2 3

Labros S. Skartsis

EXPLORING CONTINUITY
IN SECULAR AND DOMESTIC
ARCHITECTURE OF ATHENS
THROUGH 5000 YEARS OF HISTORY EXPLORING CONTINUITY
IN SECULAR AND DOMESTIC
ARCHITECTURE OF ATHENS
THROUGH 5000 YEARS OF HISTORY

ATHENS 2020
 4 5

Labros S. Skartsis

EXPLORING CONTINUITY
IN SECULAR AND DOMESTIC
ARCHITECTURE OF ATHENS
THROUGH 5000 YEARS OF HISTORY

ISBN 978-960-571-383-6

Published as a printed book by Bookstars, Athens, Greece June 2020

Revised eBook version published 14 September 2020

© Labros S. Skartsis
ATHENS 2020
6 7

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 9
1 ANTIQUITY (UNTIL 330 AD) 10
1.1 CREATION AND GROWTH OF THE CITY 10
1.2 EVOLUTION OF THE ATHENIAN URBAN ARCHITECTURE 11
1.2.1 Period Until 480 BC 11
1.2.2 Classical and Hellenistic Periods 16
1.2.3 Roman Period 24
2 BYZANTINE PERIOD 27
2.1 BYZANTINE HOUSES AND CITIES: A BRIEF OVERVIEW 27
2.2 EVOLUTIONS IN ATHENS 31
2.2.1 Period Until 1204 31
2.2.2 “Latin” Or “Frankish” Rule 34
2.3 EVOLUTION OF PARTICULAR ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
IN THE MIDDLE AND LATE BYZANTINE PERIODS 35
3 FROM “BYZANTINE” TO “OTTOMAN”: WHERE SCIENCE
MEETS NATIONALISM 43
3.1 OVERVIEW 43
3.2 A REVIEW OF “TRANSITIONAL” (BYZANTINE TO OTTOMAN)
ARCHITECTURE: A VISIT TO CONSTANTINOPLE 46
4 PERIOD OF OTTOMAN RULE 52

4.1 POPULATION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF ATHENS 52

4.2 EVOLUTION DURING THE OTTOMAN RULE: DEPICTIONS OF THE
CITY (PANORAMAS, HOUSES, STREETS, NEIGHBORHOODS) 54
4.3 THE ACROPOLIS SETTLEMENT DURING THE OTTOMAN RULE 75
4.4 SURVIVING HOUSES FROM THE PRE-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD 77
 8 9

5 PERIOD AFTER GREECE’S INDEPENDENCE 86

5.1 ATHENS, THE NEW CAPITAL OF GREECE 86
INTRODUCTION
5.2 INITIAL REBUILDING OF THE CITY AND CHANGES IN ITS
STRUCTURE 93
5.3 EVOLUTION OF NEW CITY OF ATHENS: A THOROUGH Any study involving historical aspects of a city like Athens is clearly a challenging
TRANSFORMATION 97 task, due to the long and, in some cases, not fully documented history of the city. In
PICTORIAL SUPPLEMENT A: TODAY’S VIEWS OF THE CITY’S this case, we attempt to evaluate aspects of the evolution of its built urban
HISTORICAL CORE 110 environment, especially the architecture of common houses and buildings (as
opposed to the much more documented and studied architecture of religious and
PICTORIAL SUPPLEMENT B: COMPARATIVE VIEWS OF THE CITY,
monumental structures), along with whatever else constitutes the average
“THEN AND NOW” 112
“architectural urban atmosphere” of the city. This is by no means a thorough research
PICTORIAL SUPPLEMENT C: project on architectural and other details, and it admittedly expresses subjective
ARCHITECTURAL SIMILARITIES THROUGH HISTORY 119 arguments and alternative viewpoints. Nonetheless, we have utilized as many reliable
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 132 sources as possible, to present a case, regarding what can be called a particular sense
of continuity in the aforementioned “atmosphere”, despite the innumerable variations
REFERENCES 133
in the city’s life through history. A continuity that we feel is mostly connected with
INDEX 145 cultural elements, as well as natural elements that characterize the land of Athens,
Attica, and Greece in general.
 10 11

1.2 EVOLUTION OF THE ATHENIAN URBAN ARCHITECTURE

1 ANTIQUITY (UNTIL 330 AD) 1.2.1 PERIOD UNTIL 480 BC

The first inhabitants of the area appear to live in simple houses, made of tree
1.1 CREATION AND GROWTH OF THE CITY branches with mud, on a solid base [1]. During most of the period until the Classical
era, assumptions can be made based on finds from other areas in Greece, however,
Athens is one of the oldest cities in the world, having been continuously inhabited for there is little evidence regarding the structure and architecture of urban areas in
more than 5000 years. The first inhabitants (ca. 3500-3200 BC) appear to have Athens itself [4, 5].
settled on the slopes of what became the hill of the Acropolis, as well as in areas to
the north and the south. In the Middle Helladic Period (2000-1600 BC) the inhabited (Left) Reconstruction of the “Helike
area appears to have grown significantly, with the most densely populated areas Corridor House”, a monumental building
located north and south of this hill. By 1500-1400 BC, the city is clearly exhibiting excavated at the Early Helladic II-III
the characteristics of the Mycenaean world [1]. Athens, of course, is most certainly (2600-2150 BC) site of Ancient Helike in
known thanks to its “Golden Age”, during the 5th century BC, which has been more Northwestern Peloponnese (approximately
thoroughly researched, compared to other periods. 165 km west of Athens) [6]. At some
period during the 3rd millennium BC (with
Population estimates for ancient Athens vary, and are based on certain assumptions
several disagreements still existing
(very often, reported numbers include the entire region of Attica). The population of
regarding the details of the theory), the pre-
Athens during the Mycenaean period (ca. 1600-1100 BC) may have reached 10,000-
Greek nations inhabiting the country were
15,000, falling to about 4,000 during the Greek “dark ages” (11th century - 900 BC)
mixed with the first migrating waves of
and growing again thereafter [2]. Estimates during the classical period vary widely,
Greek-speaking peoples, in a process that led to the formation of the Greek nation.
reaching as high as 610,000. According to one estimate, in ca. 400 BC the city had
more than 10,000 houses and a population of 120,000-180,000 [2]. Another estimate
puts the combined urban population of Athens and Piraeus at 155,000 in 430 BC, and
168,000 in 330 BC. An alternative estimate puts the population of Athens “proper”
peaking (regarding the examined period) at 35,000-40,000 in 430 BC, with Piraeus
having at least another 25,000 people [3].

(Above) In a largely arbitrary assumption of comparable “urban environment”, we

refer to Pavlopetri (its actual, original name is not known), a submerged settlement
off the coast of Southern Peloponnese. The settlement appears to have existed since
about 3500 BC, but it flourished during the Mycenaean period, after 1650 BC. It was
submerged probably around 1000 BC by earthquakes. The relatively good condition
of the remains, has allowed a quite accurate 3d reconstruction of how this urban
center would have looked around 1600 BC [7] (Image: BBC).
 12 13

(Above) Reconstruction of a 13th century BC house in Mycenae, according to D.

Wardle [9].
(Above) Reconstructed view of the courtyard of the ca. 13th century BC Mycenaean
palace in Pylos, in Southwestern Peloponnese (Image: archaiologia.gr). The
appearance of (better documented) such structures in other parts of the country, could
help reconstruct similar buildings in Mycenaean Athens. The inner yard/courtyard
has been one of the oldest elements in Greek homes and other buildings, with a
history probably stretching even before the Mycenaean and the Minoan periods [5].

(Left) Reconstruction of a
Mycenaean administrative
building near Pylos, in
Southwestern Peloponnese, (Above) Hypothetical reconstruction of the entrance to the Mycenaean palace on the
ca. 13th century BC [8]. Acropolis, ca. 1200 BC (Dimitrios Tsalkanis, AncientAthens3d.com [10]).
 14 15

(Left) The Koile road was a busy commercial street in

Ancient Athens (reconstructed view of the area,
according to H. Lauter [13]). The road was first
mentioned in the 6th century BC.

(Above) In this reconstruction of part of the Athenian Agora of late 6th-early 5th
(Above) The Greek “dark ages” during the Protogeometric period (11th century - century BC [10], one can see the Prytanikon (left), built in 550-525 BC, considered
900 BC) and the evolutions in the Geometric period (900 – 700 BC), are manifested at some time to be a palace of Peisistratos and his sons, and the old Bouleuterion
in the structures of the inhabited areas, which are nowhere as elaborate as previous (right), built in late 6th-early 5th century BC [14]. Both buildings exhibit elements
Mycenaean constructions [4]. This reconstructed early 8th century BC view of a historically connected with Greek architecture.
“neighborhood” in Eretria, on the island of Euboea, could also represent Athens of
the same era, as there were similar features according to archaeological evidence
[11]. Houses are largely built by unfired bricks, reeds and mud, and wood, with stone
usually used only on the lower sections. In the Geometric period the residences
become progressively more complex, and the simple, elongated houses are gradually
replaced by units comprising many buildings in an enclosure.
Since the late 8th century BC, the architectural plan of the houses changes and
becomes more complicated: the numerous dwelling spaces are organized around a
central courtyard (which, thus, “returned” as a key feature), something that
represents a critical step in the development of Greek urban architecture [11].
Several changes in the house architecture occurred during the Archaic period (ca.
700-480 BC). Oval or other shapes were replaced by rectangular-shaped houses,
while new types of houses appeared with different arrangements of multiple rooms.
During the same period, a clear distinction appears between the architecture of
private and official buildings [12]. (Above) The area to the north of the Acropolis appears to have been continuously
inhabited for about 5000 years; this is an attempt to represent how the city may have
looked around 480 BC (Dimitrios Tsalkanis, AncientAthens3d.com [10]). Regarding
the actual size of the city, we can only make assumptions. By 430 BC, following
(Left) Example of the layout of a small house in the Archaic period [12]. years of prosperity, Athens probably had a population of 40,000 [3].
 16 17

1.2.2 CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC PERIODS

The work by Ioannis Travlos and other researchers has helped reconstruct the form
(Page 16 and left) Two alter-
of Athenian houses and other buildings of the Classical period [15], which has been
native reconstructions, by the
extensively studied. Houses in Classical Athens were not built in the organized
Foundation of the Hellenic
manner seen e.g. in Piraeus or Olynthos. Usually there were small, made of baked World, of the “House of
bricks, on stone bases, with two-sided roofs, built around an inner courtyard [16]. Simon” (a famous shoemaker
Streets were irregular and narrow, and, evidently, there was a lack of free and green
and friend of Socrates),
spaces [2, 17].
constructed in the 6th century
Excavations have not revealed particularly luxurious private homes (dating to this and rebuilt in the 5th century
period) like those found in Delos or Northern Greece, but we know from ancient BC. This belonged to a type
texts that multiple-apartment structures existed, at least since the 4th century BC [18]. very popular in Athens, and
During the same period, it was often observed that houses of many politicians did not contained two irregularly
look any different than common houses. On the other hand, neighborhoods further sized rooms which opened to
from the Acropolis, as well as more privileged (e.g. providing sea view) areas, a courtyard featuring a well
appeared to be better planned and made of larger houses, apparently indicating a and a cistern [14].
differentiation based on income [19]. In general, several fine residences have been
identified, mostly dating to the late 5th and 4th centuries BC [20].

(Above) This reconstruction of the Odeon of Pericles (mid-5th century BC), provides
information about certain architectural details that may have been evident in the city
during the Classical period (Image: University of Warwick, Created by
the THEATRON Consortium).
 18 19

(Above) Reconstruction of a group of houses in Piraeus (5th – 4th century BC) [4, 22].
The mass construction of (basically) uniform houses - reminiscent of some modern
practices in urban development - was evident in Ancient Greece since the 5th century
BC, and, apparently, influenced the Romans in some of their constructions [23].
(Left, top and bottom) Reconstructed
views of various types of houses in
Attica and Athens (5th – 4th century
BC) [21].
 20 21

(Left) The layouts of excavated

Athenian homes of the 5th century BC,
like the one depicted (according to I.
Travlos), exhibit remarkable similarity
with some of much later ages - see also
Pictorial Supplement C [5, 24].
Although the structure of homes based
on inner courtyard is repeated
throughout Greek history, there have
been differing opinions, even among
Greek researchers, regarding the true
continuity of the particular architecture.
(Left) Reconstruction of a house in Athens Some claim that concrete proof of
(5th–4th century BC) [21]. unbroken continuity is lacking, and
. assume that such patterns emerged
from similar social, spatial, economic and other conditions (while, of course, similar
courtyards can also be found in other cultures in the region) [25, 26]. Others,
including well known Greek architects and researchers, claim that they represent
Greek tradition over the centuries [4, 27, 28, 29]. Architect Aris Konstantinidis was
one of many who commented on particular similarities in the courtyard structure,
between Ancient Greek and traditional Athenian homes of his time [30]; similarity is
also seen with courtyard structures of Byzantine monasteries [30, 31].

(Above) Reconstruction of a group of houses in Athens (5th–4th century BC) (Image:

anaskafh.arsakeio.gr).

(Left) Reconstruction of a
house in Attica (5th–4th
century BC), theoretically (Above) This image represents a reconstructed view of the mint of Athens, ca. 400
providing quite accurate in- BC, surrounded by a “neighborhood” with the corresponding architecture (Dimitrios
formation regarding this type Tsalkanis, AncientAthens3d.com [10]). The building was apparently used until the
of residence [22]. Hellenistic period [32].
.
 22 23

There is little evidence regarding the details of Athenian homes during the
Hellenistic era. However, there are indications that luxurious homes, rather frequent
in the Greek world during this era, could also be found in the city of Athens [34].
During this period, there are changes in the general appearance of the city, with the
erection of new monumental buildings, similar to those in other growing cities in the
East, and the creation of organized public spaces. However, residential
neighborhoods retained their irregular pattern, clearly lacking any city planning (as is
vividly described by a visitor in the 3rd century BC) [17].

