hygiene might become an Issue. Lack of Hygiene   Disease. Water Borne
Diseases become Rampant (Eg. Cholera) since People utilize Impure Water.

7. Water Crime: In 2010, People Stole Water: Illegal Connection. People sell Water in the Black
Market. Some Persons Exploit an already Bad Situation.

8. Scope for Corrupt Practice: Persons in Authoritative Positions enjoy Better Standards of Life. This
leads to a Divided Society. In times of Desperation, a Disquiet in the Peace of the Nation will
 Evolve. The Majority will not have will the Minority will have Water. There will be a Breakdown of
Law and Order.

9. Fire: This can become a Reality. Everything is already Flammable. Even the Fire Service won't be
able to Cope with this Disaster.

10. Ecological Collapse: All Plants and Animals will Suffer. It may lead to Desertification (This is where a
piece of Land is Stripped of all Vegetation; making the Land lost Forever).

In the mid 1960s, in Central America, there was a Great Depression. This time of Hardship was Co –
Incidental with a Drought in the Centre of America. There was a Dust Bowl; where all Soil was
Removed and left with Dust.

Coping Strategies with Drought:

1. Liquidation of Legislation: Promote Conservation of Water; Ensuring what one has lasts. It is part of
the Sustainable Development Paradigm. Legislation can be regarding: Water Usage Laws, Water
Metering, Water Initiatives and Revision of Water Winning Policies.

Water Winning is the Right to Use / Access Water. This means that Government Owns all the
Water. Revision of Water Shed Policies (A Watershed is an area of Natural Catchment facilitating
Percolation). Spending on Reservoirs may be Ideal but it is Expensive and many Caribbean Nations
lack Space.

Money can be Allocated to Desalination Systems. These are Energy Monsters. The Government can
create Serious Consequences for Water Crime (Eg. Fines for Stealing Water). The creation of Water
Police should be Installed.

There is Water Scheduling; Water Equity among People. This is a major effort to create Tranquility
among People. In 2010, the Government of Trinidad used their Parliamentary Privilege to acquire
something in the Public Good, and confiscated a Portion of Blue Waters' water. Blue Waters used
Water from an Aquifer in the Northern Range.

2. Education: Making People aware of Importance of Water. Eg. Sensitization, Infomercials, etc...
Positives of Natural Disasters:

1. Volcanic Ash Deposits: Many Caribbean countries depend on Agriculture for GNP. Some of these
Nations have Volcanoes; with very Rich, Volcanic Soil. Volcanic Ash / Soil leads to Longevity /
Sustainability of Agriculture. Additionally, Volcanic Soil doesn't Exhaust Quickly.

2. International Attention: International Attention can lead to International Aid. Assistance can come
from Several Agencies. Eg. Non – Governmental Organizations (Eg. UN, Red Cross), Friendly
Governments (Eg. USA) and Religious Bodies (Eg. Churches, Temples). A Nation may become in a
Better Position than before the Disaster.

3. Debt Alleviations: All Developing Nations currently has International Loans; from Governments to
Agencies. In a worst case scenario, a Nation might Unable to Pay its Debt. The Creditors may cancel
the Debt (Debt Alleviation).

Eg. Haiti: During the Haitian Revolution, France lost a Huge Amount of Money during the 1803
Insurrection. During the 1803 Insurrection, France required Haiti to pay $60 Million Francs back to
France for their Losses. This Debt was only repaid in the 20 th Century.

Because of the 2010 Earthquake in Haiti, Global Attention was Directed towards Haiti. The World
looked at France with Contempt. As such, France became Compelled to Helping Haiti since
International Nations Pressured France.

4. Cohesion within Society: Strata and Barriers in Society may Break Down since Everyone has the
same Struggle.

5. Opportunity for Better Rebuilding / Planning: The Layout of Caribbean Towns are Poorly Planned
and Congested, thus, Ill-Equipped to Accommodate Commercial Needs. Eg. In Belize, there was a
Movement of Capital from Coast to Interior.

6. Opportunity to Revise Laws: Laws such as Building Codes can be Revised. Natural Disasters
illustrates where Society, Culture and Laws have Short Comings. Laws can now be Derived to
Counteract. Eg. Legislation for Agencies may also be Created. Eg. ODPM.

7. Recognition for a Disaster Relief Fund: Natural Disasters encourage the Recognition of the
Importance of Saving Money. (Disaster Relief Fund). Eg. In Trinidad and Tobago: The Heritage and
Relief Fund.
Mitigation Strategies: This can be Unique to a Type of Disaster:

1. Proactive Legislation: Anticipation of Worst Case Scenario and Creation of Strategies to Cope.

2. Oversight and Regulatory Bodies in some Areas of Society: Eg. Land Use, Construction and Building,
Coordinating Agencies such as ODPM, EMA, NEMA.

3. Education: Promotion of Awareness as a Protective Agent. Knowledge can Safeguard a Nation.

Campaigns Spreading Awareness can Reduce Severity of Disaster.

4. Investing of Monitoring Equipment: The Caribbean is Highly Geologically Active thus the Investment
into Seismic Equipment to try to Predict Potential of Disasters should be Recommended. Nations
that aren't Prone to such Disasters are in Possession of such Equipment but those that are in Dire
Need of it, are without. Eg. Haiti. These Equipment are Expensive depending on their Capabilities.

5. Use of Technology for Pre-Alerting: In Recent Times, The ODPM has made Alliances with Digicel and
Bmobile to SMS Emergence Broadcast Messages in Times of Natural Turmoil.

6. Buying Insurance: Insurance is a Promise to Pay. It is a means of being Indemnified (Being Restored
to a Former Position). Government, as well as Private Companies, buy Insurance. Through Purchase,
there is a Reduction of Dependency, thus, becoming more Independent.

7. Ensuring Better Land Usage: More Sensible Drainage and Agricultural Practices. Eg. In a Drought,
Nations may Invest in Desalination Plants, do Seismic Surveys to find Aquifers and Regulation of
Water Consumption.

8. Water Monitoring / Water Metering / Construction of New Dams: Dry Seasons don’t occur suddenly,
thus, one knows When to Prepare For and How to Prepare. Eg. Planning and Sourcing Resources
and Money to Construct New Dams.

Factors Influencing Responses to Hazards: These factors are Personal and Physical in Reality.

1. Physical Nature of a Place: Some Places are Not Prone to certain Natural Disasters due to their
Physical Nature. Eg. Suriname, French Guiana, Guyana are not Prone to Hurricanes and
Earthquakes. This Influences a Cultural Perception of a Place.

They Tend to Leave It Out of their Thinking. Eg. Trinidad and Tobago seem to be Immune from
Hurricanes, so, People Factor it into their Thinking by Leaving it Out. "God is a Trini". This Perception
is Passed from One Generation to Another.

2. People's Culture of Dependency: Dependency suggests that a Person looks to People in Power for
Everything. This Culture of Dependency is Dangerous as People take no Initiative for their Self
Preservation. As a part of Caribbean Psyche, we leave everything to the Hands of the Government.
 The Culture of Dependency poses a Challenge to People's Level of Preparation and Resulting
Damage that can Occur.

3. People's Level of Awareness / Education: Many People don’t have the Level of Education to
Appreciate the Gravity of an Event. Because they Lack the Education, they don't Recognize the
Dangers of Natural Disasters. Lack of Education / Awareness can be Detrimental as they aren’t
Aware of the Preventative Measures to Safeguard Life and Property.

4. Socio – Economic Status: People's Responses to Natural Disasters are Affected by Money Available
to them. Eg. In 2004, Hurricane Ivan destroyed Grenada. Low Socio – Economic Standing: Lack of
Preparation and No Insurance. Grenadian Homes were Destroyed. No Money was Spent on Proper
Foundations, Food Cans, etc..

Agriculture and Geology:

Agriculture is related to the Nature of the Land. Historically, the Land is Important to the Evolution of
the Caribbean. The Land's Suitability is Directly related to the Crops being Implemented. The Nature of
the Land Influenced the Socio - Cultural and Economic Evolution of the Caribbean. Eg. The Plantation,
Peasantry still Depend on Agriculture for Money.

Some Territories are more Suited to Agriculture than Others. Caribbean Territories became Specialised
in certain Crops. The Nature of the Land Varies among the Caribbean and Dictates the Agricultural
Practices that have Evolved.

Every Caribbean Country has a Cash Crop. Eg. Sugar Cane, Coffee, Rice. This Implies Large Scale
Agriculture. The Large Scale Nature of the Cash Crop Influenced Settlement Patterns, Levels of
Employment and National Income.

Countries such as the Lesser Antilles still depend Heavily upon the Sale of Agricultural Products for a
Large Part of their National Income. Agricultural Dependency Poses a Challenge to Caribbean
Development because:

1. Agriculture is not Economically Rewarding.

2. Agricultural Jobs are Low Yielding.
3. Agriculture is Prone to Diseases.
4. Natural Disasters.

Agriculture is Prone to Losses of all kinds. Agriculture also means that much of the Landscape has been
Zoned (Restriction in Terms of Land Use). In the Lesser Antilles, due to the Nature of their Geology (Eg.
Volcanoes, High Mountains), Agriculture becomes the Obvious Choice of Occupation and Land Use.
Module 1, Specific Objective 6
Impact of Social Institutions on Caribbean People:

Social Institutions are Sets of Important Ideas used to Organize People's Lives. They are Prescriptive;
they Inform about Routines. Social Institutions do Not Exist in the Tangible Realm. People Place High
Value on these Ideas. Some Social Institutions Evoke a High Level of Sensitivity in People; as some Cling
more Strongly to, for example, Religion. They Influence how People go about their Lives.

