CFD Notes PDF

Computational Fluid
Dynamics
Natteri M. Sudharsan, PhD.

CFD – A part of Knowledge
Based Economy
 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and Computational Structural
Mechanics (CSM) is the study of fluid and structures subjected various
external / internal flow and/or load conditions.
 CFD is used in various fields such as:

Aerospace
Automobile
Bio-medical
Ocean
Oil and Gas
Power Engineering
Turbomachinery
Fluid – Structure Interaction
Environmental Agencies
Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 2

Aerospace Applications
KEY APPLICATIONS INCLUDE
 External  Plume Analysis

Aerodynamics (all  Multi-Species
speed regimes)  Propeller Simulation
 High Lift  Heat Exchangers
 Internal Flows  Fluid Structure
 Thermal Management Interaction (FSI)
 Aero acoustics  Combustion
 Stability and Control
 Tank Sloshing
CFD Simulations in Aerospace
Plume Analysis

HIGH LIFT
ROTORCRAFT

Environmental Control Systems

Automotive Applications
Fuel Injection – Break-up

Thermal Stress Analysis on Cylinder Head

Valve Simulation
After Treatment Devices for Pollution Control

Under the Hood

Comfort

Brake Cooling

Biomedical Applications
Grid Generation from MRI Scan

Streamline flow of Blood

Building Applications
Fire & Smoke Modeling

Heating Ventilation and Air
conditioning
Pollutions Dispersion Modeling

Turbomachinery
Pelton Wheel Simulation

Wind Turbine
Power – conventional vs. Shrouded Turbine

Environmental Applications
ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATOR

Forest Fire & Control

Chemical Applications
Break-up and coalescence of bubbles

Spray Dryer

CFD Aided Design of
HDDs
Objectives:
•Identify the flow characteristics in HDDs
at high rotating speed
•Seek solutions to reduce the flow-induced
vibration of arms

Governing Equations
&
Numerical Methods

Summary
1. Derivation of Governing Equations for Energy.
2. Behavior of these Equations.
3. The three numerical schemes.
4. Discretization for transient problems.
5. Convection – Diffusion Equation and schemes.

Derivation of Energy Equations
Consider a control volume of Area A and length
∆x. The energy balance is given as:
Heat in = Heat out

qx + g’’’ = q x+∆x + qconv + qrad (1)

qconv+ qrad
qx g”’ qx+∆x
∆x
Figure: 1 Energy balance in a control volume

Steady State Heat Conduction
Neglecting convective and radiation loss and for a

steady state heat conduction with no internal heat
generation g’’’, the energy balance simplifies as
qx = q x+∆x (2)

Using Taylor series expansion to estimate q x+∆x

we
have,
d 1 d2
q x + Δx = qx + (q x )∆ x + 2
(q x )∆ x 2
+ ...
dx 2! dx
Neglecting higher order terms, we get,
d
qx+ ∆ x = qx + ( qx )∆ x (3)
dx
Substituting the Taylor series expansion for qx+∆x
In (2) yields
d
qx = qx + ( qx )∆ x
dx
dT
 q x = − kA
dx
d  dT 
 − kA ∆x= 0 (4)
dx  dx 

Assuming k and A to be constants (4) becomes
d 2T
− kA 2 ∆ x = 0
dx
since k, A or ∆x cannot be zero, in coordinate
invariant form yields:
∇ 2T = 0
This is a 2nd order Linear PDE. Classified as Laplace

equation.

Steady State Heat Conduction with Internal
Heat Generation
Assuming that there is internal heat generation

within the control volume, equation (1) simplifies
to
qx + g’’’ = q x+∆x (5)
d
q x + g ' ' ' A∆ x = q x + ( qx )∆ x
dx
dT
 q x = − kA (6)
dx
d 2T g' ' '
2
+ = 0
dx k

Steady State Heat Conduction with Convection
Heat in = Heat out by conduction + Convection
∅d

q x = q x + ∆ x + hP∆ x (T − T∞ )
d  dT 
qx = qx +  − kA  ∆ x + hP∆ x (T − T∞ )
dx  dx 
d 2T hP
2
− (T − T∞ ) = 0 (7)
dx kA
Let,
T − T∞ x
θ = ;X =
Tb − T∞ L
dT = (Tb − T∞ )dθ ; dx = L dX and dx 2 = L2 dX 2

Substituting in (7) we get,
(Tb − T∞ ) d 2θ hP
2 2
− (θ (Tb − T∞ ) + T∞ − T∞ ) = 0
L dx kA
d 2θ (8)
2
− (mL ) 2
θ = 0
dx
Fin tip boundary condition is convective then

dT
− kA = hA(T − T∞ )
dx
dθ − hL hL
= θ, θ = Bi (θ )
dX k k
Steady state heat conduction with radiation
2
d T
kA 2 − σ ε P (T 4 − T∞4 ) = 0
dx
Slug Flow
Tx Tx+∆x

q | x + ρ C p AUT | x = q | x + ∆ x + ρ C p AUT | x + ∆ x
d 2T
kA 2 ∆ x = ρ C p AUdT
dx
2
d T U dT
=
dx 2
α dx
x T − Ti
X= , θ =
L TL − Ti
d 2θ dθ UL
= Pe , Pe =
dX 2
dX α

Unsteady Heat Conduction
Heat in = Heat out + Heat stored

Heat in – Heat out = Heat stored
•.
∂T
Heat stored is m C p dT = ρ A∆ xC p
∂τ
d 2T
Heat in – Heat out = kA∆ x 2
dx
∂ T ∂T
2
α =
∂x 2
∂τ
DISCRETIZATION METHODS
Finite Difference Method