(Above) Reconstruction of a group of houses in Olynthos in Chalcidice, Northern

Greece (5th-4th century BC) [33]. This presents another example of mass construction
of almost uniform houses in Ancient Greece, mentioned earlier. Excavations in
Ancient Olynthos have provided invaluable information about the structure of
ancient Greek homes in general.
(Above) Differences between residences during the Hellenistic period can be seen in
these reconstructions of houses, on the island of Delos (above left [5]) and in Attica
(above right [35], image: The Institute for the Visualization of History).

(Left) This reconstruc-

tion of a house in Pella,
capital of the kingdom of
Macedonia (4th century
BC), could help visualize
the form of more luxu-
rious Greek residences in
this period [5]. The
remains of 4th to 2nd
century BC houses in
Macedonia have been
extensively studied, re-
presenting the archite-
cture of Greek houses
during these centuries.

(Above) This building in the Athenian Agora was probably an Arsenal, built in the
3rd-2nd century BC [10].
 24 25

1.2.3 ROMAN PERIOD

As much as the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC had profound consequences on

the country’s subsequent history, the process of interaction between the two cultures
was fundamentally different than what was experienced in Western Europe. Most
conquered Western European areas were “Romanized” to a degree that essentially
redefined their identities. In the case of Greek areas (which, through various channels
had deeply influenced Roman culture [36]), Greek language and culture were
essentially not affected during the Roman rule. Actually, in a process extremely rare
in history, after several centuries, the Roman center of gravity shifted to the East, to
Greek-speaking areas, and mighty Rome transformed itself into a state progressively
becoming Greek itself (later called the Byzantine Empire) [37].
Greek cultural influence certainly includes architecture. Except for well known
patterns in public buildings, such influence appears to have also been significant on
the architectural forms of the common Roman home, even on the form of dwelling
reserved for the highest property class, the atrium house [23]. Romans did develop (Above) Reconstructed views that could provide further information about the
their distinct cultural features, nonetheless, and this is clear in their architecture appearance of Greek houses during the Roman period. Above left: houses in Kelle, in
which, despite its Greek original fundamentals, created characteristic Roman Macedonia, second half of the 2nd to mid-1st century BC. In general, the Roman-era
elements, including innovative building techniques and patterns, arches, domes etc. houses in this area appear to follow the Hellenistic patterns [41]. Above right: house
[38]. Such elements are clearly visible in Roman buildings across Greece, and some in Pergamon, 1st - 3rd century AD (Image: philipharland.com/greco-roman-
were incorporated into Greek architecture - including certain details of luxurious associations). Pre-existing patterns were retained in Athens and other areas of
residences [24, 39]. Greece, with Roman influences in decorations and other details. Houses in Athens,
especially during the late Roman period, appear to be larger than their
Under Roman rule, Athens was given the status of a free city because of its widely Classical/Hellenistic predecessors (although built on a similar plan) [42].
admired schools, and remained a center of learning and philosophy; however, it did
not avoid destruction in 87-86 BC by the Roman general Sulla during the First
Mithridatic War. In the 2nd century AD the Roman emperor Hadrian constructed
many monumental buildings and other structures [40]. The city was sacked and
largely destroyed by the Heruli in 267 AD, after which it was hastily refortified on a
smaller scale, with its new layout surviving for centuries [17, 40]. (Right) A reconstruction of the Roman public
latrines (Vespasianae) of Athens, 1st century AD
[10].

(Left) Houses on the island of Delos, (Left) Detail of a

late 2nd - early 1st century BC. reconstructed view of
Archaeological remains on the island the Athenian Agora in
have provided invaluable infor- the Roman period (2nd
mation about, among other elements, century AD), which also
Greek urban architecture of includes structures orig-
(especially) Hellenistic and Roman inally built in the
times (Image: web.ics.purdue.edu). Classical period (Image:
romeonrome.com).
.
 26
(Above) Reconstructed view of the Aiakeion, in the Athenian Agora, and its
surroundings, at a time during the Roman period [14].
(Above) An idealized reconstructed view of Athens from the east, in the Roman
period (mid-2nd century AD), according to J.v. Falke, with the temple of Olympian
Zeus completed (Image: Wikipedia).
27
2 BYZANTINE PERIOD
2.1 BYZANTINE HOUSES AND CITIES: A BRIEF OVERVIEW
After the transfer of capital to Constantinople, the process of “Roman” becoming
“Byzantine” (a term invented later), also affected architecture and city planning [43,
44]. There is scant evidence regarding many aspects of the evolution of Byzantine
urban architecture, and certainly the subject cannot be oversimplified. Clearly, there
must have been any number of architectural solutions occasioned by the diverse
conditions prevailing at different times in the various regions of the empire [45].
The Byzantine home combined features from Ancient Greece, Rome and the East.
Early Byzantine houses were more elaborate, as they followed traditions of Antiquity
(in some cases not changed significantly since the Roman period). The rooms were
organized around an inner courtyard surrounded by arcades [46].
Changes, naturally, occurred over the centuries. In the middle and late Byzantine
periods, common ancient Greek or Roman patterns were progressively replaced by
more easily defendable structures, preferably clustering in hilltops with irregular
street networks [39, 43]. Especially after 1000 AD, in Byzantine areas, houses in the
cities are very often replaced by two- (or more, at least in parts) storey houses, with
no monumental elements. The courtyard remained a typical feature, without a
peristyle but perhaps with an open-fronted roofed space [45]. Most of the population
lived in rudely constructed one or two-storey houses, often consisting of a group of
rooms arranged around the courtyard; at least one of the wings had a second floor. It
appears, though, that some of the poorer homes were built without a courtyard [46].
Small houses with direct access to the street are also not unknown [45].
The more “typical” Byzantine house apparently evolved after the 6th century. Many
luxurious houses had balconies on the upper floor, often covered, with wooden
supports, or architectural projections/enclosed balconies (often constructed, at least
partially, of wood) – see Sections 2.3 and 3. Roofs were two-sided, flat, or with
domes [46].
Constantinople and big cities like Thessaloniki display, in general, the strict town-
planning of the Roman tradition. The urban house had often two, three or even five
stories, and a quite complicated legislation decided building regulations regarding
formation of the façade, including colors, and relation to neighboring buildings [47]
- in earlier centuries, and particularly in the 4th century AD, there have been accounts
of apartment buildings in Constantinople with more than five stories [46]; although
there is some written evidence for their existence, multi-storey buildings dating to
later Byzantine times, have not been found in this city [45]. In the middle and late
Byzantine periods, the houses in the larger cities tend to form rows, or are
 28 29

independent, depending on the landscape. The types of houses with the inner
courtyard coexisted with the aforementioned apartment buildings [48]. In some parts
of the Empire, the appearance of houses dating to the late Byzantine period, reflects
the inferior living standards compared to those of late Antiquity or the early
Byzantine period [44].

(Above) House of the late Byzantine period, exhibiting older architectural patterns
(Byzantine Museum of Veroia; image: exploringbyzantium.gr).

(Left) Interior of a 10th century

house in Corinth [25].

(Left) Reconstruction of a typical
fortified settlement of the middle
Byzantine period, in Rentina, in
Northern Greece (see also
Section 2.3) [39] (Image:
kastrorentinas.weebly.com).
(Above) Houses and other buildings in a typical anachronistic 12th century
Byzantine depiction, reflecting contemporary features. Certain elements, like arched
doors, roof structures and stonework in the lower parts, can be seen (Image:
doaks.org). It has been argued that Byzantine illustrations may have been derived
from successive copies of originals of late Antiquity, or be mixtures of ancient with
more recent elements [45].
 30
(Above and left) These images show reconstructed
views of houses in Pergamon, late 13th-early 14th
century, according to K. Rheidt [44, 49]. The more
basic constructions, at least in this part of the city,
reflect the lower living standards compared to late
Antiquity [44]. Some of the features known since
Antiquity are nonetheless retained. The Excavations
have confirmed the popularity of the inner yard in
various parts of the Byzantine Empire [47].
31
2.2 EVOLUTIONS IN ATHENS
2.2.1 PERIOD UNTIL 1204
In the late 4th century, Alaric and his Visigoths caused extensive damage around the
city. In the 5th and 6th centuries, there is renewed building activity in the area, with
construction of some large building complexes (some of which are identified as
schools of philosophy or educational institutions) [50]. Emperor Justinian I,
however, closed down the city's philosophical schools, an event whose impact on the
city is much debated, but is generally seen as marking the end of the city’s “ancient
history” [40].
Following destruction by Slavs in the late 6th century AD, the 7th and 8th centuries are
considered “dark” times, mainly due to Slavic and Arab raids. Nonetheless, the city
remained a significant military center with improved defenses and evidence of
development [51], while noteworthy construction activity is evident in the late 8th
century, connected with Empress Irene of Athens [52].
In the 9th century the city experiences something like a “renaissance”, with
development in manufacturing, commerce, and architecture [53] (with a temporary
stagnation due to a Saracen raid in the late 9th century). Between the mid 10th cent
and the 1204 “Latin” conquest, Athens was a significant city of the Byzantine
Empire, with aristocratic mansions and noteworthy construction activity, including
building of new churches, as well as urban expansion [25, 54] (according to some
accounts, the city had at the time as many as 300 churches [52]).
The study of the Athenian house during the Byzantine period has been very difficult,
as there are few remains. After Greece’s independence, so much emphasis was given
to the city’s ancient history, that other layers of ruins, including precious medieval
remains (as well as surviving Byzantine churches), were systematically destroyed to
facilitate excavations. The more recent research by Charalambos Bouras and others
has helped us reconstruct parts of urban structures and other aspects of the city,
during the Byzantine era.
From what we know, especially since the middle Byzantine period, houses appear to
follow a preexisting fabric that had evolved dynamically without the existence of
urban plans [25]. The basic street layout does not appear much changed since the
Classical era [40]. Houses were strung out successively on either side of a narrow
street leading from north to south [50]. Most common houses lacked the
characteristics of well built structures seen in churches or richer homes. Excavations
have not provided evidence of vaulting, while there is evidence of double arched
entrances into the courtyards. Both pitched roofs and flat roofs (made of wood) had
been used - with plenty of remnants of roof tiles found in the sites. Baked (or, in
some cases, unfired) bricks, stone, wood for the roofs, and roof tiles were the
common building materials. Frequently we see stonework in lower sections of walls,
or entire (more elaborate) houses built of stone. [25]. Structures often incorporated
 32 33

parts of older buildings, including ancient ruins [25, 26, 55]. In contrast to, say,
Constantinople, where luxurious residences were rather common, most houses in
Athens were small in size. Most were two-storey, with a variety of architectural
solutions and similarities to Ancient Greek patterns (although without archaeological
proof of unbroken continuity since Antiquity) [25]; indeed, such residences
comprised small rooms arranged around a courtyard, which was usually white-
washed and sometimes featured a shed on one of its sides [50]. Remains of larger
residential buildings have also been found, nonetheless, including those of a 12th
century 30-room building that may have been an apartment complex, a mansion, a
commercial structure, or a guesthouse [40].
By the middle Byzantine period the street pattern had changed in many parts,
although several streets survived since Antiquity [26, 40]. It is certain that the city
lacked any planning through the period, and had irregular, narrow streets [25, 54].

(Above) Reconstruction of the Gymnasium (or palace) complex, erected in ca. 400
AD, and structures near it (Dimitrios Tsalkanis, AncientAthens3d.com [10]).
(Left) Reconstruction of a larger
house in Athens, with its
characteristic courtyard (4th – 6th
century AD) [17]. A residence of
this type within an urban center
reflects Roman influence [24].