For a Social Institution to Exist, a Consensus is Required. Everyone has to Agree on the Social Institution,
therefore, they are Socially Cohesive. Eg. Students from Different Religion Backgrounds come together
in Education.

A Social Institution depends on Socialisation, ie, the next Generation would be Taught certain
Information. A Social Institution Allows for a Value System.

Primary Socialisation Involves Infancy and Early Childhood. It is Associated with the Indoctrination of
Personal Values and these Allow the Individual to Interact with his Immediate Society, ie, the Family.
The Individual learns Religion, Love, Obedience and Sibling Interaction. He will Learn the Values that
Allow him to Understand Roles in the Family.

Secondary Socialisation Involves Formal Schooling (Eg. Pre School, Primary, Secondary, Tertiary
Education) where the Person is Taught Socially Relevant Values that are Important for a Nation /
Society and would make an Individual a Good Citizen. Eg. Patriotism.

These Values can be Taught and Caught the Importance of Sharing through the Hidden Curriculum (The
Lesson in the Lesson: The Moral of the Story). Values can be Caught when an Individual Observes
Behaviour. NOT all Values are Valuable. Eg. Racism.

Social Perspectives: Social Perspectives Produces Guidelines / Theories / Rules by which what already
Exists in Society can be Studied. Each Social Perspective begins with a Basic Outlook / Theory. Social
Perspectives do not Dictate what goes on in Society; it merely Helps to Explain why Society is the Way it
is. Two Social Perspectives are:

1. Functionalism: Created by Emile Durkheim. Functionalism sees all Social Institutions as being
Crafted by Society to Promote Cohesion, Harmony and High Levels of Productivity.
Functionalism sees all Social Institutions as Working towards the Greater Good of Society. There
is an Optimistic Outlook.

Functionalism Promotes the Idea of Roles in Society. Therefore, Functionalism depends on

Tradition, ie, Change in Society must Occur very Slowly else Society will Slip into Chaos with
Rapid Change. Functionality regards all Social Institutions as Enabling an Individual to lead a
Happy and Productive Life; helping an Individual to become what Society wants him to be.
 2. Marxism / Conflict Perspective: Created by Karl Marx. Communism is Associated with Karl Marx.
He Created a Socio - Political and Socio - Economic Philosophy contained in the book called
"The Communist Manifesto." Marxism sees all Social Institutions as being Created by the
Bourgeoisie Class to Oppress the Proletariat Class / the Masses.

Therefore, Marxism sees all Social Institutions as being based upon Oppression, Conflict and
Control. Cuba Utilizes Communist Policies as part of their Structure. It Explains all Social
Institutions to Maintain their Power Position over another Group.

Social Institutions:

1. Family.
2. Religion.
3. Education.
4. Justice System.

Family

Functionalist Perspective: Any Family Structure has a few Main Functions:

a. Reproductive.
b. Socialisation.
c. Economic.
d. Provision of Love, Security, Self Esteem.

The Family is a Major Institution in Society because this is where the Greatest Level of Socialisation
takes Place, ie, Family Teaches Children what it is to be a Member of Society. The Family is the Basis of
Social Cohesion and Harmony. However, this can only Occur if Every Member of the Family Performs
his Role. The Functionalists Recommends the Nuclear Family; as there is a Tightly Knit, Compact,
Efficient Family Structure.

Marxist Perspective: The Family is a Reflection of what Occurs in Society. They see the Society as Filled
with Social and Economic Exploitation. This same Exploitation in Society also Occurs in Family. Marxists
Theorists are Characterized by Dysfunctionality because there would be Exploitation, Violence and
Oppression in the Family.

Marxists see the Breadwinner (Man) as having Economic Power and he will Oppress the Family. Thus,
the Relationship between the Man and Woman is never a Good One. The Man Oppresses his Family
because of Oppression given to him in his Workplace. This is known as Social Reproduction; where a
Mentality continues from One Generation to the Next.

In the Family, there will be a Sexual Division of Labour / Sexual Stereotyping. Eg. Men as Breadwinners,
Women as Housewife (Women as having No Economic Basis). This Agenda Continues the Economic
Polarisation in Society.
Caribbean Reality: The Caribbean Illustrates a Diversity in Family Structure. Like all Social Institutions,
there would be Inputs of Family Structure from all Race Groups in the Caribbean. Some Family
Structures would have more Influence than Others.

All Social Institutions Display a Eurocentric and Ethnocentric Disposition, ie, all of our Social Institutions
have been Affected by the European Ideal. In Social Institutions, Cultural Imperialism is Operational:
We, as an Oppressed People, look towards the European Models as being Superior to ours. In the
Caribbean, the Concept of the Family has Inputs from Several Race Groups:

1. Amerindian: There is a Tribal Society. They Lived in a Group; which was like One Large Family. They
used the Extended Family Structure; Implying that Persons who are Two or Three Places Removed
(Eg. 2nd and 3rd Cousins) may still Live Close Knit. Blood Relations Bound them.

Tribal Society was Lost when Europeans Superimposed all their Social Institutions in 1492.
Everything that occurred after 1492 looked to the European Model as the Appropriate Model.

2. African: Slavery DID NOT Promote Family Structure. Instead, it Attempts to Separate Men and
Women. On the Plantation, Men and Women found Ways to become Intimate. A Concept called the
Visiting Union is Introduced. This leads to Matriarchal Family Structures (The Women are the
Economic and Social Heads of Families) and Male Stereotype   Machismo.

The Caribbean Society Views Masculinity by how many Women / Children one Possesses. This leads
to Single Parent Homes. After Emancipation, a New Type of Family Structure is Created: The
Common Law Union.

The Common Law DID NOT need a Religious / Legal Framework and this Created a Problem in
Society. Many Children were Born without Proper Management. The Colonial Government created
a Concept called Bastardy to Counter the Common Law Union.

3. East Indian: They came from a Heritage of the Extended Family Structure; People Living in Close
Proximity. The East Indian Retains that Type of Family Structure today. Even though the East Indian
is still getting Married in his Religion, their Children are Considered Bastards since there is No
European Framework (There is Instead Hindus and Muslims).

There is Tremendous Diversity in Family Structure. In Recent Times, the Single Sex Family is Becoming
Accepted in Metropolitan Nations. It is a Matter of Time before Caribbean Nations Adopt this. Sexual
Orientation is being more Stigmatised. Any Discrimination takes away a Person's Humanity.
Education is regarded as the Most Important Social Institution. Education is Linked with Empowerment
and Social Mobility. Education can be Considered as the Most Basic Aspect of Socialisation and Values.
Formal Education Associated with Schooling fulfills the Secondary Socialisation Criteria.

Functionalist Perspective: They see Education as being Important for Social Perpetuation; Every Next
Generation will be Aware of what is Important in Society. The Functionalists Believe:

1. Education is Passing on Ideas, Values, Norms.

2. Education Makes an Individual More Productive in Society, ie, Ready for the World of Work /
Employment.
3. Education allows a Person to Enjoy a Better Quality of Life.
4. Education can Promote Unification of Society by Promoting Understanding and Tolerance of
Differences.
5. Education is a Factor that Promotes Equity in Society because Everyone is Equally Able to
Access Education. Because it is Equally Accessible, the Only Limit an Individual in Education is
the Limit he Sets on Himself.
6. Education is a Meritocracy.
7. Education is a Social Mobility Agent. So, it Equally Empowers rather than Create Polarization.
Not Everyone will, for example, become a Scientist, but, Every Job is Equally Important.
8. Every Individual can be Educated to his Own Desire.

Marxist Perspective: The Marxists say Education is a Form of Mental Control. They see Education as a
means by which there is a Perpetuation of the Status Quo called "Social Reproduction." Education is
seen as a means of Perpetuating Class Division. The Marxists Assess Education from the Elements of
Education.

The Curriculum Tends to Instil Inferiority in the Masses Class. Education tries to Replace a Sense of
Identity with an Understanding that "You are to be Ruled." Education is Designed to Ensure the Masses
Fail. Eg. Examinations are set to Make People Fail. After Repeated Failure, They would not Persist.

Education is seen as a Psychological Weapon Created by the Bourgeoisie Class to Destroy a Person's
Will.

The Rich will always Prosper at Education since:

1. They have all the Requirements. Eg. Children have Necessary Stationery.
2. They can Spend all their Time Studying (No Chores).
3. They have the Right Nutrition to Eat, Study and Succeed.
4. They can Afford Extra Lessons; Maintaining a Competitive Edge.
5. If they Fail Examinations, they could always Use Corrupt Means to Advance.

The Children of the Rich will always be the Education Elite and the Poor will always be the Employees.
Caribbean Reality: Education went through Several Different Phases at Different Times:

1. The Plantation: With the Arrival of the Europeans, Christianity as the School Curriculum is the First
Emphasis. In this Early Context, the Marxists Paradigm of Brainwash and Control is Fulfilled.
Eg. Obedience and Acceptance of One's Suffering is Taught.