dy 1 d2y 2 1 d3y 3
y ( x + h) = y ( x ) + h+ 2
h + 3
h + ...
dx 2! dx 3! dx
dy 1 d2 y 2 1 d3y 3
y ( x − h) = y ( x ) − h+ 2
h − 3
h + ...
dx 2! dx 3! dx
2 ''' 3
y ( x + h) − y ( x − h ) = 2 y' h + y h
3!
yi + 1 − yi − 1 1 ''' 2
= y'+ y h
2h 3!
i-2 I -1 ∆x i i+1 i+2
yi + 1 − yi − 1
y' = + ( 0 )h 2
2h
The above is known as central difference. The
forward or backward difference for y’ can be
obtained from yi and yi+1 or yi and yi-1 to yield
yi + 1 − yi yi − yi − 1
y' = + 0( ∆ x ) and y' = + 0( ∆ x )
∆x ∆x
Similarly forward difference for y” is given as:-
1 '' 1 '''
y ( x + 2 h) = y i + y ( 2 h) +
'
i y i ( 2 h) + y i ( 2 h) 3
2
2! 3!
1 '' 2 1 ''' 3
y ( x + h) = y i + y i ( h ) +
'
y i ( h ) + y i ( h)
2! 3!
Multiply y( x + h) by 2 and subtract from y( x + 2h)
yi + 2 − 2 y i + 1 = − y i + yi'' ( ∆ x ) 2
yi + 2 − 2 yi + 1 + yi
y =
''
i
∆ x2 Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 38
yi − 2 yi − 1 + yi − 2
Backward difference y =''
i
∆ x2
Central difference using yi − 1 − 2 yi + yi + 1
y(x+h) and y(x-h) yields y =
''
i
∆ x2
Non uniform grid size discretization
∂T ∂ 2T a 2 ∆ x 2
Ti − 1 = Ti − ( a∆ x ) +
∂x ∂ x2 2
∂T ∂ 2T ∆ x 2
i-1 i i+1 Ti + 1 = Ti + (∆ x) +
∂x ∂ x2 2
Let the distance Ti − 1 + aTi + 1 = (1 + a )Ti +
∂ 2T a∆ x 2 (1 + a )
from node i-1 to i be ∂ x2 2
Ti − 1 − (1 + a )Ti + aTi + 1 ∂ 2T
a∆x and i to i+1 be a∆ x (1 + a )
2
=
∂ x2
∆x. 2
FVM Formulation
W P E
w e
∆xwP ∆xPe
∆xWP ∆xPE

d  dφ 
Γ  − n(φ ) + S = 0
dx  dx 
Integrating the above yields
φE−φP  φ P − φW 
Γ e   − Γ w   − nφ P ∆ x( wP + Pe ) + S∆ x( wP + Pe ) = 0
 ∆ x PE   ∆ xWP 
a pφ P = a wφ W + aeφ E + S u
a P = a w + ae − S P
Where The Source is linearized as S = S Pφ P + S u
Γ ( e ) or ( w ) may be arithmetic mean or harmonic mean
depending on the behaviour of Γ

The 4 rules of Finite Volume
• Ensure that the flux across the face common to the

two control volumes is represented by the same
expression.
• Coefficients of ap and its neighbors should always be
positive.
• SP should always be negative, at best should be less
than 1.
• aP should be sum of all neighbors anb.
Discretization for Transient Problems
∂  ∂φ  ∂φ k
Γ = ρ ;Γ =
∂x ∂x  ∂τ cp
Integrating the above yields
n+ 1
φ −φ 
n+ 1 n
 φE−φP φ P − φW 
ρ  P
 = β  Γ e
P
− Γw  +
 ∆ τ   ∆ x PE ∆ xWP 
n
 φE−φP φ P − φW 
(1 − β ) Γ e − Γw  + S∆ x( wP + Pe )
 ∆ x PE ∆ xWP 
Where β = 0 is Explicit and β = 1 is Implicit

Convection – Diffusion Equation
W P E
w e
∆xwP ∆xPe
∆xWP ∆xPE
Represents Upwind Formulation

dφ d  dφ 
ρu = Γ  
dx dx  dx 
Integrating yields
φE−φP   φ P − φW 
( ρ u)e φ e − ( ρ u) w φ w = Γ e   − Γ w  
 ∆ x PE   ∆ xWP 
Let F = ρ u and D = Γ ∆ x
CD Scheme
Fe Fw
(φ E + φ P ) − (φ P + φ W ) = De (φ E − φ P ) − Dw (φ P − φ W )
2 2
a pφ P = a wφ W + aeφ E ; a w = Dw + Fw / 2 ; ae = De − Fe / 2
a p = a w + ae + ( Fe − Fw )
CD Scheme Limitation F/D i.e. Pe less than 2
Upwind Scheme
F > 0 We have φ w = φ W and φ e = φ P
F < 0 We have φ e = φ E and φ w = φ P
F > 0 We have a w = Dw + Fw and ae = De
F < 0 We have a w = Dw and ae = De − Fe
Note: CD Scheme gives rise to artificial
diffusion. Good for Pe < 2, hence ∆x needs to be
small to ensure low Pe. Upwind gives
reasonable results for higher Pe number. A
hybrid scheme or power law can also be used.
Fluid Mechanics

TYPES OF FLUID
Ideal Fluid – Incompressible ‘zero
viscosity’ fluid – Imaginary fluid.
Real Fluid – Fluid with viscosity
Newtonian – shear stress in proportional to
‘strain rate’ - grad V.
Non – Newtonian –
Ideal Plastic – shear stress in more than
yield value and is proportional to strain
rate.
Linear translation refers to bodily movement of
fluid element with out deformation
Linear deformation refers to deformation in linear
direction with axis remaining parallel
Angular deformation refers to
average change contained by 2
adjacent sides
1
Angular deformatio n = ( ∆ θ 1 + ∆ θ 2 )
2
1  ∂ v ∂ u
Or shear strain rate =  +
2  ∂ x ∂ y 
Pure rotation occurs when
fluid particle rotates such that
both axis moves with the same
magnitude and direction
The rotational components are given as

1 ∂v ∂u 1 ∂w ∂v 1 ∂u ∂w
ωz=  −  ;ω x =  −  ;ω y =  − 
2 ∂x ∂y  2 ∂y ∂z  2 ∂z ∂x 
Vorticity is ∇ × V or 2ω
Reynold’s Transport
Theorem
Consider a fluid mass occupying an
arbitrary volume. Let Φ be a transported
quantity, and φ its intensive property, i.e.
φ = Φ/m.
Let Sp be the space occupied by the fluid
and cv the control volume overlapping
fluid space Sp.