(Above) An attempt to reconstruct the city, as it may have looked at a time during the
early Byzantine period (Dimitrios Tsalkanis, AncientAthens3d.com [10]). Walls and rooms of Byzantine houses during excavations at the Athenian Agora
(Image: American School of Classical Studies at Athens [54]).
 34
2.2.2 “LATIN” OR “FRANKISH” RULE
Following the 1204 Latin conquest of Constantinople (during the Fourth Crusade),
which brought destruction and looting, Athens was ruled by French (1204-1311),
Catalans (1311-1388) and Florentines (1388-1456) [56].
This conquest had followed the 1203 raid by the ruler of Nauplion, Leon Sgouros,
which had caused severe damage to the city. The city declined during the Latin rule
and, especially in the later years of this period, in quite a few districts there are signs
of fluctuation between habitation and desolation [50, 52]. The population of Athens
probably did not exceed 5-6,000; according to a 1395 calculation, the city had 1000
houses [17].
Influences on the local urban architecture during the particular period are very
difficult to establish. Even if they existed, they may well have been wiped out during
successive building phases in the centuries that followed. There were probably few
major changes to the urban fabric [40]; in general, there appears to be little
construction, other than this related to the city’s defenses (including structures on the
Acropolis, like the famous Frankish Tower by the Propylaea, demolished in 1874),
administrative structures, and additions to churches [57] - mostly during the
Florentine period [40]. Such constructions could theoretically be sources of
influence, reflecting elements of the rulers’ cultures [58], since it has been argued
that this was the case for such buildings, along with churches, in other Greek lands
during the Latin rule [59]. Possible traces of Florentine influence in Athens may be
identified with some of the descriptions by Evliya Celebi in 1668 [60] (see also
Section 4.2). Nonetheless, particular influences in local urban architecture in Greek
lands during this period, have been disputed (exceptions involve cases like the
Venetian influence on the architecture of Kerkyra, connected to a rule that lasted
more than 4 centuries).
In Mystras, a place which has provided plenty of material for study and
documentation regarding legacies of the Latin period (although historically not
directly comparable to Athens), such influences on common houses appear to be
rather superficial, compared to those in administrative buildings [45], while the area
maintained its Greek character [61]. In general, the Greek language continued to be
used in Athens during the period [62].
(Left) The Propylaea of the Acropolis as a
palace during the Florentine period [40].
Such architecture may theoretically have
influenced some Athenian buildings.
35
2.3 EVOLUTION OF PARTICULAR ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
IN THE MIDDLE AND LATE BYZANTINE PERIODS
The middle and late Byzantine periods are of particular interest for Byzantine
architecture, as they are apparently connected with the evolution of certain
architectural elements (which concern the subsequent urban character of Athens and
other Greek areas). Such elements naturally have evolved from previous patterns, but
specific morphological details appear to have been reached during this period.
The significance of the above details is connected with the degree of “inheritance” to
the next generations of Ottoman rule. This leads to a well known, contested subject:
whether a number of features that characterized the typical “Ottoman” house, very
popular in Western Asia Minor, the Southern Balkans and the Pontus, especially in
the late 18th and the 19th centuries, originated in the above process.
These elements include, among others, details of inner yards/courtyards (often
arched), designs of arched doors/gates, certain decorations on facades or over
windows, characteristic stone structures in the lower parts of the walls, roof
structures (often four sided or “pyramid” hip roof), proportions, and most
importantly, two “iconic” features: the covered balcony with wooden supports (later
called “hayati” in Greek, from an original Arabic word [63]) and the cantilever
projection/enclosed balcony (later called “sachnisi” in Greek, from an original
Persian word [64], also used in Turkish [65]) – both, often in wrap around forms.
Obviously, all the above, and especially the latter two, exhibit numerous variations
over time and space, and the above approach cannor be oversimplified.
(Left) Ruins of a
Byzantine villa (early/
middle Byzantine period),
in the Mersin (Mersine)
province in Southern
Anatolia [66], with char-
acteristic supports. A
covered balcony is only a
theoretical possibility.
 36
(Above) Ruins of a Byzantine villa, also in the Turkish Mersin (Mersine) province in
Southern Anatolia (probably early/middle Byzantine period) [67], with evidence of
wrap around, possibly covered balcony.
(Above) The Byzantine fortified settlement of Rentina, in Northern Greece (with its
main building phase in the 10th century), has been studied by N. Moutsopoulos, who
saw evidence of existence of covered balconies (“hayati”) and other elements
discussed in this Section [68]. The images show a reconstructed house (above left)
and one of the castle towers (above right), according to N. Moutsopoulos (Images:
kastrorentinas.weebly.com).
37
(Above) Reconstructions of specific patterns evident in Constantinople and other big
cities in the late Byzantine centuries, according to N. Moutsopoulos. These include
the enclosed balconies (architectural projections), so prevalent later in a large part of
the Ottoman Empire, which he attributes to even earlier Greek patterns [39, 69]. Both
covered and enclosed balconies have been recorded in Byzantine buildings [46] (see
also following images).
(Left) Byzantine illustration
depicting building with
architectural projection [39].
 38 39

(Above) A 1930s (probably hypothetical) reconstruction of a typical 10th-15th century

house in Constantinople (History Center of Main Street, Mansfield, Pennsylvania,
USA, WPA Architectural Models). This creation assumes many of the elements
connected with houses in the Greek lands and large part of the Ottoman Empire at
the time of Greece’s independence [70].

(Left) An attempted (largely

(Above) 12th century illustrations (Ioannis Skylitzes) apparently depicting hypothetical) reconstruction of a
architectural projections and other features, influenced from Byzantine official Byzantine villa, based on ruins near
buildings (Images: Wikipedia). Bodrum (Halicarnassus) in Turkey,
in historical Caria (Image: The
History of Byzantium Project [71]).
 40 41

(Above) The Palace of the Porphyrogenitos is shown in this drawing of

Constantinople by German/Danish artist Melchior Lorck in 1551-1555 (see also
Section 3.2). The artist apparently has turned the western facade, which faced out
from the walls, around, facing the city [72]. The projection (enclosed balcony) is
(Above) Detail of the partially restored remains of the late 13th century Palace of clearly visible.
the Porphyrogenitos (not Constantine VII) in Constantinople. The building exhibits
many typical features of the late Byzantine architecture, including enclosed balcony
and arches over windows (Image: thebyzantinelegacy.com/porphyrogenitus).

(Left) In a very rare illustration of

Constantinople in the early 1420s (before
the Ottoman conquest) by Cristoforo
Buondelmonti, a building labeled "Palace
of the Emperor" is probably a simplified
depicton of the same palace [72]. The few
architectural details shown, provide
valuable relevant information.
(Above) Reconstruction of the Palace of the Porphyrogenitos (detail), according to C.
Gurlitt [39].
 42
(Left) Detail of proposed reconstruction of
Boukoleon Palace in Constantinople -
constructed and modified, in various cases,
between the 5th and 13th centuries AD (Image:
byzantium1200.com).
(Above) Well preserved ruins in Mystras, studied by Anastasios Orlandos and others,
have provided precious information regarding the architecture of the late Byzantine
period in the area. In these reconstructed views of 15th century houses (according to
A. Orlandos), characteristc arched window and door, as well as roof proportions/
structures, can be seen (Images: archaiologia.gr). Mystras homes are in some ways
particular, regarding their dimensions and architectural form [73]. Some Frankish
influence is also evident, more so in the public buildings and less in the private
houses [45]. There is also evidence of the existence of small inner courtyards [47].
(Left) Naturally, Byzantine architectural practices
continued unaffected in many areas after the
Ottoman conquest, and many 16th century
buildings, especially in the Balkans, may have
been constructed according to such traditions. The
depicted house near the Kumkapi gate in
Constantinople, could be a surviving Byzantine
building, or a very early post-conquest structure
[39, 69].
43
3 FROM “BYZANTINE” TO “OTTOMAN”: WHERE SCIENCE
MEETS NATIONALISM
3.1 OVERVIEW
The Ottoman conquest of Greek lands (in stages during the second half of the 14th
and the 15th centuries) and the four to five (depending on the area) centuries of
Ottoman rule, has led to many issues raised upon the country’s independence in
1830. Mainly, they regard the country’s cultural identity, as it evolved during this
period. Such subjects include, of course, architecture, especially the appearance of
the common houses, which was later often rejected as “Ottoman” – and was involved
in the general discussion about “Greece going back to its roots” through adoption of
neoclassical forms (see Section 5).
The issue of Ottoman Turkish influence is certainly complicated, sensitive from a
nationalistic/emotional point of view, and includes multiple fields of necessary
research. In reality, a very clear distinction has to be made between cases of colonial
influence, like this of Spain, Britain, or other colonial powers, to their overseas
colonies (where a culturally well established, preexisting center, extends its influence
to other nations through conquest), and this of the Ottoman Empire. In the latter case,
a “migrating minority” has established a new homeland within a foreign population,
unavoidably blending with, and adopting many cultural and other elements of this
population. This applies to the Ottomans’ Seljuk predecessors (which had undergone
a tremendous cultural (as well as “racial”) change after conquests of, and migration
to, Persian and Byzantine lands (see early Seljuk depictions [74]), with the Seljuk
Sultanate in Anatolia largely retaining Byzantine structures [75,76]. Thus, the
Ottomans evolved within formerly occupied Byzantine territory, and within (largely)
Greek population. The two main sources of influence on the formation of Ottoman
Turkish culture have arguably been Persian and Byzantine Greek [76, 77, 78].
Indeed, the Ottoman capitals of Prusa (Bursa), Adrianople (Edirne) and, of course,
the final capital in Constantinople (later Istanbul), were established in a process
where preexisting Byzantine institutions, architecture and other elements were
absorbed, leading to a new formation of Ottoman identities (an obvious example
being the pattern set by Hagia Sophia and other churches for the architecture of the
typical Turkish Mosque) [78, 79, 80], while the Byzantine element progressively
replaced earlier Persian influences [73]. The power of Byzantine influence could also
be in part attributed to the fact that some prominent architects of the Ottoman period
were Greek in origin [39, 73], while, according to a particular Ottoman account of
the 16th century, 83% of the construction workers were Christians [73]. Actually, the
Ottoman connections to the land of the Byzantines and their absorption of Byzantine
 44
culture and institutions, was seen as a major differentiating factor from the “core”
Middle Eastern Islamic cultures [81, 82].
In this context, one can examine a very particular type of urban architecture, the
typical “Ottoman”/“Turkish” type of house, which became widespread (with
remarkable uniformity), especially during the 18th and the 19th centuries, throughout
Western Asia Minor, the Southern Balkans and the Pontus. This exhibited elements
already discussed in Section 2.3, including details of an inner yard, covered balconies
with wooden supports and, most prominently, the notorious cantilever
projections/enclosed balconies [83].
Upon independence of the Balkan nations, each nation viewed this architectural
heritage in its own ways, in some cases “rejecting” it as alien and “Ottoman”
(indeed, many Greeks called it “Turkish”, while many Bulgarians called it ”Turkish”
or “Greek”), or conversely, claiming it as its own cultural creation [84]. According to
- mostly - Greek researchers [29, 39, 68, 69, 85], however, its elements were clearly
connected with Byzantine architecture of, especially the 12th to the 15th centuries,
which, in turn, related to much older patterns. Its uniformity is also attributed to the
Byzantine heritage, which was shared in these areas, as well as to the fact that guilds
of builders were active throughout the area.
This theory does not contradict the fact that centers of reference, like palaces in
Ottoman Constantinople (Istanbul) were imitated throughout the Empire extending
fresh influences (with a particular wave of such influences during the 18th and 19th
centuries [86]), as such influences tend to “circulate” in various ways over time.
Actually, it is an illusion to think of eternal architectural characteristics in a
particular location; during the Ottoman period, it seems that certain elements have
come and gone, while “circulating” architectural influences within the Empire,
tended to introduce changes in the built environment of several cities over time.
For example, an argument of Greek researchers, shared by some of their colleagues
from other Balkan countries, is that the projection/enclosed balcony, along with other
elements, is the result of an evolution of the Byzantine tower house [80] (the
evolution, in general, from a Byzantine tower to a mansion in Byzantine and
Ottoman times, is supported by plenty of evidence [87]).
(Above) Theoretical evolution of the Byzantine tower house, according to N.
Moutsopoulos [80].
45
Actually, some of the most prominent Greek architects of the 20th century, including,
except for Nikolaos Moutsopoulos, Aris Konstantinidis, Aristotelis Zachos and
others, considered the post-Byzantine Greek architecture as a precious continuation
of Byzantine tradition, in turn, a continuation of Ancient Greek elements, which was
unfairly treated after independence [28, 88]. A similar view was shared by Léon de
Beylié (1902), a French archaeologist who had studied structures that were, or were
believed to be (something later often disputed), of Byzantine origin [84]. Folklorist
Aggeliki Chatzimichali considers that post-Byzantine architecture in Greece
continued Byzantine traditions, despite superficial influences, because the cultural
elements were not changed [28].
Of course, there are arguments disagreeing with Moutsopoulos’s theories, both
within and outside Greece, pointing out, for example, the lack of genuine continuity
in patterns like the projection/enclosed balcony (which is claimed to have appeared
in Ottoman lands only in the 17th century, connected to social and other reasons), or
the undisputed influence of Ottoman patterns, especially in internal decorations, that
evolved later [84].
Naturally, too, opposite arguments come from Turkish architects/researchers, like
Hakki Eldem [83], who sees a distinct Ottoman character in the aforementioned
types, different from Byzantine original patterns. He nonetheless affirms that “we
can consider that the Byzantine house was made using the same red tiles as the
Ottoman house, and that the walls would be made of himiş (a wooden framework
filled with tiles or stones)”, and observes that “the Turks, upon taking control of
Byzantine territory, used the same resources and techniques used by their
predecessors”. Eldem, who actually had communicated with Moutsopoulos, at some
point, writes: “Some foreign writers mention the ‘Byzantine Influences’ in the
houses of the Balkans and Istanbul. In other words, they see the source of the
Ottoman House in the Byzantine House. They go as far as to say that the Ottoman
house is in fact the Byzantine House itself, or the continuation of it. This is truly a
subject worth consideration. What reality are these assumptions based upon? To
investigate this matter has become a necessity.” [83].
In general, the patterns described, including the projection/enclosed balcony (çikma
in Turkish), are considered by many Turks to be parts of their genuine cultural
heritage [89], despite all the disputes about their true roots [90].
 46 47

3.2 A REVIEW OF “TRANSITIONAL” (BYZANTINE TO OTTOMAN)

ARCHITECTURE: A VISIT TO CONSTANTINOPLE

In order to evaluate the aforementioned arguments, one should carefully study

images (considered accurate) that are as close to the time of Ottoman conquest as
possible. Although detailed/accurate images of Athens only appear since the second
half of the 17th century, there are quite a few detailed depictions of Constantinople
during the desired period, i.e., close to the city’s conquest, in 1453. A study of these
images is very constructive in general, since the capital city has provided patterns of
urban architecture that were reproduced across the respective Empires.
Obviously, our goal is to evaluate indications of connection to Byzantine elements
presented in Section 2.3, as this would serve as a “bridge” between such Byzantine
patterns and those found in pre-independence Greece.