Christianity is thus Linked to Exploitation. While Africans are Brainwashed by Religious Values, the
Children of the Planter Class are Educated in the Curriculum for them to Maintain their Riches.

The Church is Associated with the First Teachers. Eg. Priests, Monks. Hence, Christianity and
Education are Inseparable in the Caribbean. The Slaves are NOT Educated or Empowered.
Christianity is given to Learn; rather than Read.

There were a Few Coloured People (Mulatto, Free Men) who Accessed Education. They became the
Black Intelligentsia. They were Able to Send their Children to Education. This also Created a Class
Division. Education becomes Associated with Social Stratification.

On the Plantation, Education belongs to the Professional Class. They have more Power than the
Planter. Education is seen as Something Desirable as it is a Social Mobility and Empowerment
Agent. The Slaves Thought Education was Something Worthy.

2. 1838: Colonial Governments were Mandated to Give the Newly Emancipated Population the
Rudiments of Education and Literacy. Public Education in the BWI Caribbean was Allowed.

The Institution of Colonial Education was Designed by a British Authority for an Oppressed People,
therefore, the Agenda of the Colonial Education System was to Perpetuate the Idea among
Oppressed People that they should be Ruled by the Imperial Power, ie, the Colonial Education as a
means of Brainwashing and Perpetuation of Class Division. Colonial Education fulfills the Marxists
Paradigm.

During the Initial Stages of Education in the Caribbean, Education is Associated with the Church. The
Church became a School. Normally, a Church is next to a School. Education is Owned by the Church;
the Priests and Nuns became the Teachers. This Stereotype lasts till this day. The Christian Schools
are seen as the Superior Schools.

Even during Initial Education, there were Secondary School Opportunities. But, Secondary Schooling
was NOT Free. Education was seen as an Elitist Commodity to be Sold (Only Accessible by the
Wealthy). Hence, Education is a Social Stratification Factor. These Secondary Schools are the First
Schools and are known as the Best Schools.

Different Churches Targeted Different Communities. Eg. The Roman Catholic / Anglican Churches
Targeted the Liberated Africans while the Presbyterian Church Targeted the East Indians. The
 Children of Both Races will have to Change Religion to Attend these Schools. Education was used as
a Force.

The Colonial Agenda was still there as Time Passed. People are Brainwashed into Seeing Europeans
as Superior. Colonial Education Dehumanises Society and takes away the Identity of the Caribbean.
The Focus was on a Person becoming Disconnected.

3. Federation (1958): One of the First Acts of the Federation was to Attempt to Make Education more
Relevant to a Caribbean Society. The Federation used Procedures to Create the Caribbean
Examinations Council (CXC). These were Early Plans; it took a while before CXC became a Reality.

Colonial Education was Damaging; CXC Addressed Cultural Imperialism. The Decision was made in
1958 but in 1973, CXC is Inaugurated and the First Exams became a Replacement to the GCE O'
Level Examinations. Overtime, all the GCE Examinations were Replaced by a CXC Equivalent. The
Last GCE O' Level Exam was Written in 2013.

In 2000, CXC Initiated a Plan for an A' Level Equivalent: CAPE. By 2006, all Caribbean Countries were
Required to Offer CAPE as the A' Level Examinations. Education now Promotes Caribbean Identity
and Development. In the Caribbean, today, there is a Heavy Emphasis on Education as an
Empowerment Factor because the Importance is Emphasized to Each New Generation.

Education Influences Routines; especially to the Young. Education has Allowed a Caribbean People
to be Liberated from Bondage to Labour. In each Passing Generation, Education is more Important
and Accessible.

While Education is a Mobility and Empowerment Agent, Ironically, Education becomes a

Stratification Factor. Education Adds to the Division that already Exists.

Religion: Religious Beliefs are as Old as Mankind Itself. It has always been part of Man's Ways of
Thinking. Religion is a Diverse Concept. Hence, it is Challenging to Define it. All Religions have certain
Common Features:

1. There is a Higher Spiritual Entity that Governs Mans' Lives.

2. Man, through certain Actions (Rites, Rituals, Ceremonies) may be Able to Gain Favour with that
Spiritual Entity.
3. Man uses Religion as a Means of Coping with and Tolerating the Challenges of his Reality.
Eg. Charity, Prayers.

Functionalist Perspective: They Place Extremely High Value on Religion due to its Purpose in Society.
They Value Religion because of its Congregational Nature, ie, it Brings People Together and Promotes
Consensus. Because it is based upon a Shared Values System, it Promotes Interaction, Cohesion, Co-
Operation, "Oneness" of Interaction.
Therefore, Religion can Promote Harmony and Stability of Society. Religion can also Promote Morality
(Knowledge and Understanding of Right and Wrong), and this Promotes Peace. The Functionalists also
say Religion is Based upon Established Ceremony and Practices, Rituals. Eg. Sunday   Church. Tradition
is Promoted; which Aids in Maintaining Stability in Society.

Marxists Perspective: Marxists Philosophers see Religion as the Most Sensitive Social Institution
because it deals with Mankind's Highest Psychological Need: Spiritual Needs. Marx says that Religion
was Created by the Bourgeoisie Class to Instil Fear and Servility.

In this way, Religion Continues the Mindset that keeps the Proletariat Class in Oppression, therefore,
Religion is Associated with Social Reproduction.

Marxists Philosophers say the Masses Class use Religion as an Escape from Oppression. "Religion is the
Opiate / Opium of the Masses." Religion is a Coping Mechanism that never Helps the Situation because
they always Escape the Reality.

Religion causes People to Accept Oppression and keeps People Controllable because it is Predicated on
the Fear of the Unknown. In this Perspective, Religion is an Apparatus of Control.

Caribbean Reality: Religion is a Diverse Institution in the Caribbean because of the Number of Inputs
that have come into the Caribbean Overtime. Enculturation, Retention, Erasure, Hybridization and
Conversion have taken place in the Caribbean.

*Conversion is Associated with the Metropolitan Nation, ie, People Switch from their Original Religion
to Christianity. This Represents Eurocentrism and Ethnocentrism. Even though the Caribbean has a
Plural Religion Society, the Caribbean has an Ethnocentric View on Religion.

There is a Preference for the European Religion (Christianity). Over the 500+ Years in the Caribbean,
Christianity has Entrenched itself into the Ways of Thinking about Every Social Institution. Christianity,
then, has become an Important Social Mobility Factor, and therefore, a Social Stratification Factor.

Amerindians: Religion Existed among the Amerindians. They had Anthropomorphic Worship   Divine /
Human Characteristics are Endowed in Nature.

Formal European Religion comes into the Caribbean in 1492. Religion and Politics were Inseparable in
the Middle Ages. The Church and State are Interwoven. This has Influenced Caribbean Evolution ever
since.

Even though the Caribbean is a Plural Society, Christianity has Influenced Everyone's Lives. With the
Coming of Christianity, comes the Zeal to Convert. Religion and Sword Arrives in 1492. Policies began
to be Enacted; using Christianity as a Base.

The Encomienda became an Abuse of Christianity when it was Introduced after Repartimiento. The
Encomienda was the 1st Effort to Convert and Gospelise in the Caribbean. The Encomienda sets a
Pattern by which Christianity will be seen in the Caribbean.
Christianity is a Justification of the Genocide and Capitalism. In this Early Stage, the Marxists View is
Fulfilled. Over the Years, there is Cultural and Religious Erasure of the Amerindians.

Eg. Amerindians Celebrate the Santa Rosa Festival in October in Trinidad and Tobago. This is Clearly
Signs of Erasure and Assimilation. Religion is part of the Superstructure of Capitalism.

Slavery is Pivoted upon Christianity. Justification of Enslavement of the Black Man is also Found in
Biblical Text. The African is the Exile Tribe of Israel and he is Supposed to be Exploited; It is the Just Thing
to Do. There is Abuse of Christianity to Advance a Capitalist Venture.

On the Plantation, the Africans were Prevented from Practicing their West African Religion for one
Purpose: The Europeans don't Understand it, therefore, they Cannot Control it; it is a Security Risk.
There is Cultural Erasure. At the same Time, the Europeans are Beginning to Supplant Christian Values,
Scriptures, and Elements of Biblical Teachings in the Africans.

The Values that are Supplanted are Meant to Promote Docility; to make People Accept their Fate and
Instil Fear. Man Abuses Religion because there is an Inherent Greed.

Edward Kamau Brathwaite Studied the Process of Creolization. He Noticed that Africans made a
Conscious Effort to Retain Elements of his Unique Identity while Enduring Pressure to Change from the
Europeans. Overtime, Elements that were Retained, were being Mixed with the New Things Taught to
them; resulting in Hybridization. Many Hybrids have been Formed:

Jamaica: Myaal, Pocomania, Rastafarianism.

Cuba: Santoria.

Grenada + Trinidad and Tobago: Orisha.

Trinidad and Tobago: Shouter Baptists.

Haiti: Voodoo.

Hybrid Religions are Allowed to Proliferate with Emancipation. Even though the Plantation comes to an
End, Different Kinds of Pressures are Applied to the Hybrid Groups in order for them to Convert to
Christianity and become Controlled, for example, Restriction to Employment, School and Bastardy.

East Indians come in and Bring Eastern Religious Ideologies (Islam, Hinduism, Zen Buddhism). There is
no Effort to Control them since they are Wage Labour. Thus, East Indian Religions Survive in the
Caribbean. Just as the Hybrid Religions are seen as Inferior, so too are the East Indian Religions. They
are Held in a Very Contemptuous Mindset.