Φ = ∫
Sp ( t )
( ρ φ )dV = ∫
cv
( ρ φ )dV
dΦ ∂
dt
= ∫cv ∂ t ( ρ φ )dV + cs∫ ( ρ φ )u • n dS
∫ ( ρ φ )u • n dS = ∫ ∇ • ( ρ φ u)dV
cs cv
By Gauss divergence theorem

PROOF
u
Sp(t+∆ t)
Sp(∆ t)
CV
Amount of fluid contained

in time in time,t, is
∫ ( ρ φ ) dV
sp ( t )
t

Thus from time t to t+∆t we have
∫ (ρ φ ) t dV
sp ( t )
∫ (ρ φ )
sp ( t + ∆ t )
t+ ∆ t dV
The increment ∆Φ = Φ(t+∆t) - Φ(t) =
− ∫ ( ρ
sp ( t )
φ ) t dV + ∫ ( ρ φ )
sp ( t + ∆ t )
t + ∆ t dV

this can be re-written as
∫ (ρ φ )
sp ( t + ∆ t )
t+ ∆ t dV − ∫ (ρ φ )
sp ( t )
t+ ∆ t dV +
∫ (ρ φ )
sp ( t )
t+ ∆ t dV − ∫ (ρ φ ) dV
sp ( t )
t
The first two terms deals with the deformation

of the fluid and will occur at the rate of fluid
velocity = u.n ds

∫ (ρ φ )u . n dS
cs
∂
The next two terms yields ∫ (ρ φ )∆ tdV
sp ( t )
∂t
Thus proved.
∆Φ dΦ ∂
Lim
∆t
=
dt
= ∫cv ∂ t (ρ φ )dV + cs
∫ (ρ φ )u • n dS
∫ (ρ φ )u • n dS = ∫ ∇
cs cv
• (ρ φ u )dV

Derivation of Continuity Equation
Let Φ the transported quantity be mass, m, the
intensive property φ = Φ/m =1. Law of
conservation of Mass
∂m ∂Φ
= = 0
∂t ∂t
∂
∫CV ∂ t (ρ )dV + cs∫ ρ u • ndS = 0
Hence , using Gauss divergence theorem
we have,
 ∂ρ 
∫cv  ∂ t + ∇ • (ρ u)  dV = 0
For an incompressible fluid we have
∇ .u = 0

Momentum Equation
By Newton’s II law, the rate of

change of momentum is equal to the
total force (both surface and body
forces ) ∫ X.dV
cv

Normal and shear components are
given in figure below.
I subscript refers to the plane at which
force acts x – YZ plane.
II subscript refers to the direction.
σxy
σxx
σyx
σyy
Resolving the horizontal forces we have,
σ xx × dy − σ yx × dx
ds
dy
dx
And vertical forces = σ xy × dy − σ yy × dx

σ σ 
[ dy − dx] ×  xx xy

σ yx σ yy 
nx=dy/ds and ny= - dx/ds or

[dy -dx] = n.ds
Thus the external forces can be
written as n.σ ds

The surface + body forces =
∫ n • σ ds + ∫ X dV
cs cv
Letting Φ to be momentum, mu, and φ=mu/

m = u. Thus the rate of change of momentum
dΦ
dt
= ∫ (∇
cv
• σ + X ) dV

from Reynolds transport theorem we have
dΦ  ∂ 
dt
= ∫cv  ∂ t (ρ u) + ∇ • (uuρ )  dV
and equating this rate of change of
momentum to the forces =
∫ (∇
cv
• σ + X ) dV
∂
(ρ u ) + ∇ • (ρ uu ) = ∇ • σ + X
∂t
∂ρ ∂u
u + ρ + u∇ .ρ u + ρ u • ∇ u
∂t ∂t
= ∇ •σ + X
Taking the first and third term in LHS
and second and fourth term of LHS we
have,
 ∂ρ   ∂u 
u + ∇ • ρ u + ρ  + u • ∇ u = ∇ • σ + X
 ∂t   ∂t 

By continuity equation the first
term of LHS is equal to zero. Thus,
 ∂u 
ρ + u • ∇ u = ∇ • σ + X
 ∂t 
Now connect the equation by

substituting σ with known quantities
viz. pressure and velocity.

 u  u 2 uv uw 
   
uu =  v  ( u v w ) =  vu v 2
vw 
 w  2 
   wu wv w 
 ∂ / ∂ x  ∂ u / ∂ x ∂ v / ∂ x ∂ w / ∂ x
   
∇ u =  ∂ / ∂ y  ( u v w) =  ∂ u / ∂ y ∂ v / ∂ y ∂ w / ∂ y  = D
 ∂ /∂ z  ∂ u/∂ z ∂ v/∂ z ∂ w/∂ z
   
∂u ∂v ∂w
∇ •u= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

C’
D’
δ1
Consider a fluid δ2
volume ABCD B’
in space A’
D C It moves to a
position
A’B’C’D’.
A B

Although the volume is conserved
there is a strain in x and y direction as
well as angular movement.
∂ε
Strain, ε xx = .
∂x
Strain rate is given as,
•. ∂ ε xx ∂  ∂ε  ∂  ∂ε 
ε xx = =   =   = ux
∂t ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂t 
• •
ε yy = v y ε zz = w z
.
1
The angular movement , ε xy = (δ 1 + δ 2 )
2
.
• 1 • •  • ∂ε • ∂η
ε xy =  δ 1 + δ 2  Where δ 1 = and δ 2 =
2  ∂y ∂x
• ∂  ∂ε  ∂  ∂η 
•
δ1 =   = u y δ2=   = vx
∂t ∂y ∂t ∂x
1
( )
•
ε xy = uy + vx
2

Thus the full strain tensor is given as,
• • •

•ε xx ε xy ε xz

1
[ ]
• •
ε yx ε yy

ε yz = D + D T
• • •  2
ε zx ε zy ε zz 
 
If the fluid undergoes net rotation it is given
by
∂
∂t
(
(δ 2 − δ 1 ) = vx − uy = ∇ × u )
also known as vorticity ω.