(Above) Detail of an image from the Nuremberg Chronicles, depicting

Constantinople in 1493. Such early depictions are invaluable, as they show possibly
surviving Byzantine examples of urban homes. One should be cautious regarding the
accuracy of such images, since, as it was often the case with European depictions of
the time, they tended to reproduce architectural and other patterns from the painter’s
home country. A degree of accuracy is probable in the particular depiction, in
elements that apparently differ from contemporary Northern/Central European
patterns (Image: thebyzantinelegacy.com).
 48 49

(Page 47, above and left) Details from miniature

paintings of Ottoman Constantinople by Bosniak
historian Matrakçı Nasuh (1537) [91]. These
images are extremely interesting, as Nasuh’s
works were considered quite accurate. We see
urban house details, only 84 years after the
Ottoman conquest, i.e., quite possibly still
exhibiting Byzantine elements. Of course, by that
time the city had grown tremendously (and, thus,
was massively rebuilt) [72], and the possibility of
depiction of surviving Byzantine examples is
only theoretical. Indeed, in relevant research
works, Nasuh’s images have not been utilized as
sources of concrete information regarding
Byzantine urban architecture [92].
 50 51

As mentioned earlier, the narrative, often from Turkish sources, has been that a
characteristic element of “Ottoman” architecture, i.e. the projections/enclosed
balconies of that form, appeared at the earliest in the 17th century [89, 90] and, thus,
could not reflect direct Byzantine influence. The above images, as well as evidence
from surviving Byzantine structures, suggest that such elements had already been
present less than a century after Constantinople’s conquest. At the same time, this
evidence suggests that the enclosed balconies were not visibly common features of
urban architecture at the time, and, thus, they may have become much more
widespread later, or may have provided inspiration for patterns that flourished later,
based on social or other factors.

(Right) Detail of an illustration of Constantinople by Merian

Matthaeus (1638). This artist arguably reproduces, to a certain
degree, styles from his native Switzerland, while the same
view of Constantinople is essentially copied in several other
European illustrations, up to the mid-18th century. It
nonetheless may also reflect actual architectural elements
present in the city, namely enclosed and/or covered balconies
(Image: libreriaperini.com).

(Page 49 and above) Details from the "Prospect of Constantinople" (1551-1555) by

German/Danish artist Melchior Lorck (his name also spelled as Lorichs, Lorich, or
Lorch), from the collection of the Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation [93]. The
depictions are very interesting, and appear particularly detailed and accurate -
although an imitation of Central European patterns cannot be excluded, especially in
representations of groups of buildings in the distance.

Our view is that the previous images appear to exhibit several elements that could be (Above) By the early 1700s, as in this detail of an illustration of a scene in Istanbul
“bridging” the periods between the evident Byzantine origins of such elements, with (Constantinople) by A. La Motraye drawn between 1700 and 1714 [93], the well
well known patterns in the late Ottoman Empire, including characteristic four known form of “Ottoman” projection/enclosed balcony is clearly depicted.
sided/pyramid hip roof types, window arrangements, proportions, covered and
enclosed balconies/projections (often wrap around), etc. One could also compare
these images with details of illustrations of Athens in 1674 and 1687, where
architectural characteristics of houses are visible, shown in Section 4.2.
 52 53

reported as Christian Arvanites). The corresponding percentage estimates of

Turks/Muslims (who inhabited areas closer to the Acropolis) vary between 10 and
4 PERIOD OF OTTOMAN RULE 30% [99]. Nonetheless, these communities naturally appear to “share” the
architecture and methods of construction of houses in the city.
In October 1824, a census of revolutionary Athens took place, according to which the
4.1 POPULATION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF ATHENS
city had 9,040 inhabitants and 1,605 houses [103]. The percentage of Christian
Arvanites was at the same time significant in rural Attica, which was very sparsely
The Ottoman conquest of 1456 brought massive destruction to the city of Athens. populated – in most areas, almost uninhabited [99, 104].
However, Mehmed II the Conqueror expressed his admiration for the city, and by
several decrees protected its monuments and churches [17, 52, 94, 95]. The city appears to experience a certain revival during the 18th and early 19th
centuries, with efforts to promote its historical heritage, educational initiatives, and a
In the early period after the conquest, in Athens, as in other Greek cities, the creation
new generation of significant Athenian intellectuals [105].
of Ottoman new settlements (and the Ottoman presence) was limited, due to the high
degree of urbanization of these cities [96]. The heart of the city during the era
remained near Hadrian’s library [17]; today’s Plaka and Monastiraki areas were the
core of city, with descriptions of a vibrant style of life [97, 98].
The city’s importance is indicated by the evolution of its population, which in 1506
was estimated at 9,700 [99]. According to historian of the Ottoman era Elias
Kolovos, Ottoman Athens remained an important city renowned for its antiquities,
and had “an interesting way of life”. According to Kolovos, during the reign of
Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-66), Athens had an estimated population of
between 8,000 and 15,000 citizens, making it the third largest city in the Ottoman
Balkans, after Adrianople and Thessaloniki. However, it was not mentioned much, as
it was on the fringes of the empire and was inhabited almost exclusively by
Christians (its Muslim community was very small and consisted mainly of the
Acropolis guard and a handful of families) [95] - in 1540, 98% of a total population
of approximately 16,500 were Christians [99]).
Estimates during the second half of the 17th century vary between 7,000 - two thirds
of which being Greeks and the rest Turks, Arvanites and a few Catholics - and
12,000-16,000, of which 75-88% Christians [99] (the Arvanites were descendants of
settlers from Albania who moved to Greece in waves between the 13th and 16th
centuries and were progressively assimilated, later playing an important role in
Greece’s struggle for independence [100]; eventually they have been fully
assimilated into the Greek population [101]). After the temporary conquest of the (Above) This drawing by M. Wolgemilt, supposedly of Athens in 1493, is typical of
city by Francesco Morosini and the destructions of 1687, much of the population European depictions of the time, inaccurate or even imaginary, reproducing patterns
temporarily left the city. By 1730 the population was back to 9,000-10,000, 75% of familiar to the artist - in this case, contemporary cities of Central Europe [17]
which were Christians [99]. (Image:books.openedition.org).
During the 18th century estimates vary between 7,000 and 12,000, with 67-80%
being Christians/Greeks [99, 102]. Between 1800 and 1821, population estimates are
fairly consistent, between 10,000 and 12,000, while the estimates for the percentage
of Greeks varied widely: percentages of 90%, “at least 75%”, as well as, as low as
44% and 30% are reported (in the latter cases, approximately similar percentages are
 54
4.2 EVOLUTION DURING THE OTTOMAN RULE: DEPICTIONS OF THE
CITY (PANORAMAS, HOUSES, STREETS, NEIGHBORHOODS)
This Section represents an important part of this work, as it aims to present facts
regarding the city before all evolutions that followed Greece’s independence in 1830.
More specifically, we aim to present evidence concerning the inheritance of elements
of its urban architectural environment, which theoretically reflect a connection with
its previous existence. As we will see in Section 5, for various reasons, many of these
elements were lost during rebuilding after independence, while the question of what
truly constitutes “Greekness” in architecture, has become an issue with varying
opinions.
Panoramas will help us estimate the extent and size of the city through time, while
views and descriptions of built areas, house details, neighborhoods and street scenes,
will allow us to evaluate any connection with realities that preceded and followed
this period.
(Above) Reconstruction of the Areopagus church of Agios Dionysios Areopagitis
and surrounding structures in the 16th century, according to I. Travlos [106].
55
A very important source of information regarding Athens (as well as many other
locations) in the second half of the 17th century, are the writings by Ottoman explorer
Evliya Celebi [107]. Celevi visited Athens in 1668 and said that “writers of all faiths
regard Athens as the home of wise men” [95]. He admires Athens as a “prosperous
city… lofty in construction, mighty in population… full of marvels” [108].
He also describes the Ottoman settlement on the Acropolis as made of three hundred
houses, “fine masonry palaces, roofed all over with tile, houses like castles in their
own right”. He says that all houses have screened balconies [60]. Regarding the
lower (main) city, Celebi talks of 7,000 tile-roofed houses, of both Muslims and
Christians [17, 60]. They are described as “sturdy houses, like castles with
battlements”, built completely of stone. In that respect, they differ from houses in
neighboring areas and they may reflect influences of the Florentine period of Latin
rule (1388-1456) [60]. However, there is an apparent exaggeration (Celebi probably
focused on the richest houses), as, rather detailed paintings of 1674 and 1687, shown
later in this Section, do not depict – at least, being in any way dominant – such
houses. Inaccuracies have, indeed, been found in many of Celebi’s accounts [104].
The numbers of houses, both on the Acropolis and in the lower city, may thus also be
exaggerated [60].
(Left) One rare depiction of elements consistent
with Evliya Celebi’s descriptions, is this late
18th century painting of the city’s administrative
center (Image: slideshare.net/iperrakis).
 56 57

(Above) A drawing of the temple of Olympian Zeus by J. Carrey, in 1674. Apart

from interesting details regarding the monument itself (the column visible on the left
was destroyed, probably in the late 1700s, while a mosque, as well as a stylite’s
structure, not existing today, are also visible), this, rather hasty work, provides an
idea regarding the neighborhoods in this side of the city (Image: AthensOpen
Museum.com; original in Bibliothèque Nationale de France [109]).

(Above) A 1674 city panorama, also by J. Carrey (detail) (Image: timesnews.gr).

Such city panoramas help us evaluate the size and extent of Athens; usually they
exhibit the “classic” view from the northeast (i.e., the historical core of the city). The
particular image is also interesting, as it shows the Parthenon before its destruction
by bombardment by Francesco Morosini’s forces in 1687.
 58 59

(Right) Details of the

1687 depiction by G.
Verneda [86], in
many ways similar to
those by J. Carrey in
1674.

(Page 57 and above) The 1674 depiction by J. Carrey is extremely interesting, as it

exhibits almost “photographic” details of houses and neighborhoods of Athens. Some
architectural elements depicted are consistent with those described in Section 2.3, as
well as those found in surviving pre-independence structures, especially the
Benizelos mansion (see Section 4.4) [86]. They could also be compared with mid- (Above) More architectural details shown in a 1687 drawing by G. Verneda
16th century depictions of urban houses in Constantinople, presented in Section 3.2. (depiction of the bombardment of the Parthenon) [110].

(Left) Architectural
details in a part of a
depiction of the
same 1687 event
(by F. Fanelli in
1695) [110].
(Above) A 1687 depiction by G. Verneda (showing the bombardment of the
Parthenon by Francesco Morosini’s forces on 26 September 1687) [86].
 60 61

(Above) Depiction of the same 1687 event (by V. Coronelli in 1688) [110].

(Above) The Tower of the Winds (Horologion of Andronikos Kyrrhestes) and the
area around it, by J. Stuart and Ν. Revett (1751-1754) [110] (Image: Takis
Kamarinos collection, nexusmedia.gr).
 62 63

(Page 61) The city as shown in a detail of a depiction (1751-1754) by J. Stuart and N.
Revett [109]. Despite the lack of details, some architectural elements of that time are
visible. In the mid-1760s, the city is described as made of mostly small homes, with
narrow, irregular streets [99]. Much of the pre-Ottoman layout appeared to have
survived [86].

(Above) Hadrian's Library, seen from the house of Nikolaos Logothetis, consul of
Britain in Athens, and the neighboring area (J. Stuart, 1751-54) [112].

(Above) The Gate of Athena Archegetis in the area of (today excavated) Roman
Agora - also known as Pazaroporta, or “Bazaar Gate”- has been an important
landmark in the historical heart of Athens. The area is shown in a famous illustration
by J. Stuart and N. Revett (1751-1754), whose depictions were considered more (Left) Reconstruction of a part
accurate than those of e.g. Le Roy (shown later in this Section) [110]. In the of the inner yard of the
particular image, though, the artists admit that they have “moved” the fountain, so
Logothetis house, according to
that it would properly fit in the image [111].
M. Korres [111].
 64 65

(Left) Part of the lower

market (bazaar) by the
ruins of Hadrian’s library
in a 1755 illustration by
J.D. Le Roy (whose
depictions often lacked
accuracy) [110].

(Left) A different side (Above) This 1755 drawing, also by J.D. Le Roy [110], depicts the neighborhood
(compared to this depict- around the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates on historic Tripodon Street (considered
ed by J. Stuart and N. to be the oldest street with continuous existence in Greece, dating since Antiquity
Revett) of the area around [113, 114], certainly having undergone several changes during its history [111]). The
the Gate of Athena famous Capuchin monastery, by the monument, existed on this site between 1658
Archegetis is shown in a and 1821 and has played an important role for the monument’s survival [113, 115].
1755 drawing by J.D. Le As mentioned earlier, Le Roy’s works have been criticized for lacking accuracy
Roy [110]. [110], and this is clear in this depiction, which greatly exaggerates the width of the
street, which was actually only about 2.5-3 meters [111].

(Left) The Tower of the

Winds (Horologion of
Andronikos Kyrrhestes)
and the area around it, in
a 1755 drawing by J.D. (Left) “A Marriage in Athens”, a
Le Roy [110]. 1776 painting by J. B. Hilaire
(Image: 1st-art-gallery.com).
 66 67

(Above) Painting indicating the extent of the city in 1793 [116].

(Above) This is a well known image of the upper market (bazaar), part of the heart of
the city, in 1805, by E. Dodwell. The immediate area was demolished for
excavations in the Hadrian’s library area after independence; the dome and (later
demolished) minaret of the Fethiye Mosque are visible in the background [109]
(Image: archaiologia.gr).

(Page 67) Painting indicating the extent of the city in ca. 1805, by E. Dodwell and S.
Pomardi [109]).
 68 69

(Above) Reconstruction of the Mertrud mansion, according to M. Korres [111]. The

mansion, built before 1780, was one of the largest such houses in Athens [111, 117].

(Above) Reconstruction of an area in Athens around Adrianou Street, which included

(Above) Two different views of the inner courtyard of the Mertrud (French olive oil the Mertrud (lower right) and Finlay/Church residences (top middle) in ca. 1810,
merchants) mansion in 1810: top, by Otto Magnus von Stackelberg, 1810 (Image: according to M. Korres [111].
arch.ntua.gr), and bottom, by. C.H. von Hallerstein [111].
 70 71

(Above) Area near ruins, possibly of the Stoa of Attalos (E. Dodwell, 1819) [119].

(Above) Painting indicating the extent of the city in 1810, by R. Temple [103].