Today, the East Indian Community is Converting to Christianity. Christianity Impacts on our Lives; even
those who aren’t Christian. Eg. Name Choice: "Thomas" to Reflect an Ethnocentric Ideal; showing
European Cultural Imperialism is Succeeding.
Two Major Christian Events Punctuate the Calendar: Easter and Christmas. People Think about these
Events when Planning. In Trinidad and Tobago, the Trinity Cross didn’t Reflect the Plural Society. Hence,
the Nation's Highest Award, was Renamed to "The Order of Trinidad and Tobago."

Rastafarianism is a Syncretic Religion that has Impacted outside of the Caribbean. Rastafarianism is an
Important Religious Identity because it has been Exported to the Metropolitan Nations. Rastafarianism
is Associated with Certain Characteristics:

1. Wearing of Dreads.
2. Colour Coding: Red, Green and Gold.
3. Reggae and Some of its Derivatives.
4. Unique Language and Meanings. Eg. Babylon   European Oppressors.
5. Copious Amount of Weed Use.
6. Vegetarianism.

Bob Marley is Perhaps the most Famous Rastafarian; Creating a Stereotype of what a Rasta Represents.

Rastafarianism has been Adopted by the Adolescent Population as a Basis for Intellectual and Social
Rebellion. Rastafarian Philosophy is Indeed Rebellious by Nature; They See all Structures Crafted by the
Europeans (Babylons) as a Construct meant to Oppress. This Reflects Marxists Philosophy.

Rastafarianism has been Historically Stereotyped since the Europeans couldn't Control them. Europeans
thus Created a Stereotype and Allowed Society to Condemn them. There is a Perception that
Rastafarians should be Alienated (Eg. All are Bandits, Murderers). This Perception Continues in Society.
There is a Distrust for Rastafarians.

According to Edward Kamau Brathwaite, Rastafarianism was Regarded as a Rebellion Basis against
European Value Systems, Lifestyles and Social Institutions.

The Justice System deals with Social Control. There are Several Smaller Branches of the Justice System;
Each Performing a Different Function:

1. The Constitution.
2. Protective Services.
3. Judiciary.
4. Crime and Criminals (If there is no Crime, then there is no Need for Law).

All Justice Systems in the Caribbean are Hybrid. Metropolitan Models were Borrowed and Adjusted. The
Process of Hybridization makes these Models more "Ours." The Model will be Culturally Inadequate.

Functionalist Perspective: The Law is Nothing Alien to People because they have a National
Understanding of Right and Wrong, ie, Morality. Because of this Built In Sense of Morality, they have
Nothing to Fear from the Law.
The Persons who Need to Fear the Law are those who Don't Wish to Maintain the Social Contract. Every
Individual is given a Choice. When People do Deviant Actions, they Understand there will be
Repercussions.

The Justice System is an Important part of Social Perpetuation for Promoting Stability, Peace, and
Harmony in Society.

Marxists Perspective: The Justice System is Created to Instil Fear and Promote Control and Social
Reproduction in Society. The Justice System Promotes Brutality and Violence upon the Lower Class in
Order to Make Examples so People will be Fearful. Through Examples (Eg. Beatings), Social Reproduction
will be Produced (People Fearful so they won't Commit Crimes).

The Law is Created by the Bourgeoisie Class to Facilitate Bourgeoisie Objectives. The Laws always seem
to Benefit the Elite rather than the Poor, thus, Promoting Bourgeoisie Ideology rather than Proletariat
Ideology. The Law cannot be Trusted, ie, The Law doesn't Provide Justice.

People who Work in the Law are Corrupt. Corruption is Rampant in the Justice System. Lawyers, Police,
Judges can be Bought and Influenced by those who have Power. The Legal System is Riddled with
Corruption and People don't Trust it. Each New Generation is Taught to Fear the Justice System,
therefore, Social Reproduction is Promoted.

Caribbean Reality: The Justice System in the Caribbean is always in a State of Evolution since,
Principally, we Borrowed European Models. So, the Process of Adaptation is Ongoing. Caribbean
People have an Inherent Distrust for the Law and Justice System.

This can be Evaluated because of a Colonial Legacy. We Tend not to Trust Anything Created by
Europeans. On the Plantation, Justice was given by the Planter Class to Make an Example and Promote
Fear. At this Stage, the Marxists Perspective is Observed.

Justice was Violent on the Plantation. The Overseer, Equivalent to the Police, is Seen with Distrust. They
are Owned by the Bourgeoisie Class and Inflicts Punishment. In the Colonial Era, all of the Judges were
White. There is a Perpetuation that the Justice System was Owned by the Bourgeoisie Class.

Today, Caribbean People have become more Rebellious due to Power of Media. They Openly Defy the
Law and Justice System since Media can be used to Gain Redress. More and More, there is a Division
between the Law and the People.

Problems Facing the Justice System in the Caribbean:

1. Lack of Co – Ordination from the Public: There is an Attitude of Distrust. Lack of Participation in
Maintaining Social Order in Society. Eg. In Trinidad and Tobago, the Law is Trying to Become
more Friendly, when Shows such as Crime Watch and Outreach Programs, are Becoming
Household Names.

2. Corruption: Justice is Never Served since Police and Judges take Bribes.
 3. Slow Speed of Justice System: Some Matters take Several Years. A lot of Time and Money are
Being Spent. Several People never get Closure.

4. Staggering Amount of Court Matters: This Slows down the Justice Process.

5. Inefficiencies in Data Storage System: There is a Lack of Technology Use in the Legal System. All
of the Cases are Stored in Physical Files; which can be Easily Misplaced or Destroyed.

6. Various Types of Crimes being Committed: In Recent Times, the Types of Crime have Become
more Heinous (Eg. Gruesome Body Harm, Dismemberment, Assault). Cyber Criminality has
Emerged. They Cyber Crime Unit in Trinidad and Tobago are Unskilled and Ill – Equipped.
Caribbean Societies are Subject to Cyber Crimes since there is no Safeguard.

7. Fear of Reprisals: People often Times Don’t Report Matters since they are Fearful of
Repercussions. Criminality is Allowed to Prosper. Taboo / Physical / Sexual Violence are Hardly
Ever Reported. Laws and Practices are Backward. Some Criminals, after leaving the Prisons, aim
to get Retribution. There is a High Rate of Recidivism.

8. Lack of Communication between Protective Services: This Results in Lower Efficiency. Eg.
Prisoners Appear in Courts for Matters to be Heard and Prosecuting Officers never Show Up.
After Repeated Failures, the Case is Dismissed.

Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) and Privy Council

The Privy Council is the Highest Appellate Court for all English Associated Territories. It Deals with
Capital, Territorial and Constitutional Matters. The Privy Council is Comprised of English Law Lords.

The Justice Delivered by the Privy Council might not take into Consideration a Caribbean Reality,
therefore, the Privy Council is Traditionally Alien to Caribbean Legal Systems.

The Privy Council Represents a Neo-Colonial Institution. If we Continue to Depend on the Privy Council,
they will have Power over us to Control our Legislation. It comes to Represent Cultural Imperialism.

The Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) is an Idea that Originated with the Federation but Becomes a
Reality later on. CARICOM Pushes the Need for a Caribbean Court and it was Inaugurated in 2001. It
Intends to Replaces the Privy Council in the Future.

In Addition to Continuing Functions from the Privy Council, the CCJ also Attempts to Become an
Economic, Business and Trade Court. The CCJ becomes a Unique Court to Facilitate the Operations with
CARICOM.

In the Caribbean, however, not all Territories Utilize CCJ.Grenada uses the Eastern Court of Justice.
Larger Caribbean Territories use CCJ (Eg. Barbados, Guyana). Trinidad and Tobago doesn't Use CCJ since
the Legal Minds Suggest the CCJ does not Possess Jurisprudence.
Module 1, Specific Objective 7
Caribbean Arts and Popular Culture in the Region and its Diaspora:

Caribbean Art Forms are Diverse in Nature because of the Number of Inputs that have come into the
Nation Overtime; Resulting in High Levels of Hybridization and Creolization. All of our Festivals have
been Brought by Someone from Elsewhere.

Caribbean Art Forms were Modelled upon the Original Art Forms of Metropolitan Nations. We call it
"Our Own" since we Creolized and Evolved with it. Cultural Art Forms are Wide in Spectrum. Art can be
Broken Up into Several Categories of Human Activities. All these can be Created by Human Creativity:

1. Festival Arts.
2. Literary Arts.
3. Performing Arts.
4. Musical Arts.
5. Culinary Practices.

Art Forms are Important in the Caribbean since they Help to Create a Unique Identity; a Global Image
for the Caribbean. Normally, the Caribbean is Politically, Geographically and Economically Insignificant.
Hence, Cultural Products Help to Identify the Caribbean; We are made Visible to a Global Community.

Also, the Caribbean Art Forms can be Seen to Aid Development because Art is an Exploration of Human
Potential. If Art can be a Vehicle of Empowerment, then there can be Equity. Thus, Art can play a Role
in Developmental Initiatives since it is a Form of Human Empowerment.