 ∂ u / ∂ x ∂ v / ∂ x ∂ w / ∂ x  ux vx wx 
   
D =  ∂ u/ ∂ y ∂ v / ∂ y ∂ w / ∂ y =  uy vy wy 
 ∂ u/∂ z ∂ v/∂ z ∂ w/∂ z u vz w z 
   z
Constitutive relation as per Hooke’s Law is
σ = [E]ε
For a Newtonian Fluid its given as:
σ ij = ( − p d + λ ε kk ) δ ij + 2µ ε ij
εkk=εxx+εyy+εzz=∇•u

Thus, σ ij = ( − p d + λ ∇ • u ) δ ij + 2µ ε ij
The negative sign for p ensures positive

flow along decreasing slope. pd stands for
thermodynamic pressure, which includes
the rotational and vibrational modes of
energy as well as the mechanical pressure
related to the translation energy (kinetic
energy) of molecules.

p = static pressure = - (σxx+σyy+σzz)/3 which
is the mechanical energy related to
translation of kinetic energy of molecules.
The constitutive equation can be written as

σ xx = − p d + λ ∇ • u + 2µ u x
σ yy = − p d + λ ∇ • u + 2µ v y
σ zz = − p d + λ ∇ • u + 2µ w z
1
σ xy &σ yx = µ (v x + uy ) = 2 × µ (v x + u y )
2
1
σ zy &σ yz = µ (w y + v z ) = 2 × µ (w y + v z )
2
1
σ xz &σ xz = µ (w x + u z ) = 2 × µ (w x + u z )
2

Since σxx+σyy+σzz= -3p
Adding the constitutive equations yields
-3p= - 3pd+3λ∇•u+2µ(∇•u)
pd – p = ∇•u(λ + 2/3µ)
For incompressible flow ∇•u = 0,

therefore pd = p. (3λ + 2µ) is called
the Bulk viscosity.

By Stoke’s hypothesis setting bulk
viscosity = 0 yields λ = - 2/3µ
Thus,
 2 
σ ij = − pδ ij + µ  2ε ij − ∇ • uδ ij 
 3 
Thus,
 ∂u 
ρ + u • ∇ u = ∇ • σ + X
 ∂t 
  1 
= X − ∇ p + 2∇ •  µ  ε ij − ∇ • uδ ij  
  3 
For isothermal and incompressible flow ∇•u =
0, hence the III term in LHS equation simplifies
as
∇ • 2 µ (ε ij ) = ∇ • 2 µ  (ε ij + ε ji ) 
1 
2 

 ∂u 1 ∂u ∂v 1 ∂u ∂w 
  +   + 
 ∂x 2 ∂y ∂x 2 ∂z ∂x  
 1 ∂u ∂v ∂v 1 ∂v ∂w 
∇ • 2µ   +   +  
 2 ∂y ∂x ∂y 2 ∂z ∂y  
 1 ∂u ∂w 1 ∂v ∂w ∂w 
  +   +  
 2 ∂z ∂x  2 ∂z ∂y  ∂z 
 ∂u  ∂u ∂v  ∂u ∂w 
 2µ µ  +  µ + 
 ∂x  ∂y ∂x  ∂z ∂x 
  ∂u ∂v ∂v  ∂v ∂w 
= ∇ •  µ  +  2µ µ  +  
  ∂y ∂x ∂y  ∂z ∂y  
  ∂u ∂w  ∂v ∂w ∂w 
 µ  +  µ  +  2µ 
  ∂ z ∂ x   ∂z ∂y  ∂z 

 ∂  ∂ u  ∂   ∂ u ∂ v   ∂   ∂ u ∂ w   
 2µ +  µ  +   + µ + 
 
∂x  
∂x ∂y   ∂y ∂x ∂z   ∂z ∂x   
 
∂   ∂u ∂v  ∂  ∂ v ∂   ∂v ∂w  
=  µ  + 
 +  2µ  +  µ  +  
 ∂x   ∂y ∂x ∂y  ∂ y ∂ z   ∂ z ∂ y  
 
 ∂   ∂u ∂w ∂   ∂v ∂w ∂  ∂ w 
 µ +  +  µ  +   +  2µ

 ∂x   ∂z ∂x  ∂y   ∂z ∂y  ∂z  ∂ z  
 ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2v ∂ 2w 
 2µ + µ + µ 2+ µ + µ 
 ∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z ∂ x∂ y ∂ x∂ z 
 ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ∂ 2u ∂ 2w 
=  2µ + µ 2+ µ 2+ µ + µ 
 ∂y 2
∂x ∂z ∂ x∂ y ∂ y∂ z 
 ∂ 2w ∂ 2w ∂ 2w ∂ 2u ∂ 2v 
 2 µ ∂ z 2 + µ ∂ x 2 + µ ∂ y 2 + µ ∂ x∂ z + µ ∂ y∂ z 
 
Re-arranging, we get:
 ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2v ∂ 2w 
 µ + µ + µ 2+ µ + µ + µ 
 ∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z ∂x 2
∂ x∂ y ∂ x∂ z 
 ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ∂ 2u ∂ 2v ∂ 2w 
=  µ 2+ µ + µ 2+ µ + µ + µ 
 ∂x ∂y 2
∂z ∂ x∂ y ∂y 2
∂ y∂ z 
 ∂ 2w ∂ 2w ∂ 2w ∂ 2u ∂ 2v ∂ 2w 
 µ ∂ x 2 + µ ∂ y 2 + µ ∂ z 2 + + µ ∂ x∂ z + µ ∂ y∂ z + µ
∂ z 2 

 ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂  ∂ u ∂ v ∂ w 
 µ + µ + µ 2+ µ  + +  
 ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x  ∂x ∂y ∂z  
2 2
 ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ∂  ∂u ∂u ∂u 
=  µ 2+ µ + µ 2+ µ  + +  
 ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
2
 ∂ 2w ∂ 2w ∂ 2w ∂  ∂ u ∂ v ∂ w 
 µ + µ + µ + µ  + +  
 ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z  ∂x ∂y ∂z  
2 2 2

But the sum in brackets at the end of each
row is the divergence of the velocity, which is
zero for Incompressible Flow.
 ∂u ∂v ∂w
∇ •v= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u 
 + + 
 ∂ x 2
∂ y 2
∂ z 2

 ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ∂ 2v 
=µ + + 2 
= µ ∇ 2
u
 ∂2x ∂ 2y ∂z 
2 2
 ∂ w ∂ w ∂ 2
w
 ∂ x2 + ∂ y2 + ∂ z 2 
 