(Above) Detail of the 1810 painting by R. Temple; in the particular study [118], the
minarets are numbered, but the detail also shows features of the individual houses
and other structures. (Above) Reconstruction of the Athenian house of French consul L. Fauvel, according
to designs by I. Travlos (ca. 1820) [111].
72 73

(Page 72) Detail of a 1820 painting of Athens by C.F. von Kügelgen (Image: Kunst-
fuer-alle.de). This depiction is invaluable, as it shows the city immediately before the
1826-1827 destruction during fighting, which was followed by hasty and poor
rebuilding [120] and, of course, before independence in 1830 and the architectural
influences that followed.

(Above) The same painting by C.F. von Kügelgen indicates the extent of the city in
1820 (Image: Kunst-fuer-alle.de).

(Above) An Athenian street in a lithograph by L. Dupré, depicting the area around

St. Gregorios church, which was demolished after independence to make room for
Mitropoleos square [111]. The year is ca. 1820 [121].
 74 75

4.3 THE ACROPOLIS SETTLEMENT DURING THE OTTOMAN RULE

The Acropolis settlement, which replaced earlier, Byzantine settlements [45], was a
Turkish-inhabited (including military personnel) area during the Ottoman rule, due to
its strategic importance [87, 94, 99].
The architecture of this settlement is interesting, not only through the logic of
relation of Ottoman architecture, especially in Greek lands, to earlier Byzantine
elements, but also in view of an assumed “sharing” of architectural styles between
Greeks and Turks in a given location. Actually, according to European visitors,
Turks of Athens appeared to have been significantly influenced by Greek customs,
and mostly spoke Greek [99].
(Above) View of Athens from the east by L. Dupré (ca. 1820 [121]), with the temple
of Olympian Zeus in the foreground (Image: E. Koutoulakis collection,
watercolourworld.org).

(Above) Some architectural details of houses in this side of the city can be seen in
this detail of the same painting by L. Dupré. As was the case for the painting by C.F.
von Kügelgen shown earlier, the image is invaluable, as it depicts parts of the city
immediately before the 1826-1827 fighting and the rebuilding that followed.
(Above) Detail from a view of the southwestern side of the Acropolis, before 1687
(year of bombardment by Morosini’s forces), from a German drawing. Except for the
“intact” Parthenon and the mosque it had become, several architectural details of the
surrounding houses are visible (Image: protothema.gr).

(Left) Part of the lower

market (bazaar) by the
ruins of Hadrian’s
library in 1830. Along
with the upper market
(bazaar), shown earlier
in this Section, they
were the commercial
heart of the city. The (Above) A ca. 1765 depiction of Ottoman houses on the Acropolis (W. Pars [123]).
10th-11th century Byzantine church of Agios Asomatos, or “the Church on the Stairs”
(later demolished), is visible, as well as the Tzistarakis Mosque built in 1759 [122].
 76 77

4.4 SURVIVING HOUSES FROM THE PRE-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD

As will be discussed in Section 5.2, even in the historical core of the city (which was
spared from development or demolition), there had been rebuilding as well as
changes in the layout/width of many streets after independence. This, combined with
the fact that most of the homes had been seriously damaged during fighting, resulted
in the disappearance of most of its pre-independence structures. The few surviving
examples of such structures are invaluable sources of information regarding the
architecture and other features of the corresponding times. Some of them have been
restored, reflecting as many of their original elements as possible.
Another category, in larger numbers, concerns pre-independence buildings that have
been altered significantly, or parts of which have been incorporated in later
constructions.

(Above) Another view of the same settlement in ca. 1765 (Image: liberal.gr).

(Above) A well known painting by E. Dodwell, depicting the same settlement in ca.
1805 [110] (Image: myunusualjourneys.com). The architecture in all the above
depictions, is consistent with that of the lower city as shown in contemporary images.
(Above) The Kleanthis house has an important place in the modern history of Athens.
The original building probably dates back to the 17th century (it actually may be
identified with a house depicted in the 1674 painting by J. Carrey, presented in
Section 4.2 [124, 125]), or even earlier [126].
 78 79

The building was purchased in 1831 by Stamatios Kleanthis and Edward Schaubert
who undertook the first urban planning of the new city of Athens. The current
building was the result of, either extensive restoration, or rebuilding and
incorporation of the older structure, by the architects [127]. From 1837 and for four
years, the building functioned as the University of Athens. The building was restored
between 1975 and 1985 [125] (Image: archaiologia.gr).

(Above) The house of Nikolaos Logothetis (depictions of which were shown in

Section 4.2), once a prominent Athenian mansion, was built in the 17th century
(Photo: Tovima.gr). It has been argued that it was the location of temporary storage
of the Elgin Marbles [128]. Only minor parts of the structure survive today. The
entire area around it, having a layout almost unchanged since the late Ottoman times,
has been recently restored [129].

(Left) The Benizelos

mansion was completed in
its present form in the first
half of the 18th century, but
it is the result of a series of
building phases. These
started in the late 17th
century, by building over,
and incorporating, two older
homes dating to (probably)
the 16th century [130, 131]
(Photo: synodoiporia.gr).

.
 80 81

(Page 79) Different views of the Benizelos mansion (Photos: archaiologia.gr). The
house is one of the few remaining examples of its kind in Southern Greece, and
exhibits a number of the typical architectural features connected with urban homes in
the Southern Balkans, Western Asia Minor and the Pontus (whose origins, and their
possible connection to Byzantine architecture have been discussed in Sections 2.3
and 3). Such features include the covered balcony (“hayati”), the projection/enclosed
balcony (“sachnisi”), arched courtyard, details of roof structure etc.; to a certain
degree, its architecture is consistent with descriptions of Athenian homes by Evliya
Celebi in 1668 [130]; moreover, it exhibits similarities with structures depicted in
detailed drawings of Athens in 1674 and 1687, presented in Section 4.2.

(Left) The “Church Tower” was

built in the 18th century and had
been used as a military outpost by
the Ottomans. It was sold to
Scottish historian George Finlay,
(Left) Details of the
and also housed Irish military
characteristic roof structure
and the inner yard of the officer Richard Church – hence
house are visible in this view its name [126, 132] (Photo:
(Photo: mononews.gr). dinfo.gr).

(Above) Built with modifications between 1701 and 1821, the building today
housing the Cultural Foundation of the National Bank of Greece, is a characteristic
Athenian house with an inner yard. In 1830 it housed one of the city’s first “modern”
(Above) Naturally, the Benizelos mansion has had many alterations over time; in
hotels [132, 133, 134]. Photos: eie.gr (above left), investagroup.gr (above right).
2008-2009 it was meticulously restored, with the aim to maintain and reconstruct its
original architectural elements [130].
 82 83

(Left) The Finlay house was used since 1830

by Scottish historian George Finlay who
lived in Greece during the 1821 revolution. It
was built before Greece’s independence and
(Above) This house, on historic Tripodon Street, was built in ca. 1800 and used to restored by Finlay in 1834 [136].
house Ottoman military personnel, before becoming part of a set of Greek residences
with corresponding alterations. It is a characteristic structure of old Athens, with a
typical inner yard serving different residences; it became well known thanks to a
famous 1965 Greek movie [135] (Photo: Newsbeast.gr).

(Above) This building, today housing the Association of Friends of Panayiotis

Kanellopoulos, is probably also a pre-independence (late 18th century) structure. The
immediate area retains much of the atmosphere of the time, while the house features
a classic inner yard [137]. Photos: Google Street View (above left), foroline.gr
(above right).
(Above) The same house and its “neighborhood”, as they appeared in the
aforementioned 1965 movie (Image: urbanlife.gr ).
 84
(Above) This building, on Adrianou Street, is an example of a pre-independence
(probably ca. 1780) structure altered almost beyond recognition, with changes on the
outside walls, windows, and doors - due to an elevation of the street level, and to
accommodate stores [111].
(Right) The depicted building, on Adrianou Street, is an
example of a surviving part of a pre-independence
structure (tower), greatly changed over time [111]
(Image: Google Street View).
85
(Above) Close to the already mentioned “Church Tower”, the house depicted (under
restoration), is another pre-independence structure, also connected with George
Finlay; the building has undergone significant changes connected with an elevation
of the street level, and addition of neoclassical elements [111].
As we saw in this pictorial review of the Ottoman period, immediately before
independence, Athens had inherited an architectural legacy that appeared to connect
it with all the phases of its prior long history. The buildings featured elements
discussed in previous Sections (whose origins may be traced to Antiquity, the later
Byzantine period and/or Byzantine-influenced Ottoman-era patterns), including
particular formations of inner yard, roof structures, certain decorative elements,
arched doors and/or windows, covered balconies, enclosed balconies, etc. In the next
Section we will see how this legacy was treated after independence, and whether its
basic “character” was able to survive through the changes and influences that
followed.
 86 87

5 PERIOD AFTER GREECE’S INDEPENDENCE

5.1 ATHENS, THE NEW CAPITAL OF GREECE

Greece gained its full independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1830. An
intermediate capital had earlier been established in Nafplion (replacing Aegina in
1829), which, however, was deemed inappropriate, and by 1832 discussions were
under way regarding the choice of a new capital.
Among the many myths regarding this stage of the city’s history, are the tales about
an “insignificant village chosen for sentimental reasons”. In reality, as we saw
earlier, Athens had remained an important city in Greek lands, even through the
centuries of Ottoman rule. It was the largest city in the region of Central Greece
(Sterea Ellada) with administrative functions and manufacturing activity. Actually,
Athens belonged in the category of important Balkan cities, as, just before the 1821
revolution, it was the ninth largest city of the Southern Balkans, after Constantinople, (Above) The church of Pammegistoi Taxiarches (rebuilt in 1922) and its
Adrianople, Thessaloniki, Ioannina, Serres, Larissa, Tripolis and Patras, with a surroundings, still bearing the scars of the recent fighting, in a 1833 painting by W.
population between 10,000 and 12,000 [99, 103]. Cole (Image: anthologio.wordpress.com).
The choice of a new capital for the Greek state was certainly a complicated issue
with fierce arguments and disagreements, often based on local interests. One of the
first voices to suggest that Athens should become the capital, was Konstantinos
Agathofron Nikolopoulos, a Greek intellectual living in Paris since 1806, who
presented this argument in a French magazine in 1822 [138, 139]. It should be noted
that among the cities of what became independent Greece, from which a capital
would be chosen, Athens was the third largest, after Tripolis and Patras [103].
Interest groups from Central Greece, powerful islands, as well as Phanariots, indeed
favored Athens for the new capital. On the other hand, powerful groups from
Peloponnese favored Argos, Tripolis or Corinth, while a lot of voices suggested a
new city to be created at Isthmos (Isthmus of Corinth) due to its favorable location;
others suggested a moving capital until the desired capture of Constantinople. King
Othon I (Otto of Greece) and his family favored Athens for its historical significance,
and this proved to be a key influence [138]. The capital was officially transferred in
September 1834.

(Above) The Saints Asomatoi church and the surrounding buildings in the Thission
area, shown in a 1830-1840 painting, most probably exhibiting pre-independence
structures (Image: Museum of the city of Athens [122]).
 88 89

(Above) View of the Psyrri area looking towards the Temple of Hephaestus
(Thission), in an 1835 illustration by F. Stademann. The church of Agioi Anargyroi
(enlarged in 1908) can be seen on the right. Destruction from the recent fighting is
evident (Image: AthensOpenMuseum.com).

The following images from the 1835 “Panorama of Athens” by Ferdinand Stademann
(AthensOpenMuseum) are invaluable, as they present the city as it appeared almost
immediately after independence. The condition of the city certainly disappointed
European visitors, who saw a shadow of its glorious past. Actually, Athens had been
described as looking like “a massive heap of rubble, a shapeless gray mass of ash and
dust” (according to an 1832 account), still bearing the scars of its recent destruction,
particularly during the 1826-1827 battles, when almost 90% of the buildings had
been destroyed or seriously damaged [103]; much of the rebuilding by that time had
been hasty and poor [120]. Perhaps more importantly, though, in this illustration, the
city still largely exhibits “original” architecture; this is the last such detailed
documentation before massive rebuilding occurred, in neoclassical style and with
new city planning, altering much of its structure.

(Page 89) The size of the city in 1835 can be seen in a large part of the
aforementioned Panorama (Image: AthensOpenMuseum). The city limits are similar
to those depicted in a 1819 painting by Joseph Thürmer [140].

(Page 90) Detail of the aforementioned Panorama: view towards the northwestern
slope of the Acropolis (to the right of the picture); the Fethiye Mosque is visible in
the middle [141].

(Page 91) Detail of the aforementioned Panorama: view towards Lycabettus Hill;
Tzistarakis Mosque and Hadrian’s library are visible [141].