Performing Arts is a Creative Activity Requires a Stage for Presentation. Eg. Drama, Music, Dance. Out
of the Caribbean, there has been several Dance Types that have made an Impact on Metropolitan
Countries:

a. Latin Caribbean: Meringue.

b. Cuba: Salsa.
c. Puerto Rico: Tango.
d. Dominica: Mambo, Lumbada.

People from Metropolitan Countries Compete in these Dance Contests. Because of the Advertisements
of the Media, Performing Arts have been Globally Appreciated. The Dance Competitions are Associated
with Huge Budgets, ie, they have Mega – Sponsors and Mega – Prize Monies.

Dance Types are also Associated with Particular Music. Eg. Up Tempo Spanish Music. These Culturally
Important Activities have brought Positive International Attention on some Caribbean Nations. Any
Means by which the Caribbean can Promote its Visibility is Important.

There are Several Dramatists who Achieved Local and Regional Fame but not International Recognition.
Eg. Errol John. This is because our Drams are Particular to a Caribbean Society.
Visual Arts is a Tangible Aspect of Art that the Caribbean Nations place Less Emphasis on than the Rest
of our Endeavours. This is seen in an Academic Context. Parents tend to hold Art with a Degree of
Contempt. Caribbean Nations Promote Academic Subjects rather than Art.

This is Possibly why Artists never Achieved High Levels of Recognition. We don't see Art as Merit. A few
Artists, Eg. Leroy Clarke, Karen Sylvester, Michel Jean Cazabon. These Artists are not in a League of
Picasso, etc...

Our Attitudes to Caribbean Artistry is Altering Slowly. Eg. Introduction of Visual and Performing Arts
(VAPA) Subjects at all Levels in Caribbean Schools (Even at CAPE Level).

Literary Arts has had a Tremendous Success in the Caribbean since Emancipation. It can be said that
Caribbean Writing is Prolific. Many Caribbean Nations can Boast about Poets / Novelists who brought
Fame to their Nations:

a. Guyana: Wilson Harris.

b. Trinidad and Tobago: Earl Lovelace, VS Naipaul, Sam Selvon.
c. St. Lucia: Derek Walcott.
d. Barbados: George Lamming.
e. Jamaica: Claude Mckay, Roger Mais,
f. Belize: Zee Edgell.

Our Success in Literary Arts has Placed the Caribbean Authors High Up in a Genre called Post Colonial
Literature; where the Emphasis of the Writers was on Oppression and Alienation. Caribbean Literature
has both High and Popular Culture.

Our Writers are Recognized as Best in the World. Derek Walcott and VS Naipaul won Nobel Prizes in
Literature. Metropolitan Universities are now Offering Courses in Caribbean Literature. The World
wants to Know what we have to Say. Our Voice through Literature has brought us Recognition.

New Philosophy has been Founded in the Caribbean. In Martinique, Aime Cesaire Created a Philosophy
called Negritude. There is also Pan – Africanism   Socio – Cultural, Economic and Political Impacts.

Performing and Festival Arts: Every Caribbean Country has a Version of a Major Performing Arts in its
Calendar:

a. Bahamas: Gimistory.
b. Turks and Caicos: Junkuno.
c. Jamaica: Reggae Sun Splash.
d. Barbados: Jazz Festival / Crop Over.
e. Trinidad and Tobago: Carnival, Tobago Jazz Festival. {Hoosay, Ramleela, Phagwa   Smaller Ethnic
Origin).
f. Guyana: Mashramani.
g. St. Vincent: Vincimas Jazz Festival.
h. Suriname: Surifesta.
Functions of Festivals:

1. Platforms that Allow Society to come together in Participation or Spectatorship.

2. Provide a Cohesive, Unifying Force for a Plural Society. This Aids in Promoting Development.

3. Allow People to have an Avenue for Expression.

4. Stimulate Economic Growth across a Wide Spectrum of Society. It is a Catalyst to Up – Stream

and Down – Stream Economic Activities. It Acts as a Stimulus for Creation of Employment and
Sale of Goods and Services.

5. To become a Tourism Magnet; it becomes another thing for Tourists to Add to their Itinerary.

6. To Give Caribbean Countries a Global Identity, ie, Allows us to have an International Image.

Many Caribbean Artists have Earned an International Reputation because of the Creativity and
Ingenuity in their Works. Eg. Trinidad and Tobago's Mas Makers:

a. Peter Minshall Designed the Opening and Closing Ceremony of Barcelona's Olympics in 1992.
b. Brian McFarlene was Consulted in the Opening / Closing of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South
Africa.

In the Caribbean, Governments have Realized the Potential of these Festivals for Economic and Human
Development. For several Countries, Tourism is the Mainstay of the Nation.
Eg. Barbados   80% of its Population is Directly or Indirectly Employed through Tourism.

Trinidad and Tobago is now becoming Aware of the Value of these Festivals. For the First Quarter of the
2011 Financial Year, Trinidad and Tobago Earned $80 Million USD from Tourism alone. This Time Frame
is Coincidental with the Build Up and Experiencing of Carnival. For the Entire Year, Tourism Income was
$120 Million USD   Carnival.

In Order to Promote these Events to become Larger and more Stable, Caribbean Governments have
begun to Participate in, for example, Sponsorship, Prize Money, Providing the Climate to Promote these
Events.

On a Caribbean Level, there has been a Decision to Promote a Regional Cultural Platform. In 1970, the
CARIFESTA (Caribbean Festival of Arts which Originated from CARICOM) was Initiated with Several
Objectives:

1. It is Built on the Realization that in order to become Unified, there must be Interaction.
2. To Preserve / Retain the Cultural Identities of Caribbean Societies   Ideas will not Die.
3. An Opportunity is given for Caribbean Artists to Display their Talents. Arts / Creativity becomes
Alternative Routes for Empowerment.
 4. To Provide an Opportunity for Collaboration among Caribbean Artists. There is a Platform for
Sharing   Betterment of the Art itself.
5. To Promote Education: It Allows for the next Generation to become Aware of our Cultural
Identity. Social Perpetuation   To Keep Traditions Alive.
6. To Counter Imperialism: Promote Opportunities for our Arts to be Known and Compete with
European Art.
7. To become Economically Important to a Caribbean Society   Part of the Tourism Magnet.

Music: Caribbean Music becomes Iconic of a Caribbean Identity / Society. Some of our Artists, for
example, Bob Marley and Ras Shorty I, have brought Positive International Reputation to the Caribbean.
Recently, Barbados, Tobago and St. Vincent have begun to see the Potential of a Concert Type Activity
such as a Jazz Festival.

John Legend was Attracted to the 2015 Tobago Jazz Festival   This appeals to an International Audience
  Cheaper to See World Class Artists   More Tourism   More Employment and Economic Opportunity.
There are even Internationally Reputed Singers such as Rihanna, Nikki Minaj.

Caribbean Music Types Promote a Caribbean Identity:

a. Reggae: Jamaica.
b. Soca: Trinidad and Tobago.
c. Chutney (East Indian + Soca): Trinidad and Tobago.

Steelpans were Created in Trinidad and Tobago but we didn’t fully Exploit the Versatility of it (Only seen
in Calypso). Our Vision of the Steelpan was Limited. In Japan and Holland, the Steelpan is Placed in the
Philharmonic Industry.

Trinidad and Tobago nearly lost the Steelpan to Japan in the early 2000s since it wasn’t Patented. They
began to Mass Produce it. A new Variation of the Steelpan, the G – Pan, is being made now.

The Impact of Caribbean Music has been Largely in Urban Areas (Caribbean People tend to Settle in
Cities which Reflect a Cosmopolitan Outlook) where there is a Sizeable Caribbean Diaspora and it can
be Argued that Music has Contributed Hugely to a Phenomenon known as Transnationalism.

Food Culture has been Elevated to the Level of an Artistry. The Traditional Practices Associated with
Food Culture are:

1. Cuisine: Style of Cooking.

2. Culinary: Of / Relating to or Used in Cooking or in the Kitchen.

The things we Consider to be Delicacies come out of a History of Hardship as Food Culture is Reflected
from the Historic Origin of the Peasantry. Eg:

a. Barbados: Fish and Chips.

b. Trinidad and Tobago: Bake and Shark.
Food Culture Reflects Intense Hybridization because of the Number of Inputs Overtime. This Results in
New Types of Cuisines and Culinary. Some of these Cuisines have made it into an International Stage
because of Diasporic Movements. Caribbean Foods are Prominent because of the Large Migrant
Population. Eg. Miami   Cuba, London   Trinidad and Tobago.

These Caribbean Foods in Metropolitan Nations have led to a Growing Interest in Caribbean Cooking
Styles. There is a Significant Economic Impact. Caribbean Food Shops are part of the Economic
Landscape of Metropolitan Nations. This has led to the Prominence in Cooking Styles. Eg. The Jamaican
Jerk Seasoning has been Adopted by Metropolitan Nations like Australia.

Many Caribbean Countries Realized how Lucrative Food is with Respect to the Tourism Product.
Anything that can be Added to the Tourism Itinerary can make Tourism Attractive. Eg. The Turks and
Caicos Piloted the Culinary Festival: "The Food, Wine, Spirits," while Tobago has "Blue Foods" Festival.

Some Metropolitan Countries have Recognized the Uniqueness of the Caribbean Cuisine. Eg.
Birmingham Caribbean Food Festival in the US. It is not only the Diasporic Communities that made our
Food Famous; Media, Television (Eg. Food Networks, Travel Channels), Advertising, Notable People (Eg.
Andrew Zimmern) have made an International Impact.