Thus,
∇ • 2µ (ε ij ) = ∇ • 2µ  (ε ij + ε ji ) 
1 
2 
= µ ∇ 2u
We therefore have:
∇ •u= 0
 ∂u 
ρ + u • ∇ u  = X − ∇ p + µ ∇ 2u
 ∂t 

For a creeping flow, neglecting inertial
terms yields the Stokes equation:-
∂u
ρ = − ∇ p + µ ∇ 2u + X
∂t
For high fluids with high inertial terms the
viscous terms can be neglected to yield the
Euler equation:-
 ∂u 
ρ + u • ∇ u = X − ∇ p
 ∂t 
Integrating Euler equation over time
yields the Bernoulli equation
ρu• ∇ u = −∇ p *
Where, p* = p + X and
 ∂ u / ∂ x ∂ v / ∂ x ∂ w / ∂ x
 
u • ∇ u = ( u v w) ∂ u / ∂ y ∂ v / ∂ y ∂ w / ∂ y 
 ∂ u/∂ z ∂ v/∂ z ∂ w/∂ z
 

 u∂ u / ∂ x + v∂ u / ∂ y + w∂ u / ∂ z 
∴ u • ∇ u =  u∂ v / ∂ x + v∂ v / ∂ y + w∂ v / ∂ z 
 u∂ w / ∂ x + v∂ w / ∂ y + w∂ w / ∂ z 
We have seen the derivation of the Navier-

Stokes Equation and the simplification of the
equation to yield the Stokes, Euler and
Bernoulli equation.

Slug Flow using Reynold’s Transport Theorem
k UL ρ C P UL ρ UL k
α = , Pe = = = Γ =
ρ Cp α k Γ CP
Continuity Equation
∂ρ ∂
+ (ρ u j ) = 0
∂ t ∂ xj
Generalized Transport Equation
∂ ∂ ∂  ∂ φ 
(ρ φ ) + ( ρ u jφ ) =  Γ  + S
∂t ∂ xj ∂ xj  ∂ xj 

Let density remain constant and let φ =CpT and
Assuming 1-D and constant velocity, U,
∂T ∂T ∂ T 2
ρ + ρU = Γ
∂t ∂x ∂x 2
dividing by density and for steady state

x T − Ti
X= , θ =
U ∂ T ∂ 2T L TL − Ti
=
α ∂ x ∂ x2 d 2θ dθ UL
= Pe , Pe =
dX 2
dX α

Boundary layer

Boundary Layer Flows
Flow around bodies immersed in a
fluid stream
Flow will have viscous effects near
body surface, inviscid in far field
Flow is unconfined unlike pipe flow
Field of study – Aerodynamics,
Hydrodynamics, Transportation,
Wind engineering (Tall structures)
etc.,

Boundary layer analysis can be used
to compute viscous effects near wall
and patch the results to the outer
inviscid motion. This patching is
successful for large Re.
Consider figure with Re = 10. The
fluid flow is retarded greatly with
thick shear layer.

Re 1 to 1000

Flows with thick shear layers do not
have simple theory for performing
analysis.
Low range Re flows are studied
experimentally or numerically
(computational fluid dynamics).

Turbulent Flow – Re=10
Very Thin boundary layer – Amenable to

boundary layer patching (Prandtl,1904)

The three regions in the boundary layer
are:
1. The Wall Layer: Viscous shear
dominates
2. Outer Layer: Turbulent shear
dominates
3. Overlap Layer: Both shear types are
important.

Laws relating to Velocity Profile
τw
uτ = , Frictional Velocity
ρ
Linear Sub Layer y+<5 Law of the wall
∂u
τ ( y) = µ ≈τ w
∂y
Integrating with B.C’s u =0, y=0, gives a linear
relationship and equated as,
τ wy τ wy u y 2
u= = = τ
µ ρν ν
u uτ y + +
= or u = y
uτ ν
Far away form the wall one can expect
that velocity at a point be influenced by
the retarding effect of the wall through
the value of wall shear stress, but not by
viscosity itself. Thus,
umax − u
= g( y / δ )
uτ
is known as the velocity defect law.
Log Layer – Turbulent region close to the
smooth wall. The region outside viscous sub
layer where both viscous and turbulent effects
are important.
30 < y+ < 500. τ varies slowly with distance
from the wall and within this inner region it is
assumed to be constant and equal to wall
shear stress.
+1 + 1 +
u = ln y + B, B = ln [Ey ]
k k
k and B are universal constants, E is the
wall roughness, the constants are obtained
by measurements. B=5.5, k=0.4 and E =
9.8. The log layer is shown to be valid
from
0.02 < y/δ <0.2 by experiments.

Outer Layer – Inertia dominated region.
For larger values of y, the velocity defect
law provides the correct form. For the
overlap region between the log layer and
the defect layer the values must be the
same, i.e.
umax − u 1  y 
= ln  + A
uτ k δ 
A is a constant and called the law of the
wake
TWO – DIMENSIONAL FLOW
∂u ∂v
+ = 0
∂x ∂y
 ∂u ∂u ∂p  ∂ 2u ∂ 2u 
ρ  u + v  = − + µ  2 + 
2 
 ∂x ∂y ∂x  ∂x ∂y 
 ∂v ∂v ∂p  ∂ 2v ∂ 2v 
ρ  u + v  = − + µ  2 + 
2 
 ∂x ∂y ∂y  ∂x ∂y 
Since shear layer is thin for large Re (Prandtl),

following assumptions apply
v<< u
∂ ∂
<<
∂x ∂y
applying to y − momentum eqn
∂p
= 0 or p = p( x ) only
∂y
For the outer inviscid flow applying the
Bernoulli equation
dp dU
= −ρU
dx dx
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
<<
∂x 2
∂ y2
The three full equations are reduced to
Prandtl’s two – boundary layer equation
∂u ∂v
+ = 0
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u dU 1 ∂ τ
u +v ≈U +
∂x ∂y dx ρ ∂ y
∂u
τl = µ LAMINAR
∂y
∂u
τ t = µτ TURBULENT
∂y
Boundary Layers with
Pressure Gradient
Flow separation is caused by excessive
momentum loss near the wall in a boundary
layer trying to move downstream against
increasing pressure dp/dx>0 is called adverse
pressure gradient. At the wall u = v = 0 thus
∂ 2 u 1 dp
=
∂y 2
µ dx
Boundary Layers with
Pressure Gradient

Turbulence

TURBULENCE
The uniform distribution of velocity tends to
become irregular either due to a solid interaction
or when neighboring streams of the same fluid
flow past one another causing what is known as
turbulence. It is to be noted that the irregularity
associated with turbulence can be described by the
laws of probability by being able to determine the
fluctuation by statistical averaging.