(Page 92) Detail of the aforementioned Panorama: View from the Temple of
Hephaestus (Thission) towards the Psyrri area [142].
90 91
92 93

5.2 INITIAL REBUILDING OF THE CITY AND CHANGES IN ITS

STRUCTURE

It could be argued that the most sudden and radical change in the urban landscape of
Athens, occurred after Greece’s independence. The nation was clearly affected by the
(mostly) European cultural movement of Neoclassicism and admiration of anything
connected with Ancient Greece, and sought a new “self-definition”. The remarkable
prevalence of neoclassical architecture was both spontaneous (as, for Greeks, it was
simply “Greek architecture”, and helped rejection of a questionable past and -
somehow - reconnection with the glories of Ancient Greece), and implanted,
especially after King Othon I (Otto of Greece) and his Bavarian court, replaced
Greece’s first Head of State, Ioannis Kapodistrias, in 1832.
Athens went through an onslaught of European perspectives and values, which,
essentially rejected anything in between their time and Antiquity. Laws for
preservation of ancient monuments were combined with massive destruction of
Byzantine ruins, as well as surviving Byzantine churches, to facilitate excavations
and new urban development. On the other hand, many buildings identified as
“Ottoman” - according to contemporary theories regarding their legacy - were
purposely demolished or altered (although a relatively large number of such
buildings finally survived) [143].
Neoclassicism was the dominant architectural style, often imposed on the facades of
buildings by royal decrees. Along with Greeks, several European architects designed
many of the public and private buildings in the city, undoubtedly influencing the
local architecture. The argument expressed by Greek intellectuals and architects was
that the country should seek its ancient qualities through Neoclassicism, once
purified by European distortions (indeed, even European architects seemed to have
“adjusted” their designs to Greek cultural and other realities) [144].
The new city was planned according to standard European practices of the time, with
the provision of wide boulevards and monumental buildings. Something further
facilitating these actions, was the fact that the recent fighting had left about 90% of
the city’s buildings destroyed or severely damaged [103]. Already in November of
1831, the architects Stamatios Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert, had presented their
plan for the new city, later modified by Bavarian architect Leo von Klenze and
others.
The plans had designated much of the old city for excavations [103]. Ironically, this
is the reason that most of Athens’s precious historic core, which reflected a ca.
5,000-year presence, was later saved from development (today’s areas of Plaka,
Monastiraki, Psyrri, Thission, etc, while Vryssaki was demolished for excavations,
and the traditional area of Anafiotika was created after independence). Of course,
most of the houses in these areas had to be rebuilt after the recent destruction; also,
common tales implying that these historic areas have kept their layouts since
 94 95

Antiquity more or less intact, are essentially myths, as several changes (including
widening of streets) have occurred after independence, while there is evidence of
changes, compared to ancient street patterns, that have occurred in the Middle Ages
[111]. Nonetheless, many parts of the ancient street layout survive [40], while the
more natural evolution of these areas (compared to the entirely new planning of the
new city) has ensured that some of its precious historic elements, as well as some of
the respective “atmosphere”, were saved. Thus, Athens, to a certain degree, escaped
the fate of other Balkan cities, like Sofia in Bulgaria, where all pre-independence
past was virtually erased [84].
Interestingly, although public and larger buildings featured more “pure” European
neoclassical elements, in most private homes such influences remained largely
superficial, while age-old architectural patterns like the inner yard, were often
retained [5, 144, 145] (of course, new realities, like changes in lifestyles that led to,
e.g., opening of more windows to the streets, were incorporated into the architecture (Above) This 1842 house in the Plaka area, clearly combines “superficial”
[111]). neoclassical elements (mainly on the façade), with more traditional Athenian house
patterns, including the inner yard and the related architecture [147]. Photos: snf.org
At the same time, a specific Greek neoclassical style emerged, characterized by less (above left), and eie.gr (above right).
elaborate forms, often closer to ancient details, smaller scale compared to European
counterparts, and progressively “freed” from strict neoclassical patterns [5, 17, 144,
145] – while there have always been spontaneous references to tradition and calls to
return to Greek “roots” [144, 146]. The inner yard, this historical element of Greek
residence, survived until the early 20th century and was gradually phased out due to
changing social conditions [28] (the enclosed balcony would be phased out almost
immediately after independence, only to temporarily “return”, since the 1920s, in its
European version, not related to the original Byzantine/Ottoman pattern [144]).

(Left) Traditional Greek

inner yard in a house built in
ca. 1870 in today’s Mona-
stiraki area of Athens. Many
such inner yards around the (Above) Late 19th century Athenian inner yards, as they looked in the 1950s (Images:
city have been transformed chronographiae.wordpress.com).
into bars and restaurants
(Photo: athens24.gr).
 96
The true connection of neoclassical architectural elements (which became dominant
in Greek cities in general, during the 19th century) to “Greekness”, has led to many
discussions and disagreements. Some of Greece’s most prominent thinkers of the 19th
and the 20th centuries, like author Perikles Giannopoulos [5, 148], architects Aris
Konstantinidis [27, 28], Aristotelis Zachos [88], Nikolaos Moutsopoulos [29], and
others, have “rejected” them as Western influence, that had to be adjusted to Greek
cultural standards. Many others, especially painter Yannis Tsarouchis [149], consider
that they were successfully blended into Greek traditional architecture, which
maintained a genuine form of expression (Tsarouchis actually assumed that even if
Neoclassicism had not been brought to Greece through Europe, something equivalent
would arise in the country spontaneously [144]). Thus, it was argued that their loss
during the systematic rebuilding of Greek cities in the “economic miracle” years of
1950s to 1970s, was a tragedy.
(Above) This 1869 photograph of the historical core of Athens clearly shows the
mixture of pre-independence styles (some seen in the foreground) with more recent
architecture. The area, though, appears to maintain some of its previous character
(Photo: William James Stillman, lifo.gr).
97
5.3 EVOLUTION OF NEW CITY OF ATHENS: A THOROUGH
TRANSFORMATION
As already described, the ambitious plans for the new city were only partially
realized. Nonetheless, the city center gradually moved from the historical core
(mainly today’s historic districts of Plaka and Monastiraki) to newly developed,
adjacent areas. The period that followed, coincided with cataclysmic changes
(starting with the effects of the industrial revolution), not only for Greece, but for
Europe as a whole and, eventually, the whole planet. Certainly, a presentation of the
city’s social, economic and urban/architectural evolution in the late 19th and the 20th
centuries, is beyond the scope of this work. Through a photographic journey, we will
only focus on the tremendous evolution, over these periods, of what became the new
core of Athens. This short presentation could also help judging to which degree, in
view of the multitude of influences and social and economic changes that occurred,
the city managed to maintain any sense of continuity and connection with the
realities of its previous history, while preserving what could be called “an expression
of its Greekness”.
The “classic” view from the northeast is seen in this late 1860s photograph. The new
city (part of Syntagma Square can be seen in the foreground) is being built in
neoclassical style, with the most prominent buildings featuring visible differences in
scale and style. However, the old core, in the background, retains some of its original
features (Image: mixanitouxronou.gr).
 98
(Above) Photographs from ca. 1900 (Image: athensmagazine.gr, left), and early
1900s (Image: dinfo.gr, right.) As already mentioned, public and larger private
buildings in the new city, exhibited a degree of European influence (in particular,
thanks to the work of several foreign architects), with facades reminiscent of Munich
or Vienna. Even in these cases, though, scale/proportions and details helped reflect
something of an Athenian version [144].
(Above) The aforementioned influences were more pronounced in public buildings
like the trio on the square alternatively named after any of the particular buildings
(from left, National Bank of Greece, Central Post Office, and the famous Municipal
Theater by Ernst Ziller). The latter, built in 1888 in rather “Germanic” neoclassical
style, suffered damages after housing Greek refugees from Asia Minor, and was
eventually demolished in 1940 (Image: Olympia.gr, 1905).
99
(Above) Except for the old Municipal Theater, several other iconic buildings with
clearly imported styles, were eventually demolished, rather than becoming sources of
influence – in a process which, certainly, has led to heated arguments and
disagreements. The Aktaion Hotel in Phaleron (Image: Olympia.gr, top) was built in
1903 and, although the work of a Greek architect, Panos Karathanassopoulos, it was
clearly modeled after coastal palace hotels in European cities. It was damaged and
demolished in stages, with the last remaining structure demolished in the 1990s. The
Villa Margarita (Image: Wikipedia, bottom) in the Ampelokipoi area, was built in
ca.1900 looking like a European castle, and demolished in 1972. The authorities of
the then military government allowed demolition on the grounds that “it featured no
Greek architectural elements” [150].
 100 101

(Above) This atmospheric picture by F. Boissonnas, shows Verantzerou Street and

its quiet neighborhood, in the new city, in 1910. The street is wider and the houses
have neoclassical facades, but a purity reminiscent of previous times is, arguably,
present (Image: kathimerini.gr).

(Above) Ermou Street became a main commercial center soon after independence.
European influence is evident, along with Greek scale and proportions. Images: (Above) These images from the second half of the 1920s, reflect a city “bombarded”
1890, infomust.gr (above left), 1912, dinfo.gr (above right). by foreign influences, in a changing world. Images: kathimerini.gr (top), in2life.gr
(bottom).
 102
(Above) In this aerial view of the central area (Syntagma Square) of ca. 1935, one
can evaluate the general character of the built environment at the time (Image:
kathimerini.gr).
(Above) This photograph of an Athenian working class neighborhood in 1936, is
indicative of the atmosphere retained in such residential areas which, arguably, has
“neutralized” influences and is consistent with much earlier realities (Image:
Hellenic Literary and Historical Archive Society - ELIA).
103
(Left) A 1937 view of
Panepistimiou Street, in
the official heart of the
city. The area is still
reflecting a mixture of
“the West” on some of the
facades, with Greek
details and scale (Image:
timesnews.gr).
Greece appeared to embrace Modernism in the 1920s and (especially) the 1930s, as
many architects saw a chance for a new start, closer to purity, and a chance to break
with the past of Neoclassicism and its successor, the "simplified classical" style (as
well as the limited adoption of Art Nouveau and Art Deco patterns). After an
intermediate period of conservativism, Modernism has had a powerful presence since
the early 1950s [144, 151, 152, 153].
Massive rebuilding of the Greek cities largely connected with the“Greek economic
miracle” of the 1950s-1970s (and the multiple changes it brought to the Greek
society), drastically changed their appearance, with the concrete apartment block
being the dominant structure. In the process, previous low rise structures, mostly in
neoclassical style, were massively demolished. In addition, few regulations were
imposed regarding the architecture of the new structures.
The result can be seen from very different viewpoints: one describing the destruction
of elegant buildings and creation of “monstrous, characterless boxes” instead; and
one arguing that the Greek society did not truly consider many of the old structures
as worth saving, and that it, perhaps, expressed itself more genuinely through the
new structures. It is a personal viewpoint expressed here (contradicting the voices
that mourn the loss of “Belle Époque Athens”), regarding the second viewpoint, and
implying a blessing in disguise: it would be unfair to “freeze/preserve” the late 19th
century new city of Athens, which only represented a particular instant in Greece’s
long history (and an instant connected with a certain version of foreign influence), as
an area of reference for future generations; and the lack of strict architectural
regulations for the new structures, allowed a spontaneous, more genuine
representation of Greek realities. Athens ended up looking more like a crowded
Mediterranean city than like Munich, and that may serve as proof of the above.
Obviously, as the architectural forms, volumes etc. necessarily changed so much in
this age, any connection with the previous structures presented in the earlier part of
this work (and any sense of “Greekness”) lies with the preservation of what we
termed “general character”, “feeling”, or “atmosphere”, that is supposed to reflect
 104 105

people’s cultural elements irrespective of details of forms. This, certainly, is

subjective to a degree; the true test would be, whether a settlement could be
recognized as “Greek”, despite any morphological evolution and details.
All the above, of course, leave open the question of why the same nation that earlier
produced some of the most precious traditional architecture, created rather
unattractive (according to many critics) new cities after the 1950s. Again, we feel
that spontaneous architectural expression, reflecting contemporary social, economic
and other factors, cannot be judged based on previously agreed standards.
The above process, nonetheless, was a part of international trends. If the industrial
revolution had overwhelming influence on all social aspects, including the structure
of cities of (mainly) “Western” societies, the effects of the post-WWII modern age
were simply sweeping, throughout the planet. Probably for the first time in history,
many buildings or, even, entire districts - built (at least) after 1960 - anywhere in the
world, could look very similar, if not essentially indistinguishable from each other. In
addition, North American patterns, impressive skyscrapers next to highway flyovers,
have been imitated worldwide, serving as proofs of development and wealth – even
if their scale and aesthetics were alien to local cultures.

(Above) These mid-1960s photographs exhibit a relatively fresh crop of buildings

lining two iconic squares, Omonoia (Image: thetoc.gr, top) and Klafthmonos (Image:
(Above) Christmas shopping in 1960; these are the times of the “Greek economic lifo.gr, bottom). The city’s new look, involving a Greek version of Modernism, may
miracle” and the commercial heart of Athens reflects a new world order (Photo: not be as elegant as the previous one (and has led to many complaints among
Kostas Balafas, iefimerida.gr). architects for this reason), but, arguably is more genuine.
 106
(Above) In the mid-1960s the city seems to have been left free to express itself in an
almost uncontrolled way. The aesthetics are debatable, but the resulting character
cannot but spontaneously reflect Greek realities (Image: dinfo.gr).
(Above) A typical Greek three wheel truck, photographed in the late 1960s in a
working class neighborhood of Athens. Despite the basic architecture of the time and
area, one could see a very “Greek” urban landscape (Photo: G. Avramidis [154]).
107
(Above) This 1979 view of Patission Avenue shows a series of styles present, at
times, on Athenian buildings - including Neoclassical, Renaissance/neo-Byzantine,
Art Nouveau etc. (Image: bites.gr).
(Above) This 1981 photograph, except for the general view and aesthetics of the
area, focuses on the new building of Areios Pagos (Supreme Court of Greece), by
architect Iason Rizos. This was one of a series of modern buildings, first appeared in
the late 1950s, that were supposed to reflect clean, Greek lines with references to
Greek Antiquity [144]. Such buildings have created a pattern that was widely
reproduced in the country (Image: kathimerini.gr).
 108 109

(Left) A typical Athenian

neighborhood is shown in
this 2015 photograph of
the middle-class area of
Pangrati. Irrespective of
architectural details and
even aesthetics, it should
be recognizable as “Greek”
(Image: lifo.gr).

(Above) Modern cities have to follow certain paths of development and

(Above) After a series of developments, the central areas of Athens obtained a look
that is aesthetically debatable, but reflects elements connected with Greek city life as
it evolved. As can be seen in these 1990s photographs, both residential (photo:
James Taylor, athensvibe.gr, top) and business (photo: Wikipedia, bottom) areas
have a look that is neither purely “European”, nor “Middle Eastern”, but, arguably,
exhibit a recognizable character.
infrastructure, and Athens is no exception. The city – and Greece as a whole - has
“resisted” the charm of skyscrapers (only a few were built, mostly during the military
government of 1967-1974) and other mega structures, that are supposed to impress.
Whether it has naturally managed to keep a balance between development and Greek
traditions related to scale and character of human settlements, is certainly a matter of
judgment. Photo: Attiki Odos urban motorway (lifo.gr).
 110 111

PICTORIAL SUPPLEMENT A: TODAY’S VIEWS OF THE

CITY’S HISTORICAL CORE
(Left) Historic Tripodon
Street in the Plaka area, is
considered to be the oldest
street with continuous
existence in Greece,
dating since Antiquity
[113, 114]. Certainly, the
street has gone though
many changes, including
its width that has been
modified several times,
through its history [111]
(Image: Google Street
View).