It is Worth Mentioning that "Food Culture" also Includes Beverages. Eg. The House of El Dorado from
Guyana and the House of Angostura in Trinidad and Tobago. Angostura Bitters is Recognized as the
Distinctive Ingredient that made it so Widely Enjoyed.

Human Development via the Arts: There is a Firm Belief that the Arts and Culture can be used as an
Avenue for Empowerment   Enrichment of Human Life and Expansion of Choices. Empowerment is any
way to Enable someone to Live a Better Life. There is Higher Levels of Equity which would Improve
Productivity and lead to Sustainability.

Empowerment, for far too long, has Placed Heavy Emphases with Traditional Enablers. Eg. The
Curriculum. We must Recognize that, for example, Cooking and Singing, bring a Level of Empowerment.
Any kind of Talent should be Equally Valuable as an Agent of Empowerment. There are Two Major
Factors in Empowerment:

1. Economic Enfranchisement.
2. Human / Psychological Satisfaction.

The Creative Arts can Yield Economic and Psychological Benefits in Society. Consider Economic
Enfranchisement. Because of Money Events (Eg. Carnival), a Society can be Stimulated across a Wide
Spectrum of Disciplines because of Potential for Upward and Downward Industries.

In many Metropolitan Nations, the Artists / Performers are Highly Acclaimed.

This Stereotype is Changing Slowly. Eg. University Degrees in Visual and Performing Arts. Artistry is now
being Academically Qualified. Several of our Artists have become Major Players in the Economy. Eg.
Brian McFarlene had Ideas of Mas Band that Generated $10 Million in Accrued Transactions.
Any Cultural Activity Stimulates Spending and Employment Generation. Caribbean Governments have
begun to Participate by Donating Prize Money, Sponsorship and Making these Events more Economically
Viable. CARIFESTA has been Launched in an Attempt to Solidify these Places of Culture and Arts in our
Caribbean Identity.

Important Persons: These Persons are Notable for the Works in the Arts / Culture and they have Helped
in the Retention of Caribbean Cultural Identity. Additionally, because of the Work done by these
People, it Helps to Counter the Erosive Force of Cultural Imperialism. They have Contributed to Making
Caribbean Cultural Identity Famous and more Appreciated by the People themselves.

Professor Rex Nettleford: A Jamaican Scholar whose Area of Focus was in Jamaican Language and the
Sociolinguistic Culture of Jamaica. His Focal Group was on the Rastafari Community. Therefore, his
Works has Parallels with Edward Kamau Brathwaite (He Studied Sociocultural Identity).

Nettleford, in an Assessment of the Lexicon and Syntax of Rastafari, Hypothesized that Rastafarians,
through his Language Structures, make a Conscious Effort to Rebel Against Total Assimilation.
Rastafarian Language becomes a Revolt against European Ideals.

Rastafarian Culture Encapsulates the Struggle for an Identity of a Caribbean People. Rastafari is Seen as
Something Worthy of Emulation. Nettleford was a Proponent for Pan – Africanism and Negritude
Philosophies. He Sees the Contributions of African People as a Valuable Addition to Caribbean Identity.

Louise Bennett: Her Area of Interest was Jamaican Creole English. She was also a Sociolinguistic and a
Poem Orator. She would have Seen Merit in the Jamaican Creole. It Captures the Identity of the
Jamaican People. Eg. Folklore, Systems and Patterns of Interaction.

She becomes Internationally Recognized as she took her Talent of Narrating / Orating on a World Tour.
She Appealed to more than a Diasporic Community. Her Clientele will been Extended to Reach all
Persons. She Achieved Socio - Cultural Fame for her Work in the Metropolitan Nations.

She Created Poetry out of the Jamaican Creole. Her Work became the Precursor to a Multi – Million
Dollar Industry: The Dub and Dancehall Industries. Bennett's Work Added to a Level of Integrity and
Dignity to Something People would have Shown Contempt for.

Berryl McBurnie: She was a Trinidadian Dancer Associated with the Little Carib Theatre. She Focused
her Attention on African Folk Dancing because this Folk Dancing becomes a Legacy of an African
Identity that would have been Hybridized overtime in the Caribbean.

The Folk Dancing Captures the Struggle of a Caribbean People through Dance. McBurnie's Lobbying was
Important since she Focused her Attention on Getting a Venue for the Artistry in the Caribbean to be
Retained. The Little Carib Theatre becomes a Venue to Express.

She Attempted to Integrate East Indian Dance with African Dance. Dance became a Symbol for
Unification / Fusion; Pluralizing our Caribbean Society.
Martin Cater: He was a Guyanese Poet who Uses Poetry as a Vehicle for his Political Views. In his
Poetry, he Speaks against Colonialism, Imperialism, Oppression. He uses Culture as a Vehicle to
Promote Socio – Political Liberation.

Martin would have been Writing at a Time when England was trying to Assert its Political Model as the
Right Model. He was Fighting Against Neo - Colonialism. He had a "Poetry of Protest."

Paule Marhsall: She is a Barbadian who Focused upon the Feelings of Alienation, Oppression and
Cultural Disconnection that becomes part of the Caribbean's Ethos, ie, part of the Way we Think. She
Focused upon the Current Generation, who Gravitated towards a European Norm rather than a
Caribbean Identity. Her Literary Work Explores Cultural Imperialism.

Festivals in the Diaspora: With a Movement of People, comes a Movement of Cultural Identity. The
Diaspora is Large, therefore, there is a High Level of Inclusion and Participation by West Indian People.
Festivals of a Carnival Nature have Moved into Metropolitan Nations:

1. Notting Hill Carnival in London: This began as a One Time Event to Show Appreciation for a West
Indian Community. In 1965, it is Recognized as an Important Economic and Cultural Activity. Since
1965, the Notting Hill Carnival became the Major Internal Cultural Festival and is a Major Tourism
Event in the European Union.

It Allows Caribbean Talent to get an International Platform and Allows Artists (Eg. Panists, Soca
Workers, Mas Makers) to get more than a One Time Employment. Eg. Machel Montano on a World
Tour. Our Artistry becomes Employable on a Global Scale; which means Income Generation and
Employment for Caribbean People; as well as Spreading of Caribbean Identity.

It is Unquestionable about the Economic Benefits of these Activities. There is an Increased Number
of Disorderly Behaviour (Eg. People Forming into Gangs based on Football Rivalries).

2. CARIBANA in Toronto: (Same Impacts as Notting Hill Carnival). The Diasporic Community in Canada
is Smaller. While it is a West Indian Type Carnival Activity, it is not in a Scale of the Labour Day. The
CARIBANA began in 1967 as a One Time Event. Overtime, it has become a part of the Identity of
Canadian People.

3. West Indian Day Parade / Labour Day in New York: This is Regarded as the Best Known Carnival
Outside of the Caribbean. It is a Major Employment Generator and Economic Stimulus. It Allows
Caribbean Artists to become Employed; Earning a Foreign Income. It Establishes Pride in Caribbean
Identity and it is Participated by Man Caribbean Nationals who go to New York to Play Mas.
Module 1, Specific Objective 8
Caribbean Global Interaction:

Caribbean Global Interaction began in 1492; with the Europeans Influencing us ever since. Historically,
the Caribbean has been Socially, Diasporically, Politically and Economically Impacted but Overtime, the
Caribbean has also Impacted Metropolitan Nations. The Caribbean has Influenced the Metropolitan
Nations into what they are today.

The Caribbean was the Basis of European Economic Exploitation   Using Several Systems of Production
to Advance a Capitalist Venture (Eg. Repartimiento, Encomienda, Slavery, Indentureship). For the
Caribbean to be Useful to the Europeans, several Factors of Production must be Available:

a. Land.
b. Labour.
c. Capital.
d. Enterprise / Skill / Management.

The Europeans Impacted on us Socially, Diasporically and Politically because of Economics. The
Europeans come and Discover Land and Labour Force (2 Factors) but has to Bring Capital and Skill. For a
Period, Amerindian Labour Existed but in 1518, Europeans Import Labour.

It has become a Precedent that may be referred to as a Culture of Dependency. This can be Modified
into Different Variations:

a. Economies of Dependencies.
b. Cultural Imperialism.

Even though there is Exchange / Interaction between the Caribbean and the Rest of the World, it is
Obvious that the Metropolitan Nations Enjoy a more Favourable Outcome from this Exchange. Because
of Cultural Imperialism, Caribbean Nationals have a "Taste" for Foreign Goods.

We have a Preference for all Things Metropolitan. This Reflects a Particular Consumption Pattern that is
Culturally Imperialistic. It means the Caribbean Experiences an Outflow of Money because of how we
Purchase Goods.

It is also Fair to say because of a Historical Paradigm, Caribbean Nationals Idolizes a Foreign /
Metropolitan Lifestyle. We look at International Lifestyles as what we want for Ourselves. This
Influences People to see their Own Lifestyle / Land as Inferior with a Level of Contempt.

Caribbean Influences on Metropolitan Nations:

There have been a few Groups to Impact Metropolitan Nations more than others. The Impacts of these
Groups can be Generalized to Encompass all Caribbean's People Impacts.