N – S Equation for Turbulent Flow
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂ u ∂P  ∂ ∂ ∂ 
ρ + u +v + w  = − + µ ∇ u − ρ  u' +
2 2
u' v' + u' w'
 ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂t 
The additional terms depend on the turbulent

fluctuations of the stream. These terms can be
interpreted as components of stress tensor.
Therefore,
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂ u ∂P  ∂ ∂ ∂ 
ρ + u +v + w  = − + µ ∇ u +  σ ' xx +
2
τ ' yx τ 'zx 
 ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z 

in 3-D comparing the above
 σ ' xx τ ' yx τ 'zx   u'2 u' v' u' w'

   
σ T =  τ ' xy σ ' yy τ ' zy  = − ρ  v' u' v' 2
v' w'
 τ ' xz τ ' yz σ 'zz   w' u' w' v' w'2 
  
The total laminar and turbulent stresses in the
fluid are
∂u 2  ∂ u ∂ v  ∂ u ∂ w
σ xx = − P '+ 2 µ − ρ u' ; τ xy = µ +  − ρ u' v' : τ xz = µ +  − ρ u' w'
∂x  ∂y ∂x  ∂z ∂x 

TURBULENCE MODLES
Mixing length – Prandtl’s mixing length

hypothesis
κ - ε Model

Reynold’s Shear Stress (aka) 7 equation

model

Models for evaluating ρui’uj’ J Boussinesq
introduced a mixing co-efficient for the
Reynold’s stress term as µτ
∂u ∂u
τ t = − ρ u ' v' = µ τ = ρντ
∂y ∂y
∂u ∂u
τl= µ = ρν
∂y ∂y

Thus the equation can be re-written as
∂u ∂u 1 ∂P ∂  ∂ u 
u +v = − + ν − u ' v ' 
∂x ∂y ρ ∂ x ∂ y  ∂ y 

∂u ∂u 1 ∂P ∂  ∂ u
u +v = − +  (ν + ν t ) 
∂x ∂y ρ ∂ x ∂ y  ∂ y 
ντ term is known as eddie viscosity. The

kinematic viscosity is a property and not
influenced by flow, but the eddie viscosity is
attributed to the random fluctuation and it is
not a property of the fluid.
There are various models that relate the
apparent (or) eddie viscosity to the mean
velocity gradient.
Prandtl mixing length hypothesis
∂u
µτ = ρ l 2
∂y
∂u
ντ = l 2
∂y
l is the Prandtl mixing length, For wall –
boundary layers
l = χ y for y ≤ (λ / χ )δ and l = λ δ for y > (λ / χ )δ
λ mixing length const = 0.09, χ ,Von Karman const = 0.41,
δ , location where 0.99 U ∞ is realised and y , dist from wall .

Very close to the wall, viscous effects play a vital
role. The mixing length should gradually go to
zero
  − y (τ w / ρ )1 / 2






l = χ y 1 − e 
+
 A ν 
 
 
τ w , is the wall shear stress, and A+
is the Von
Driest damping constant = 26 for smooth surface
without suction or blowing on low pressure
gradient surface.
For free shear flows, the mixing length scales
with the shear layer thickness (δs). The eddie
viscosity can be written as
ν τ = CU d δ s
where Ud, is the characteristic velocity defect

across shear layer and C is the proportionality
constant to be determined from experiments.

κ - ε Model for Turbulence
The instantaneous velocity of the fluid is

decomposed into mean and fluctuating
components. The effect of the fluctuating
components on the mean motion is modeled
after obtaining empirical relations for specific
cases from experiments.

In κ - ε model, the local turbulent viscosity is
determined from the solution of the transport
equation for the turbulent kinetic energy, κ,
and the rate of dissipation of kinetic energy, ε.
The x-momentum
∂u ∂ ∂ ∂P ∂  ∂ u  ∂   ∂u ∂v
ρ + ρ ( u u) + ρ (u v ) = − + 2  µ eff + µ  + 
∂ x  ∂ y   ∂y ∂x
eff
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x  

The y-momentum
∂v ∂ ∂ ∂P ∂  ∂ v  ∂   ∂u ∂v
ρ + ρ (u v ) + ρ (v v ) = − + 2  µ eff + µ  + 
∂ y  ∂ x   ∂y ∂x
eff
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y  
µ eff = µ + µ τ ; µ τ = C µ ρ κ / ε ; C µ = 0.09
2
The transport of passive scalar is written as

Advection = Diffusion + Generation –
dissipation

∂ ∂ ∂  µ eff ∂ κ  ∂  µ eff ∂ κ 
ρ ( uκ ) + ρ (vκ ) =  +   + G− ρε
∂x ∂y ∂x  σ κ ∂x ∂y  σ κ ∂y 
∂ ∂ ∂  µ eff ∂ ε  ∂  µ eff ∂ ε  ε ε2
ρ ( uε ) + ρ (vε ) =  +   + C1 G − C 2 ρ
∂x ∂y ∂x  σ ε ∂x ∂y  σ ε ∂y κ κ
G, is the generation of turbulent kinetic energy

and is given as
  2  ∂ v   ∂ u ∂ v  
 2 2
  ∂u
G = µτ 2   +    +  +  
   ∂x ∂ y ∂ y ∂ x  
       
Empirical Values: C1 = 1.44, C2 = 1.92, σκ = 1.0,

σε = 1.3 Cµ = 0.09
For near wall region the equation for wall
shear stress is given as
+
ρ u C µ1/ 4κ 1/ 2
χ + ρκ 1/ 2
C µ1/ 4 y p
τ w = where , u = u / uτ , and y +p =
ln( Ey +p ) µ
uτ, is the frictional velocity and yp+ >11 non-

dimensional distance from the wall to the point
outside viscous layer, E an empirical constant,
wall roughness = 9.8.