(Above) The historic area of Plaka, corresponding to a large part of the city’s
historical core (although originally the name referred to a much smaller area [111]),
escaped both development and demolition for excavations. It was largely rebuilt after
independence, with some of its street layout changed, including widening of several
streets, and many elements of the houses adjusting to new realities - resulting, for (Above) The area north of the Acropolis has been the historical core of Athens,
example, in more windows opening to the street [111]. Nonetheless, as it evolved virtually through its entire existence, and should be a point of reference for any study
more “naturally”, it is supposed to reflect some of its previous purity, and general of the city’s architectural history (Photo: I-loveGreece.com).
atmosphere. Photos: Wikipedia (top), Iefimerida.gr (bottom).
 112 113

PICTORIAL SUPPLEMENT B: COMPARATIVE VIEWS OF

THE CITY, “THEN AND NOW”

Some of the old images already presented, will be repeated to allow comparison with
today’s views of the same spots, and showing the differences in the overall character
of the respective areas.
(Above) Left: the temple of Olympian Zeus and the area near it in 1674 [109]. Right:
the same area today (Hadrian’s Arch not visible) (Photo: Olympic Hotel Athens).

(Above) Left: Hadrian's Library, seen from the house of Nikolaos Logothetis (1751-
54) [112]. Right: the same spot today can be seen in the lower part of the photograph,
where both Tzistarakis Mosque and Hadrian’s library are visible (Photo:
archaiologia.gr). As was mentioned earlier, the immediate area has been restored.

(Above) Top: Athens from the northeast in 1674 [86]. Bottom: the same view today
(Image: Mapio.net). Athens is a much larger city today, but elements of the character (Above) Left: the Gate of Athena Archegetis and its surroundings (1751-1754) [110].
of some of its historical core have been retained. Right: the same area today; the houses on the right side were demolished to allow
excavations (Image: Google Street View).
 114 115

(Above) Left: the Tower of the Winds, or Horologion of Andronikos Kyrrhestes, and
its surroundings (1751-1754) (Image: Takis Kamarinos collection, nexusmedia.gr).
Right: the same area today; excavations of the Roman Agora have been conducted
near the site (Photo: Google).

(Above) Left: the neighborhood around the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates in

1755 (with the width of Tripodon Street exaggerated [110]). Right: the same spot
today, an important landmark in the historic area of Plaka (Photo: trip2athens.com).

(Left) The stairs on Pandrosou street,

today leading to the archaeological
site of Hadrian’s library, coincided
with the entrance to the upper market,
and roughly marked the limit between
the upper and lower markets (Photo:
myunusualjourneys.com); see Page
115. The city’s central market
remained in that area until 1884
when, after a fire, it was demolished (Above) Top: the upper market (bazaar) in 1805; the dome and the, later demolished,
allowing excavations of the area by the Archaeological Society of Athens [155, 156]. minaret of the Fethiye Mosque are visible in the background (Image:
archaiologia.gr). Bottom: the same area today, part of the (excavated) archaeological
site of Hadrian's Library, with the Fethiye Mosque being a point of reference (Image:
Anglais Athens Restaurant).
 116 117

(Above) Left: part of the lower market by the ruins of Hadrian’s library in 1830, with
the Byzantine church of Agios Asomatos still present [122]. Right: the same spot
today, part of Athens’s historic area of Monastiraki (Image: Google Street View).

(Above) Left: the Saints Asomatoi church in the Thission area and the surrounding
buildings (1830-1840) [122]). Right: the same spot today, part of a revitalized
historic residential and recreational area (Image: Google Street View).
(Above) Top: view towards the northwestern slope of the Acropolis (to the right of
the picture) in 1835; the Fethiye Mosque is visible in the middle [141]. Bottom: most
of this area, part of the historical core of the city that has been saved from
development, largely retains its character today (Photo: Wikipedia).

(Above) Left: The church of Pammegistoi Taxiarches and its surroundings in a 1833
painting (Image: anthologio.wordpress.com). Right: the same location today; the
original church was destroyed by fire, and was rebuilt with significant modifications
in 1922, while excavations have been conducted in the general area since the mid-
19th century, focusing on Hadrian’s library and the Roman Agora (Photo: Google).
(Above) Left: view from the Temple of Hephaestus (Thission) towards the Psyrri
area in 1835 [157]. Right: excavations and development have significantly changed
the area around the Temple, however, the immediate area retains some of its historic
atmosphere (Image: video by lifo.gr).
 118
(Above) Top: view towards Lycabettus Hill in 1835; Tzistarakis Mosque and
Hadrian’s library are visible [141]. Bottom: today, Tzistarakis Mosque, Hadrian’s
library and the historic area around them are obstructed from view (from this angle)
by the reconstructed Stoa of Attalos. In the background, the new city has developed
towards Lycabettus Hill (Photo: Wikipedia).
119
PICTORIAL SUPPLEMENT C:
ARCHITECTURAL SIMILARITIES THROUGH HISTORY
Some of the old images already presented, will be repeated to allow comparisons
with more recent structures. As already mentioned, there are disagreements, even
among Greek researchers, regarding the “unbroken” continuity of some architectural
features. Their appearance, nonetheless, could reflect continuity of environmental,
social and, most importantly, cultural factors.
.
(Above) Comparison, exhibiting the remarkable similarity between the layouts of
excavated Athenian homes of the 5th century BC (left) and the 12th century AD
(right) - by I. Travlos [5, 24]. Such a degree of similarity is certainly not seen in all
archaeological finds, while many changes occurred over the intermediate period,
with some Byzantine residences featuring elements of Roman influence [24].
 120 121

(Above) Comparison of 19th century Athenian inner yards, as they looked in the
1950s (left and middle; Images: chronographiae.wordpress.com), with the inner yard
of a reconstructed house in Ancient Athens (5th – 4th century BC) (right [21]).

(Above) Comparison of houses with inner yards in a detail of a 1835 illustration of

Athens) (top [141]), with a reconstructed group of houses in Ancient Athens (5th – 4th
century BC) (bottom; Image: anaskafh.arsakeio.gr).

(Above) Comparison of the inner yard of a house built in 1870, today turned into a
bar, located in the Monastiraki historic area of Athens (left; Photo:
insheefashion.files.wordpress.com), with a yard in the above reconstructed houses in
Ancient Athens (5th – 4th century BC) (right; Image: anaskafh.arsakeio.gr). (Above) Comparison of the inner yard of a 1837 house in Athens (top), with this of a
reconstructed 5th-4th BC house in Olynthos (bottom) [5].
 122 123

(Above) Comparison of the inner yard of a 19th century house in Athens, studied by
architect Aris Konstantinidis in his effort to establish similarities with ancient Greek
patterns (left [4, 27]), with this of a reconstructed 5th-4th century BC house in
Olynthos (right [4]).

(Above and below) Comparison of various Athenian houses. Above: 1870 (Image:
mixanitouxronou.gr, top left), structures in the Plaka area (Image: video by Droneas
gr, top right), 1910 (Image: Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Abteilung Athen,
middle), 1880-1890 (Image: Romaidis Bros., bottom). Below: Reconstructed houses
in Ancient Athens (5th – 4th century BC) [21].

(Above) Comparison of a 19th century Athenian house (top [159]), with a

reconstructed group of 5th-4th century BC houses in Olynthos (bottom [80]).
 124
(Above) Comparison of the reconstructed house of L.Fauvel in Athens (ca. 1820),
according to designs by I. Travlos (top [111]), with the Mint of Ancient Athens (5th–
4th century BC), according to a reconstruction by the Foundation of the Hellenic
World (bottom [14]).
125
(Above) Comparison of 19th century smaller houses with characteristic yards, close
to the Acropolis (top; Photo: Wikipedia), with reconstructed houses in a part of
Pergamon of the late Byzantine period, according to K. Rheidt (middle [44, 49]), and
with a reconstructed “typical Ancient Greek house”, made utilizing data from various
parts of Greece, mostly during the period of 5th to 4th centuries BC (bottom [158]).
 126 127

(Above) Comparison of the 17th-18th century Benizelos mansion in Athens (left;

Photo: archaiologia.gr), with a detail of the (partially restored) remains of the late
13th century Palace of the Porphyrogenitos in Constantinople (right; Photo:
thebyzantinelegacy.com/porphyrogenitus).

(Above) It is natural that similar rectangular buildings appear through the ages, and
in different locations. Elongated, rectangular residential and public buildings
(including, later, temples) are typical structures in Greece since the Neolithic age
[161]. Such structures were present in Athens througout its history; it is a matter of
judgment whether any similarities in the sense described in this work (keeping in
mind that reconstructions of ancient buildings usually involve several assumptions)
reflect any continuity. Images: Commercial and residential buildings in Athens, late
(Above) Comparison of the inner yard of the 17th-18th century Benizelos mansion in
18th century with many subsequent alterations (top [111]); part of a depiction of 1687
Athens (left; Photo: synodoiporia.gr), with a detail of the (partially restored) remains
Athens (bottom left [110]); reconstruction of a 3rd-2nd century BC Athenian Arsenal
of the late 13th century Palace of the Porphyrogenitos in Constantinople (right; Photo:
by the Temple of Hephaestus (bottom right [10]).
istanbulclues.com).

(Left) The arrangements (including

courtyards) of Byzantine
monasteries appear to have
evolved from previous urban (Left) This house in the
structures [31]. The 11th century Metaxourgeio area of Athens, close
monastery of Daphni in Athens to the city’s historical core, evolved
includes a typical layout for in stages between the early 1900s
monastic Cells and other and 1960s; it is an example of a
additional buildings, probably built building featuring an inner yard
in this form after the Ottoman structure very similar to those in
conquest of Athens, and rebuilt recon-structed houses of the
after Greece’s independence [160]. Classical period (Photo: remax.gr).
 128 129

(Left) Inner yards creating

little “neighborhoods” were
common in Athens and other
areas of Greece well into the
20th century. Today, numer-
ous surviving examples, like
this 1930s structure in the
Petralona area of Athens, have
been transformed into
restaurants and bars (Image:
popaganda.gr/citylife).

(Right) A very common arrangement of

homes in urban neighborhoods in Athens (like
the depicted example of a 1970 building) and
other areas of Greece, until at least the last
decades of the 20th century, may reflect a
“memory” of the inner yard patterns and
tradition, and the related cultural and social
parameters (Photo: spitogatos.gr).

(Left) Technically, a successor to the

inner yard, is the skylight/atrium of the
Athenian apartment buildings; however,
any connection is very weak. On the other
hand, the innumerable inner spaces within
building blocks of the modern city, appear (Above) The original principles of the inner yard appear in some cases to have
with varying structures and uses. It is survived in working class sections of Athens, until later in the 20th century, like the
certainly a matter of debate whether, in depicted structures originally built the 1960s (Images: Google Street View).
certain cases, their character represents
anything related to a continuity of the
genunine inner yard (Photo by the author).
 130 131

(Left) A large number of modern

public and private buildings in
Athens have been designed with
atria, often in line with
international architectural trends.
Nonetheless, there have been
developments like the group of
residences built by the GEK
TERNA Group in the historic area
(Above) The depicted house, built in stages between the 1950s and the 1980s, is of Metaxourgeio in 2009, which
another example of building and yard arrangements reminiscent of much older were designed with the purpose of
patterns (Photo by the author). genuinely reproducing the concept
of the traditional Athenian (and
Greek) inner yard [30,162].