Caribbean People have Affected Metropolitan Nations because of Migration into Metropolitan Nations.
There are no Caribbean Nations that are not Represented in Areas such as Canada and New York   There
are Points of Destination. Due to a Concentration of Migrant Population in Miami / Florida, the US has
Significantly Affected them:

Introduction: They Affected Florida Economically and Socially / Culturally. Because of a Cuban
Population, there is a Demographic Change; changing Miami's Racial Spectrum from Europeans to
Hispanics.

Economic Impacts: Cubans have Displaced the Americans as they Overrun Towns. While not Flattering
to know, the Infiltration of People of Dark Complexion Leads to Real Estate Prices Decreasing. There is a
Loss of Investment. The Area Degenerates into a Slum. The Property Values Drops and the City Stops
Attending to Maintenance.

The Type of Businesses is also Influenced. Eg. The Cuban Presence set up Grocery Shops. Cuban Cultural
Identity is Paid for. Because of Cuban Presence, there is Need to Reach Out to them, ie, Use of Spanish
TV and Radio.

Socio – Cultural Impacts: This Caused Southern USA to have Racial Tension / Stereotyping and further
Segregation of Society   Leading to Creation of Racist Generalizations. Eg. Hispanics being called
"Spics." These Names become part of Gang Culture. The Mexicans / Haitians / Jamaicans move into
Miami and Start Gang Warfare.

The Large Concentration of Cubans resulted in Spanish being the 2nd Language of Miami. The Majority of
Residents in Miami Speak Spanish   Policies for Employment in Miami have Changed. Eg. One has to be
Bilingual.

Education Policies have also Changed. Eg. Teachers have to be Bilingual and the Implementation of
Cuban History in the Curriculum.

Impact of Cuba in USA:

Economic Impacts: The Lowering of the Minimum Wage. The Migrants are Willing to Work for Less.
Caribbean People will not Think in the Equivalent Dollar but will Think in Aversions to Local Dollar. This
Leads to Employees Favouring Migrant Labour. Because Migrant Labour is Given 1st Preference for Jobs,
there is Animosity and Antagonism between Local and Migrant Workers.

Racism is Catalyzed via Employment Issues. This Causes a Greater Amount of Judicial and Taxation
Problems. Because of the Antagonism, Nations Spend more to Police Miami. The Migrant Labour are
not Registered, therefore, there is Taxation Evasion; leading to USA being Deprived of a Tax Income.

Social / Cultural Impacts: Cubans in Miami Create Problems for Managing Migration into the USA. In
1959, there was a Cuban Revolution (Fidel Castro took over the Cuban Government by Force of Arms, ie,
Communism). Right away, Anyone who wants to leave Cuba may do so Freely. This has Triggered Mass
Migration out of Cuba to Miami (Political Refugees).
According to the UN Charter of Human Rights, Every Individual who is Seeking Political Asylum must be
given Asylum in a Friendly Nation. When Cuban Refugees Stormed Miami in 1959, there becomes an
Overwhelming Strain on USA's Social Services as well as the Creation of Job Crises.

In response to this, USA Constructed Polices. Eg. The "Wet Foot, Dry Foot" Policy. This Policy Seeks to
Restrict the Number of Cubans who become USA Citizens (This is Applicable in Sea and Land). On Land,
one will go through a Process of Naturalization. This Policy has Restricted the Migration but has
Affected Economically. The USA must now Invest a lot in Policing and Patrolling.

Political Impacts: Cubans become a Lobby Group. They Lobbied the USA to Change a Trade Policy,
"Trade Embargoes." USA made this when they Realized Cuba is a Communist. Cubans also Lobbied to
Change Polices regarding Cubans.

Many Cubans have Attained Levels of Power. Overtime, they have been Slowly Accepted into Society.

Cuba has been Recognized as a Major "Swing Vote" Population. Cubans in such Large Numbers can
Influence the Outcome of Elections. Politicians have tried to Win them over. During the Last Two
Elections, Obama Manipulated the Population to Win Presidency. In 2011, he Revised the Laws
regarding Cubans as follows:

1. Remittances: Money that is Earned in One Place but Spent in Another (Money that is Sent Back
Home). This is Important Lifeline for Caribbean People. In the USA, it was Limited to $3000 USD
Annually but Obama Increased the Ceiling to $10 000 USD.

Obama knows that by Increasing this Ceiling, the Government can Tax this Extra Money.

The Known Remittances that go to Cuba is $1 Billion USD, therefore, there is much that is
Unknown. Remittances Policies mean that the Cuban American Labourer has more Freedom in
Society because he can Supply his Home with Money.

2. Visitation: Previous to 2011's Reassessment of Cuban Americans, Cubans could only Return Home
Once in 3 Years. But now, they can Return Home Twice Annually. They can also Bring their Families
to the USA.

So, the USA Revised their Trade Policies regarding Movement of Goods in Cuba. In 2013, American
Goods entered Cuba for the 1st Time in 70 Years (Eg. Microwave Ovens), ie, it was a Start of a Better
Relationship.

Metropolitan Impacts upon Caribbean Society:

1. Social / Cultural.
2. Economic.
3. Political.
4. Diasporic.
The most Obvious Impacts are Economic in Nature because there are still Impacting us Today. Economic
Impacts are Considered Historically Relevant because it Leads to the Age of Globalisation. Trade
Impacts begin with Repartimiento and Continue with Globalisation.

In 1492, Europeans Introduced Christianity and Politics. From a Social, Cultural and Political Aspect, we
have been and still are Impacted. European Action has Created Legacies of Cultural Imperialism.
European Trade and Economic Policies have led to Economic Strangulation of the Caribbean.

The Labour Policies of the Past (Eg. Repartimiento, Encomienda, Slavery, Indentureship) were
Exploitative in Nature and Led to the Monetization and Repatriation of Caribbean Wealth. This Led to
Underdevelopment. Even though a Nation has Wealth, Nothing has been Invested into Increasing State
of Living and Services of a Nation.

Today, Central Global Trade and Finance Economics (Eg. Global Money Matters) are Controlled by The
World Bank, The World Trade Organization (WTO), IMF (International Monetary Fund).

These Institutions were Controlled by the Global 8 (USA, Japan, Canada, etc...) But now, they are
Controlled by the Global 20. These Agencies are Elitist in Nature (High Levels of Technology, Wealth and
Development).

They Craft Policies for 3rd World Nations. This Creates Neo – Marxism, Neo – Colonialism and Neo –
Imperialism. This Creates a Pattern. In 1492, the Caribbean was Politically Owned but Now, we are
Economically Owned.

One such Policy is the Lomè Agreement. This is a Trade Relationship between African, Caribbean and
Pacific (ACP) Nations with the European Union (EU). This is Relevant to the Banana Producing Nations in
the West Indies (WINBAN).

There is a Preferential Trading Agreement (PTA). This is Preferential because the ACP Nations Enjoyed
Privileges under the Lomè such as:

a. Priority Access to Markets.

b. No Quotas / Limits on Quantities of Products Sold.
c. Guaranteed Best International Prices on Goods.

This means that the West Indian Banana Producers can Enjoy Economic Stability. WINBAN Nations
Estimated their Budgets on Tonnes of Bananas. However, in 2008, the WTO Shut Down the Lomè
Agreement; Plunging WINBAN Nations into Economic Uncertainty.

The Lomè Agreement can be Considered a Guilt Driven Action. The EU Nations were Responsible for the
Exploitation of the ACP Nations in the Past. Now, they Created these Policies to Aid them.

Eastern Caribbean Nations (Eg. Grenada) must now Find Ways to Diversify their Economies. Because of
a Decision by the WTO, there is 500 Years of Cultural Upheaval. There is Chaos in Small Island
Economies.
Metropolitan Protectionism: This is a Concept where an Economy Seeks to Protect its Market from
External Competition / Intruders. Metropolitan Nations Flood Developing Nations with their Goods.

However, they do not Reciprocate the Open Market to Ensure Stability of their Own Industries.
Protectionism is any Strategy (Eg. Taxation or Advertising) that Reduces Intrusion into the Market.
Protectionism Preserves their Own at our Detriment:

Eg. In the 1970s, Trinidad and Tobago Launched the Iron and Steel Company ISCOTT; which is now ANSA
McAL. Trinidad and Tobago were able to Produce Steel more Cheaply than any other Nation in the
World since Natural Gas was Abundant and Free.

Locally Produced Steel had a Price Advantage. Trinidad and Tobago tried to Infiltrate the USA Market,
but Failed; since USA Launched an Advertising Campaign which Gathered Pity and Support from its
People; Resulting in Americans Choosing their Local Producers.

Metropolitan Countries Control all the Access to Capital in the World (Eg. The WTO). Therefore,
Developing Nations (Eg. Caribbean) must Wait on the Favour of the Metropolitan Countries to Trade
with them.

Eg. In the 1990s, CARICOM was Attempting to Break into NAFTA. They were Told that CARICOM has
Nothing they want. The Caribbean doesn’t Enjoy any Niche Markets; the World is Producing Cheaper
Alternatives.

Political Influences: In 1492, Caribbean Political Evolution was Directly Linked to European Decision
Making. The Politics of the Caribbean Reflects the Direction Europe wants to take us in. The Control that
was Present in the 16th Century is still Present in the 21st Century. It becomes a Legacy of Colonial
Action. All Caribbean Nations Utilize some Types of European, Hybrid Political Models.

Eg. For the BWI: Westminster White Hall, Colony (Bahamas, Montserrat, Cayman Islands), Annexed
Territory Status (Puerto Rico, Guadeloupe, Martinique).