∂κ κ
Since (
1 2 2 2
)
κ = u ' + v' + w' , and ε = , ~
2 ∂ t ts
ts is the characteristic time scale, vs=κ1/2 and

ls=(κ3/2)/ε,
µ τ = Cµ ρ κ 2 / ε
B.C Inlet κ - ε distribution must be

given, outlet or symmetry
∂ κ / ∂ n = 0 and ∂ ε / ∂ n = 0
Free stream κ = ε = 0. Solid walls depends
on Re.
High Reynold’s number 30<y+<500.
2 3
+ u 1 + u u
u = = ln( Ey ); κ = τ ; ε = τ
uτ χ Cµ ky
Low Reynold’s number
µ eff = µ + µ τ ; µ τ = C µ f µ ρ κ / ε ; C µ = 0.09 2
∂ ∂ ∂  µ eff ∂ κ  ∂  µ eff ∂ κ 
ρ ( uκ ) + ρ (vκ ) =  +   + G− ρε
∂x ∂y ∂x  σ κ ∂x ∂y  σ κ ∂y 
∂ ∂ ∂  µ eff ∂ ε  ∂  µ eff ∂ ε  ε ε2
ρ ( uε ) + ρ ( vε ) =  +   + C1 f1 G − C 2 f 2 ρ
∂x ∂y ∂x  σ ε ∂x ∂y  σ ε ∂y κ κ

 20.5 
f µ = [1 − exp(− 0.0165 Re y )]  1 +
2

 Re t 
3
 0.05 

f1 = 1 + ; f 2 = 1 − exp(− Re 2t ); Re t = κ 2 / ε ν
 f µ 

Ret Turbulence Reynold’s number
Reynolds shear Stress Model

7 equation model, 6 PDE for the stresses
u'2 u' v' u' w'

v '2 v ' w '
w '2
Advantages Disadvantages
Mixing length model:
Easy to implement and cheap Completely incapable of
in terms of computing describing flows with
resources. separation and recalculation.
Good Predictions for thin Only calculates mean flow
shear layers i.e. jets, mixing properties and turbulent shear
layers, wakes and boundary stress.
layers.
Well established

k- ε Model: More expensive to implement
than mixing length model (2 extra
Simplest turbulence models for
PDE’s)
which initial and/or boundary
Poor performance in a variety of
conditions need to be supplied.
important cases such as
Excellent performance for many
 Some unconfined flows
industrially relevant flows.
Flows with large extra strains
Well established: The most
(eg curved boundary layers,
widely validated turbulence
swirling flows)
model.
Rotating flows
Fully developed flows in non-
circular ducts.

Reynold’s Stress model: Very large computing cost (7
Potentially the most general of extra PDE’s)
all classical turbulence models. Not as widely validated as
Only initial and / or boundary mixing length and κ - ε models.
conditions need to be supplied Performs just as poorly as the
Very accurate calculation of κ - ε model in some flows owing
mean flow properties and all to identical problem with the ε
Reynold’s stresses for many equation modeling (eg, axi-
simple and more complex flows symmetric jets and unconfined
including wall jets, asymmetric re-circulating flows.
channels and non circular duct
flows and curved flows.

Unstructured Finite
Volume Method

Summary
1. Discretization of equations in unstructured

finite volume method.
2. Simple Algorithm.

Governing Equations
Continuity Equation ∫ (v − v ).n dS = 0
∂S
s
Momentum Equation
∂
∫
∂tV
ρ vdV + ∫ ρ v(v − v ).n dS = ∫ T .n dS + ∫
∂S
s
∂S V
f b dV
T = pI + µ [∇ v + (∇ v ) ] T
∂
∫
∂tV
ρ vdV + ∫ ρ v(v − v ).n dS = − ∫ ∇ pdV + ∫ µ (∇ v ).n dS + ∫
∂S
s
V ∂S V
f b dV

∂
Space Conservation Law ∫
∂tV
dV − ∫ v .n dS = 0
∂S
Linear system
aPC0φ p 0 = ∑
j=1
aPj 0φ Pj 0 + bp 0
(momentum)
k
 1  k
Pressure correction ∑j = 1  aC  (∇ p′ ) j ⋅ Aj n j = ∑ ( v ⋅ n) j A j
 P0  j j= 1

Arbitrary cell C with neighbor Nj across jth face
C
j Nj
rc
rj

Spatial Representation
φ ( j ) = φ C + ( grad φ ).( r j − rC )
1
∫ grad φ dV = ∫ φ dS ⇒ ( grad φ )C ≈
∆V
∑
j
φ jSj
V S
The gradient is obtained using the Gauss Theorem (2nd

order approximation). Since the value of j would be
different when applied from either side of face a
symmetric expression is used and presented as follows:
φ SO
j
1
( 1
) [
= φ C + φ N j + ( grad φ )C .( r j − rC ) + ( grad φ ) N j .( r j − rN j )
2 2
]
Term gives the value midway between cell
1
2
(
φ C + φ Nj ) centers connected by a straight line.
1
2
[
( grad φ )C .( r j − rC ) + ( grad φ ) N j .( r j − rN j ) ]
The above expression provides a correction which
takes into account that the cell-face center may not lie
on the line connecting the cell centers and/or that the
distances to the two CV’s may not be equal. This
would vanish otherwise.
φ C When flow is from C to N j

φ FO
=
j
φ N j When flow is from N j to C
φ *j = φ FO
j (
+γ φ SO
j −φ FO
j )
Time Integration
A first order approximation can be used where
temporal accuracy is not important
n+ 1 n+ 1
φ = φ + F (φ
n
,τ n+ 1 )∆ τ
Implicit Schemes that can be used are the Crank-
Nicolson Method or a second order approximation
assuming a quadratic profile for φ
φn+ 1
=φ +
n ∆τ
2
[ ]
F (φ n ,τ n ) + F (φ n + 1 ,τ n + 1 ) Crank − Nicolson
φ n+ 1 4 n 1 n− 1 2
= φ − φ
3 3 3
[ ]
+ F (φ n + 1 ,τ n + 1 ) ∆ τ Quadratic profile
Moving Grid
∂
∫
∂tV
dV − ∫ v .n dS = 0
∂S
• δ Vj
Vj=
∂S
∫ v .n dS = ∆t
In second order the the swept volume by the cell face

during the preceding time step is included to yield:
• 3δ V j − δ V jn
Vj = ∫ v dS =
Sj
s
2∆ t