(Above) In some cases, in inner spaces within building blocks, individual properties
also appear to maintain characteristic yard structures, as seen in this house built in
the 1970s (Photo by the author).
(Above) According to our view, the comparison of these three structures on Tripodon
Street, in Plaka, is highly symbolic. Perhaps, this view could in a way “bridge”
differing opinions between, e.g., A. Konstantinidis and Y. Tsarouchis (see Section
5.2), regarding the architecture evolution of post-independence Athens. The house on
the left, built in ca. 1800, is seen as a carrier of evolution of the city’s architectural
history until independence. The house on the right, built in the 1840s (probably over
a pre-independence structure) and completed in the late 19th century [163], is typical
of post-independence neoclassical forms, which dictated the dominant style during
the rebuilding of Athens. The house in the middle, built in the 1930s, directly leads
to the style of the typical Greek residence and apartment building that eventually
characterized the main part of the city. Despite differences in morphology, one could
probably see in all three buildings elements of the same “character”, connecting to
what should be a true definition of the city’s soul (Image: Google Street View).
 132
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
References to the evolution of Athens as a city have very often included simplified
notions, and even myths, especially regarding the period after the Ottoman conquest.
Evidence shows that, apart for natural factors, a strong element of cultural identity
and the fact the country’s two main foreign rulers, the Romans and the Ottomans,
appear to have been influenced more than influencing, has resulted in a remarkable
continuity in the city’s urban atmosphere. Even particular architectural elements
appear to be reproduced over the centuries of the city’s life (and those of Greece in
general) and, although many researchers have expressed differing views regarding
the mechanism of this reproduction, it can be argued that the cultural factor has
played a strong role. Here, our personal viewpoint is added, that, even when
morphological elements change over time, the “character” of the common house and
the neighborhood made of such houses, continues to reflect “Greekness”.
Athens has been an important city, virtually throughout its history since (at least) the
Classical period. That includes the period of Ottoman rule, up to the time of its
choice as the new capital of independent Greece. Following this time, the city has
admittedly undergone massive transformations: efforts to reconnect with a “glorious
past” through a largely European viewpoint after independence, rapid social changes
during the industrial revolution, cataclysmic events and rapid increase in population
during the 20th century, etc. All these, have resulted in today’s congested metropolis
of over 3 million.Yet, in our view, this city, quite different from a typical “orderly”
European capital, cannot but reflect a natural expression of the same elements that
have defined its urban “personality” (as they have defined “Greekness”) through the
centuries of its existence.
133
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 134
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 136 137

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 138
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81. Cemal Kafadar, “A Rome of One's Own: Reflections on Cultural Geography
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82. Dana Arnold, “Rethinking Architectural Historiography”, Routledge,
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83. Serena Acciai “The Ottoman-Turkish House According to Architect Sedad
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84. Roumen Dontchev Daskalov, Diana Mishkova, Tchavdar Marinov and
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85. Georgios Tsotsos, “The Geographical Dispersion of Elements of the
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87. Hellenic Ministry of Culture, “I othomaniki architektoniki stin Ellada
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88. Eleni Fessa-Emmanouil, “The Architectural Reform by Aristotelis Zachos,
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89. Carel Bertram, “After the Ottomans Are Gone: Imagining the Turkish
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91. Istanbul Through the Eyes of an Ottoman Miniaturist
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ottoman-miniaturist/
92. Cyril Mango, “Byzantine Architecture”, Electa, Milan (1978)
93. Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation, Constantinople
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94. Ottoman Athens http://www.ancientathens3d.com/el/othomaniki-athina-
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95. A Glimpse at Athens in the Ottoman Era
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96. Ahmed Ameen , “Ottoman Use of Existing Public Buildings in Former
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97. A Walk in Ottoman Athens (in Greek) https://mamakita.gr/mia-volta-stin-
othomaniki-athina/
 140
98. Exhibition: “Ottoman Athens 1458-1833”, Gennadius Library, Athens
(February-June 2015)
99. Markos Kominis, “Athens during the Last Years of Ottoman Administration,
18th-19th Centuries”, Postgraduate Thesis, Aristotle University of
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100. Arvanites https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvanites (Retrieved 29 March
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101. Albanian Communities in Greece
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_communities_in_Greece (Retrieved 29
March 2020)
102. When Athens Was an Ottoman Province (in Greek)
https://www.lifo.gr/articles/archaeology_articles/94534
103. Leonidas Kallivretakis “Athens Was a Village”
https://brewminate.com/athens-in-the-19th-century-from-regional-town-of-
the-ottoman-empire-to-capital-of-the-kingdom-of-greece/
104. Nicholas Nikoloudis, “The ‘Forgotten City’ - Byzantine and Ottoman
Athens” https://www.academia.edu/40092386/The_Forgotten_City_-
_Byzantine_and_Ottoman_Athens
105. Georgios K. Konstantinidis, “Istoria ton Athinon (History of Athens)”,
Dimiourgia, Athens (1996) (originally published by the City of Athens in
1876)
106. Plaka Architecture https://www.visitplaka.com/plaka-architecture/
107. Exhibition: “Evliya Celebi, the Book of Travels”, British Council/Benaki
Museum, Athens (April-June 2011)
108. Book review: An Ottoman Traveller https://neoskosmos.com/en/5341/an-
ottoman-traveller-review-evliya-celebi/
109. Athens: Wanderings Through the City’s History (in Greek)
http://athensopenmuseum.com/
110. Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation, Athens
http://el.travelogues.gr/page.php?view=2
111. Manolis Korres, “The Center of Athens in the 18th Century” (in Greek), 17
October 2016 (Bodossaki Lectures on Demand)
112. James “Athenian” Stuart: The Architect as Landscape Painter
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athenian-stuart-the-architect-as-landscape-painter/
141
113. Which Street Is Considered to Be the Oldest in Athens? (in Greek)
http://www.mixanitouxronou.gr/pios-theorite-o-paleoteros-dromos-tis-
athinas-ton-perpatousan-i-archei-prin-25-eones/
114. Athens: The Street that Has the Same Name for 25 Centuries (in Greek)
https://exploringgreece.tv/
115. Choragic Monument of Lysicrates
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choragic_Monument_of_Lysicrates (Retrieved
18 April 2020)
116. Monuments and Topography of Athens 1600-1700-1800 (in Greek)
http://ellinondiktyo.blogspot.com/
117. The Mertrud Mansions in the Grain Market and on Athinas Street (in Greek)
https://www.archaiologia.gr/
118. Ahmed Ameen, “Travellers’ Works As An Important Source In Studying
Archaeology”, SHEDET (2), 2015
119. Tatiana Poulou, “Lousieri’s Excavations in Athens in Lord Elgin’s Time”(in
Greek), 27 November 2015 (Bodossaki Lectures on Demand)
120. Athens: The Destroyed Village That Became the Capital (in Greek).
https://www.kaliterilamia.gr/2019/10/blog-post_9223.html
121. Louis Dupré (Painter)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Dupr%C3%A9_(painter) (Retrieved 26
April 2020)
122. Dimitrios Karidis, “The ‘Other’ 1833 City Plan for Athens”(in Greek), 12
December 2018 (Bodossaki Lectures on Demand)
123. Elena Korka, “New Documents Reveal the History of Removal of the
Marbles from the Parthenon” (in Greek), 24 September 2016 (Bodossaki
Lectures on Demand)
124. National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, History Museum
http://en.historymuseum.uoa.gr/
125. The Kleanthis House, Athens University History Museum (in Greek)
https://www.archaiologia.gr
126. The 10 Oldest Houses in Athens (in Greek) https://www.dinfo.gr/
127. The Kleanthis-Schaubert House (Old University) (in Greek) www.eie.gr/
128. Michani tou Chronou, “This is the House Where Lord Elgin Stored the Stolen
Marbles” (in Greek) https://www.mixanitouxronou.gr/afto-ine-to-spiti-pou-o-
elgin-apothikefse-ta-klemmena-glipta-tou-parthenona-prin-ta-metaferi-stin-
anglia-anike-ston-proxeno-n-logotheti-opou-o-laikos-thrilos-apodidi-ton-
thanato-tis-koris-tou-se-mag/
 142
129. Four Centuries Within a Building Block in Plaka (in Greek)
https://www.tovima.gr/2015/04/03/culture/tesseris-aiwnes-se-ena-tetragwno-
stin-plaka/
130. Archontiko Benizelon http://archontiko-mpenizelon.gr/
131. The Oldest House in Athens and Saint Philothei (in Greek)
http://orthodoxostypos.gr/
132. Iro Kounadi, “Ottoman Athens: Wanderings through a Forgotten History” (in
Greek) https://www.in2life.gr/delight/goingout/article/375282/h-athhna-ton-
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133. National Bank of Greece Cultural Foundation (in Greek) www.eie.gr/
134. National Bank of Greece Cultural Foundation https://www.nbg.gr/el/the-
group/corporate-social-responsibility/responsibility-society/miet
135. Why the “Kokovikos House” Was Never Sold (in Greek)
https://www.newsbeast.gr/weekend/arthro/2260912/giati-to-spiti-tou-zevgous-
kokovikou-stin-plaka-den-poulithike-pote
136. The Finlay House (in Greek) https://el.wikipedia.org (Retrieved 5 April 2020)
137. In the Inner Yards of the “Paradise” of Athens (in Greek)
https://foroline.gr/archives/25057
138. Takis Katsimardos, “The Dilemmas Regarding the Choice of Capital 180
Years Ago” (in Greek) https://www.fractalart.gr/ellada-proteyousa/
139. Elli Droulia, “From Nafplion to Athens, the Transfer of Capital” (in Greek)
https://argolikoslibrary.files.wordpress.com/2014/07/ceb1cf80cf8c-cf84cebf-
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140. Topography of Athens 1600, 1700, 1800 (in Greek)
https://fainareti.wordpress.com
141. Heidelberg historic literature – digitized https://digi.ub.uni-
heidelberg.de/diglit/stademann1841/0027/image
142. Psyrri: the Oldest Historic Corner of Athens (in Greek)
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tis-athinas/
143. Ahmed Ameen, “The Ottoman Architecture in Greece Then and Now:
Quantitative Approach”, SHEDET (6), 2019
144. Dimitris Philippidis, “Neoelliniki Architektoniki (Moden Greek
Architecture)”, Melissa, Athens (1984)
145. Liza Micheli, “Plaka. Istoriki mnimi kai mythoplasia (Plaka. Historical
Memory and Fiction)”, Gnossi, Athens (1994)
143
146. Yiannis Lygizos, “I ellinikotita stin architektoniki mas (The Greekness in Our
Architecture)”, Estia, Athens (1987)
147. Center for Asia Minor Studies (in Greek) https://athensattica.com/el/ti-na-
deite/architektoniki/kentro-mikrasiatikon-spoudon/
148. Perikles Giannopoulos, “I elliniki grammi (The Greek Line)”, Ermeias,
Athens (1965)
149. Will Tsarouchis’s Interpretation of Athens Last? (in Greek)
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150. Villa Margarita (in Greek) https://el.wikipedia.org (Retrieved 12 April 2020)
151. A City’s Rebirth: The Modernist Architecture that Shaped Today’s Athens
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shaped-todays-athens/
152. A Walk in Modernist Athens (in Greek)
https://www.iefimerida.gr/news/198688/peripatos-stin-athina-toy-
monternismoy
153. Modern Architecture in Athens
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154. Labros S. Skartsis and George A. Avramidis, “Made in Greece”, Typorama,
Patras (2003)
155. Hadrian’s Library (in Greek) https://el.wikipedia.org/ (Retrieved 15 March
2020)
156. Konstantina Sakellariou, “Exploring the Forgotten Trails of the Ottoman Era
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157. Psyrri: the Oldest Historic Corner of Athens (in Greek)
https://www.maxmag.gr/agnosti-ellada/psyrri-attikis-i-paleoteri-istoriki-gonia-
tis-athinas/
158. Hellenic College, Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of an Ancient Greek
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college.gr/db_data/news/gimlic/2011_2012/news_101/4oMathitikoSinedrioPli
roforikis_Katikia.pdf
159. Stefi Barbouni, “The Greek Landscape and the Descendants of Aris
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Chania (2016)
160. Dafni Monasteri – It Is So Close to Us! (in Greek)
https://www.timesnews.gr/1199135-2/
 144 145

161. Alev Erarslan, “Continuity of Architectural Traditions in the Megaroid

Buildings of Rural Anatolia: The Case of Highlands of Phrygia”, ITU A|Z, INDEX
Vol. 12 No 3, November 2015
162. GEK TERNA: Award for the Residential Complex in Metaxourgeio (in
Greek) https://www.capital.gr/epixeiriseis Adrianou Street 69,84
163. Elliniki Etairia, Society for the Environment and Cultural Heritage Anafiotika 93
http://ellet.gr/node/314 Areopagus 54
Balcony, enclosed 27,35,37,38,41,44,45,50,51,80,85,95
Balcony, covered 27,35,36,37,44,51,80,85
Bazaar, lower See Market, lower
Bazaar, upper See Market, upper
Benizelos mansion 58,78-80,126
Beylié, Léon de 45
Bouras, Charalambos 31
Celebi, Evliya 34,55,80
Chatzimichali, Aggeliki 45
Constantinople 27,32,34,37,39,40,41,42,43,44,46-51,58,
86,126
Corinth 28
Delos 16,23,24
Eldem, Hakki 45
Eretria 14
Ermou Street 100
Giannopoulos, Perikles 96
Halicarnassus 39
Hayati See Balcony, covered
Helike 11
Kapodistrias, Ioannis 93
Karathanassopoulos, Panos 99
Klafthmonos Square 105
Kleanthis, Stamatios 77,78,93
Klenze, Leo von 93
Konstantinidis, Aris 21,45,96,122,131
Korres, Manolis 63,69
Macedonia 22,25
Market, lower 64,74,114,116
Market, upper 66,74,114,115
Mersine 35,36
 146 147

Metaxourgeio 127,131 Yard, inner 12,14,16,17,21,27,28,30,31,32,35,42,44,

Modernism 103,105 63,68,80,81,82,83,85,94,95,120,121,122,
Monastiraki 52,93,97,116,120 125,126,127,128
52,56,58,59,60,75 Zachos, Aristotelis 45,96
Morosini, Francesco
Moutsopoulos, Nikolaos 36,37,44,45,96 Ziller, Ernst 98
Mycenae/Mycenaean 10,11,12,13,14
Mystras 34,42
Neoclassicism 93,96,103
Olynthos 16,22,121,122
Omonoia Square 105
Orlandos, Anastasios 42
Othon I (king of Greece) 86,93
Otto of Greece See Othon I
Panepistimiou Street 103
Pangrati 109
Patission Avenue 107
Pavlopetri 11
Pergamon 25,30,125
Petralona 128
Piraeus 10,16,19
Plaka 52,93,95,97,110,111,114,123,131
Porphyrogenitos, palace of the 40,41,126
Projections, architectural see Balcony, enclosed
Psyrri 88,93,117
Pylos 12
Rentina 28,36
Rizos, Iason 107
Sachnisi See Balcony, enclosed
Schaubert, Edward 78,93
Skylitzes, Ioannis 38
Syntagma Square 97,102
Thission 87,88,93,116,117
Travlos, Ioannis 21,54,71,119,123
Tripodon Street 65,82,111,114,131
Tsarouchis, Yannis 96,131
Vryssaki 93
148 149

Dr. Labros S. Skartsis was born in Patras, Greece in 1964. He is a Chemical

Engineer (B.Sc. University of Patras, Greece, 1987, and Ph.D., Washington
University, St. Louis, U.S.A., 1992) and has worked as an R&D Engineer and
Manager in the U.S.A. and Greece, and as a Production Manager and HR Director
in Greece. In addition to scientific publications and articles in fields including
Chemical Engineering/Materials Science and HR Management, he has authored a
number of books, book chapters, papers and articles on specific areas of Greek
history, which he has been researching for decades.