Certain Political Models (Eg. Democracy) Promotes a Greater Level of Stability Compared to Others
(Eg. Communism) or even the Situation in Haiti (No Political Model can be Identified). It may be said that
the Political Model, in Addition to a Long Period of Colonization by the Metropolitan Country, has
Allowed a Level of Stability.

Even though we have become Politically Independent, the Policies Crafted by the Metropolitan Nations
or Multilateral Organizations (WTO, IMF, World Bank) still Impact upon Caribbean Politics. Overtime,
many Metropolitan Nations made Policies that have Impacted upon us.

Eg. In the 1980s, the USA Recognized that the Caribbean was a Transhipment Point for Narcotics that
Entered in the USA from the Narco Economies of South America. So, the USA Initiated Policies to
Intervene. One Policy is the "Ship Rider" Agreement. This was supposed to Allow the USA Jurisdictional
Authority (Eg. Power of Arrest) in Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica.
The Jurisdictional Authority is Problematic; as One is Giving Away his Freedom. Jamaica Accepted their
Terms but Trinidad and Tobago Denied. Then, USA Blacklisted / Denied Trinidad and Tobago them
Trade. So, Trinidad and Tobago Decided to Accept the Offer. If they didn’t Accept, it would have Meant a
Breakdown in Trinidad and Tobago's Economic Stability.

The Caribbean can also be seen to Suffer because of Metropolitan Policies. Eg. The Cuban Revolution in
1959. This Led to Cuba being Economically Suffocated through Trade Embargos. Cuba going Communist
Angered USA and they Stopped Trading. (Similar to Haiti and France in the 16 th Century).

Consumption Patterns: This can be Summarised as "A Taste for Foreign Goods," and can be Described
as Cultural Imperialism (An Idea that Metropolitan Goods are Better than Local Goods). This has an
Economic Impact; Leads to an Outflow of Money from the Caribbean into the Metropolitan Economy.

This is Understandable since the Majority of our Daily Goods come from a Metropolitan Nation (Eg.
Toothpaste). Nearly Everything Consumed is Manufactured in Metropolitan Countries. By our Buying
Habits, through our Taste, we Serve to Perpetuate Underdevelopment. We Employ the Foreign
Business Men through the Detriment of our Local Entrepreneurs.

The Caribbean has been a Consumer Market. Initially, we Bought Everything we Needed and Exported
Raw Materials (Eg. Brown Sugar, White Rice, Natural Gas, Crude Oil). The Metropolitan Nations Buys
them, Processes them and Sell them back at Higher Prices.

Metropolitan Nations still Control our Economy. This Consumption Pattern has a Far Reaching Impact
upon Caribbean Societies. Eg. In 2016, Trinidad and Tobago is on the Verge of a Recession. It means
many Caribbean Countries will Increase Taxes on Imported Goods. This will Cause Social Disruption.

Many Goods that the Metropolitan Nations Export are Dangerous. Eg. Light Up Shoes were
Discontinued in USA because of the Poisonous Mercury Switch Present. They Withdrew them from the
USA Shelves and sent them to be Sold in 3rd World Nations. This is Described as Dumping: 2nd Class
Goods Sold on Markets that have Lenient Laws.

Tourism: The Caribbean Benefits Tremendously from Metropolitan Visitors. Our Primary Market to Push
Tourism is England, USA and Canada. Without Tourism, some Countries (Eg. Barbados   80% of its
Workers are Employed Directly and Indirectly through Tourism) will Slip into an Economic Decline.
Clearly, Tourism is a Major Economic Pillar.

Metropolitan Culture is also Imported. Tourism can Lead to the Alteration of a Local Culture and
Economy. Eg. Cultural Hybrid. Tourism may Cause Social Stratification and Inflation.

Caribbean People Impact upon Metropolitan Tourism as well. We Idolize a Metropolitan Vacation.
Through Tourism, Caribbean People Outflow Cash to the Metropolitan Countries.
Education: Historically, the Caribbean has always been Influenced by European Education Standards.
Eg. Dependence upon an English Examining Body, Colonial Education as part of System of Control.
Cultural Imperialism of Education Continues today. Caribbean People Idolize Metropolitan Education as
the "Best."

Caribbean People still Gravitate towards Metropolitan Universities because they are Perceived as
Higher Status. Many Caribbean People Opt to Pursue SATs in Conjunction with CSEC, CAPE to Expand
their Educational Opportunities. Indirectly, Caribbean People Create a Negative Stereotype on their
Local Universities.

If the Brightest Seek Education Outside of the Caribbean, it would Perpetuate the Negative Attitude
towards our Educational System. It is True to Say that CXC has Several Internal Problems that do not
Inspire Confidence from Caribbean Nationals.

CXC is Attempting to become more Standardised and Expand their Curriculum Offered; to make
Caribbean Education more Applicable to Every Human Need (To Convince People not to Migrate to
Study).

Up to the late 1990s, UWI wasn’t Offering any Courses in Marine Engineering. This Proves that whether
there was a Lack of Resources, Professional Qualification or Planning, there are Several Shortcomings in
our University Education.

Sport: All our Major Sporting Activities have been Imported from Metropolitan Countries. While they
Impacted our Sporting Culture, Caribbean Athletes have Impacted on their Sports Reality, ie, many
Caribbean Players have gone on to be Internationally Famous: They Break Records and Set Standards.

Cricket: This comes into the Caribbean via the Plantation. Overtime (After Emancipation), Cricket moves
away from being a Bourgeoisie Game and was Liberalised to Incorporate Africans and East Indians.

The Formation of the Federation led to the Creation of the WICB (West Indies Cricket Board); which is
Tasked with Selecting and Managing the WICT (West Indies Cricket Team). The WICB was meant to be a
Platform for Regional Unification.

From its Inception, Cricket became a Global Force because it was soon a Means of Redress. So, the WI
soon Rose to Global Supremacy. Overtime, in the late 1980s, WI Cricket Declined. Up to Now, WI Cricket
has Diminished in its Global Standings.

Many Players have Broken Records and Currently Sit in Global Standings; becoming Legends of the
Game. In the Newest Version of the Game, WI is Ranked Highly. Batsmen and Bowlers are among the
Top Picks because of their Talent. Their Success has Brought Recognition and some Level of Reputation
to the Caribbean (Eg. Pollard, Narine). T20 has much to Owe to Alan Stanford.
Track and Field: This can be Considered as the "Original" Sports. Track and Field is Governed by the IAAF
(International Association of Athletics Federations). Since the 1970s, Track and Field has been
Dominated by Jamaican and Bahamas Athletes. They Brought Recognition to the Caribbean.

One Event that Stood Out is the 100m Sprint (Fastest Man in the Planet). The Caribbean has been
Constantly Represented since the 1970s. This means the Caribbean Region has Developed a Reputation
for Creating Fine Athletes.

This Reputation went through the Ceiling with the Tremendous Success of Usain Bolt and Keshorn
Walcott. Kirani James won the 400m Hurdle Race; bringing a Level of Respect to Grenada and Allowing a
Positive Global Image.

Soccer: This has always been a Sport Associated with Europe; all Major Teams and Competitions are
European in Nature. They have always been Elitist in Controlling Football. It is a more Popular Sport
among the Youths; compared to Cricket. The Best Publicized Sporting Event is the FIFA World Cup, thus,
it Attracts the Most Attention.

Caribbean Players Idolize European Teams. It is a Dream of all Caribbean Players to Participate at the
European Level. Caribbean Regional League Football has Started but it is in no way Equivalent to the
European Level.

As a Result, most of the Best Players take their Talents to Metropolitan Countries. It Leads to Loss of
Skill for the Caribbean; Comparable to Brain Drain in Education. Many Athletes may Appear in 2nd and
3rd Division Games. Even though it is Good Football, it is not Televised.

This Creates Employment for Caribbean Players but they don't make International Headlines. Dwight
Yorke is the most Famous Footballer of the Caribbean since he Played for the Best Football Team at the
Time (Manchester United: 1999). He made the World Stop and Pay Attention to him.

Basketball: This is Associated with Metropolitan USA. It comes to the Caribbean during World War Two
by USA Service Men at their Naval Bases in Strategic Locations in the Caribbean (Eg. Chaguaramas). In
the Caribbean, Basketball Emulates USA Culture. Basketball is Associated with certain Social Ills, such as
the Drug Trade and Organized Crimes.

In many Caribbean Countries, that Stereotype is also True. Eg. One Pair of Sneakers Hanged on Utility
Lines has been Iconographied to Symbolized "Drugs Sold Here." It is a Copycat Culture. Basketball Tends
to Remain an Inner – City Game and was seen as a Vehicle to Promote the Betterment of Communities.

Eg. In 2011, Trinidad and Tobago Launched the "Hoops of Life." Shaquille O'Neal was Brought in to
Promote the Event. The Caribbean has not Produced any Significant Names in the Basketball World. We
are still Buyers of Culture: Eg. Brands, Kits, Movies, etc...

Religion: Ethnocentrism is the Dominant Mindset. Eg. Christianity has taken Root as the Dominant
Religious Majority. Christianity can be Perceived as the Superstructure of Society. Rastafarianism has
been Exported and a Lesser Known, Hybrid Religion: Voodoo has Impacted the USA Movie Culture.