Convective Fluxes
•
Cj = ∫ ρ φ (v − v s ).dS ≈ m j φ *
j
Sj
* indicates cell − face mean value

•
 * •

m = ∫ ρ (v − v s ).dS ≈ ρ  v j . S j − V j 
*
j
Sj  
φ *j = φ FO
j + γ (φ SO
j −φ FO
j )

Diffusive Fluxes
Dj = ∫ Γ φ gradφ .dS ≈ Γ φ j ( gradφ ) *j . S j
Sj
Γ φ j is diffusivity at face-center and obtained using:
Γφ j
SO 1
( 1
) [
= Γ C + Γ N j + ( grad Γ )C .( r j − rC ) + ( grad Γ ) N j .( r j − rN j )
2 2
]
The approximation of the gradient based on the SO
(second order) interpolation
1
∫ grad φ dV = ∫ φ dS ⇒ ( grad φ )C ≈
∆V
∑ j
φ jSj
V S

This II order space-centered expression cannot sense
oscillations that are twice the characteristic length of
the numerical mesh. Unphysical oscillatory profiles if
induced, remain superimposed.
RECTIFICATION: A III order dissipation term is
added as:
 φ N j − φ C gradφ .d j  Sj
( gradφ ) *
j = ( gradφ ) j + 
 dj
− 
 Sj
 dj 
TERMS I II III
d j = rC − rN j
The over-bar in term III represents the arithmetic average
of values calculated at node C and Nj.
The II & III term is the difference between the central

difference approximation of the derivative in the
direction of vector dj (II) and the value obtained by
interpolating cell-center gradients (III). This term in
brackets (II-III) vanishes if the spatial variation for phi is
linear or quadratic. Its magnitude is proportional to the II
order truncation error and reduces with grid refinement.
The I term is the contribution from the nearest neighbors

and treated implicitly, the II & III term represent the
cross-diffusion component and vanish with orthogonal
grid. This is treated explicitly which is a deferred
correction approach.
The resulting algebraic equation is of the form
φ
aφ −
C C ∑ j
φ
a φ Nj = r
j
φ
C
SIMPLE Algorithm is used to solve the equation

where, the momentum equations are solved
assuming that the pressure field is known (predictor
step).
The mass fluxes are corrected to satisfy the
continuity requirement in the corrector step by
correcting velocity and density.

SIMPLE Algorithm
Semi Implicit Pressure Linked Equation

Let p = po + p' ; v = v o + v '
Substituting the values of p and v as estimated plus
corrections in the momentum equations and neglecting
other terms yields:
∂ u' ∂ p' ∂ v' ∂ p'
ρ = − and ρ = −
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂y
∂ p' ∂ p' ∆t
u' = − A and v' = − A ;A=
∂x ∂y ρ
Note: Corrections are zero at the first iteration
∂ p' ∂ p'
u = u0 − A and v = v 0 − A
∂x ∂y
Substituting this in the continuity equation gives
∂  ∂ p'  ∂  ∂ p' 
 uo − A  +  vo − A  = 0
∂x  ∂x ∂y  ∂y 
 ∂ uo ∂ v o   ∂ 2 p' ∂ 2 p' 
 +  − A 2 
= 0
 ∂x ∂y   ∂x ∂y 
2
∇ p' =
2 1
A
(
∇ .v 0 )
This is poisson’s equation for pressure correction
As seen the velocity obtained in the predictor step
does not necessarily satisfy the continuity equation
and there exist a mass imbalance in each CV.
The velocity and pressure corrections are obtained
from
∆V ∂ρ
v' = v grad p' , ρ ' = p'
aC ∂p
∆V This coefficient comes from the discretized
aCv momentum equation.
∂ρ is calculated from the equation of

∂p state.
The velocities used to calculated the mass fluxes are
obtained by interpolation as given below:
v SO
j =
1
2
( ) [
1
vC + v N j + ( grad v )C .( r j − rC ) + ( grad v ) N j .( r j − rN j )
2
]
Cell-center pressure gradients are not sensitive to
oscillations between immediate neighbors. Hence a
dissipation term is added to the interpolated velocity
which can sense such oscillations and smoothen it.
This method is for co-located grids. A staggered grid may

also be used. However, requires more memory storage for
storing geometric information along with tedious
interpolation.
 ∆V   p N j − pC grad p.d j  Sj

v j = v j −  v
*
 −
 aC   dj dj  Sj

 ∆V  p' N j − p'C S j
v j ' = −  v 
 aC  dj Sj
Thus the procedure is repeated till all corrections
are within the limits prescribed.
Thank you

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Computational Fluid

Natteri M. Sudharsan, PhD.

 CFD is used in various fields such as:

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 2

 External  Plume Analysis

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 4

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 5

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 6

Fuel Injection – Break-up

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 7

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 8

After Treatment Devices for Pollution Control

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 10

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 11

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 12

Grid Generation from MRI Scan

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 13

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 14

Fire & Smoke Modeling

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 15

Pelton Wheel Simulation

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 16

Power – conventional vs. Shrouded Turbine

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 17

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 18

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 19

Break-up and coalescence of bubbles

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 20

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 21

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 22

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 23

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 24

Heat in = Heat out

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 25

Figure: 1 Energy balance in a control volume

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 26

Neglecting convective and radiation loss and for a

Using Taylor series expansion to estimate q x+∆x

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 28

This is a 2nd order Linear PDE. Classified as Laplace

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 29

Assuming that there is internal heat generation

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 30

Heat in = Heat out by conduction + Convection

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 31

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 32

Fin tip boundary condition is convective then

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 34

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 35

Heat in = Heat out + Heat stored

Finite Difference Method

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 40

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 41

• Ensure that the flux across the face common to the

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 43

Represents Upwind Formulation

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 44

Natteri M Sudharsan, Ph.D., 47