CHAPTER TWO

INCEPTION OF SEDIMENT
MOVEMENT
[Bed load + Suspended load]
1
One of the classic problems in sediment
transport is to predict the flow strength at
which sediment movement first begins. This
condition for incipient movement is usually
expressed in terms of a critical shear stress or
threshold shear stress, which is denoted as
τoc. The problem can be viewed either as the
minimum shear stress needed to move a
given particle, or as the largest grain size that
can be moved by a given shear stress. 2
Incipient movement should be one of the
simplest problems in sediment transport,
because at that point the flow has not yet
become a two-phase flow, and all the principles
and techniques of sediment-free flow—what is
called rigid boundary hydraulics—should still
apply. Even in this simplest of problems,
however, understanding is far from complete,
which should put us on our guard about the
great many approaches and formulas in the
literature that are supposed to deal with
established sediment movement. 3
Initiation of Particle Motion & Erosion
Low discharge No particle movement i.e. flow condition is
(or velocity) similar to a fixed bed

Discharge ≈ Random motion of individual particles i.e.

Certain value initiation of sediment transport.
Condition is known as incipient motion/
threshold of motion or critical motion

Discharge > Appreciable sediment transport

Certain value
4

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- Particles get picked up when the forces of
fluid drag (FD) and fluid lift (FL) work in unison
resulting in a net fluid force (FF). Drag exerts a
horizontal force, which causes particles to roll,
whereas lift raises the particles vertically into
the current.

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What’s a Lift Force?
Lift force is an example of Bernoulli’s principle,
which states that the sum of the velocity and
pressure on an object in a flow must be constant.
Whenever a flow speeds up, it exerts less
pressure than a slower moving part of the flow.

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The flow velocity that is “felt” by the particle varies from
approximately zero at its base to some higher velocity at its
highest point.

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Pressure (specifically “dynamic pressure” in contrast to static pressure)
is also imposed on the particle and the magnitude of the dynamic
pressure varies inversely with the velocity:

Higher velocity, lower dynamic pressure.

Maximum dynamic pressure

is exerted at the base of the
particle and minimum
pressure at its highest point.

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The dynamic pressure on the particle varies symmetrically from a
minimum at the top to a maximum at the base of the particle.

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This distribution of dynamic pressure results in a net pressure force that
acts upwards.

Thus, the net pressure force (known as the Lift Force) acts oppose the
weight of the particle (reducing its effective weight).

This makes it easier for the

flow to roll the particle
along the bed.

The lift force reduces the

drag force that is required to
move the particle.
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A quick note on saltation……

If the particle remains immobile to the flow and the velocity gradient is
large enough so that the Lift force exceeds the particle’s weight….it will
jump straight upwards away from the bed.

Once off the bed, the

pressure difference from top
to bottom of the particle is
lost and it is carried down
current as it falls back to the
bed….

following the ballistic

trajectory of saltation. 11
12
HOW DO SEDIMENTS MOVE ONCE THEY
HAVE BEEN LIFTED?
Sedimentary particles are moved in the bedload by 1) traction (rolling and dragging), or
2) saltation (bouncing, skipping, and jumping). The remainder of particles are carried by
suspension.

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Hjulstrom’s Diagram
The relationship between grain size, entrainment,
transportation, and deposition is shown in the Hjulstrom
diagram, which shows the minimum critical velocity
necessary for erosion, transportation, and deposition of
clasts of various sizes and cohesion.

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Hjulstrom’s Diagram…ctd
Based on a series of experiments using unidirectional currents with a
flow depth of 1 m.
The diagram (below) shows the critical velocity that is required to just
begin to move sediment of a given size (the top of the yellow field).

It also shows the critical velocity for deposition of sediment of a given

size (the bottom of the yellow field).

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16
17
- Note that for grain sizes coarser than 0.5 mm
the velocity that is required for transport
increases with grain size; the larger the particles
the higher velocity that is required for transport.
- For finer grain sizes (with cohesive clay
minerals) the finer the grain size the greater the
critical velocity for transport.

- This is because the more mud is present the

greater the cohesion and the greater the 18
resistance to erosion, despite the finer grain size.
-For example: The coarsest grain size was
found to be 2.8 mm.
-According to Hjulstron’s diagram, that grain size
would require a flow with a velocity of
approximately 0.65m/s.

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 - The problem is that the forces that are required to
move sediment are not only related to flow velocity.
- Boundary shear stress is a particularly important
force and it varies with flow depth.

- Therefore, Hjulstrom’s diagram is reasonably

accurate only for sediment that has been deposited
under flow depths of 1 m.

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SHIELD’S EXPERIMENT

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 INCEPTION OF BED-LOAD MOTION
THRESHOLD OF BED LOAD MOTION (SHIELDS DIAGRAM):
SHIELDS PARAMETER AS A FUNCTION OF THE PARTICLE
REYNOLDS NUMBER FOR SEDIMENT IN WATER

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 APPLICATION
- Considering a stream with a flow depth
of 1.7 m and a bed slope sinϴ=0.002,
indicate whether a 5 mm gravel bed will
be subjected to bed load motion. Find out
what is the critical particle size for bed
load motion in the stream.

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 SOLUTION
-Assuming a wide rectangular channel and assuming that the
stream flow is nearly uniform equilibrium, the shear velocity
equals:

where d is the flow depth. The mean bed shear stress equals τo
33.3 Pa.
- For a 5 mm gravel bed, the Shields parameter is:

24

assuming s =2.65. And the particle Reynolds number equals 910. For
these values, the above figure indicates bed load motion.
To estimate the critical sediment size for bed load
motion in the stream, let us assume a gravel bed
(i.e. fully rough turbulent flow). For a rough
turbulent flow, the critical sediment size for
initiation of bed motion satisfies:

Assuming (τ*)c =0.06, it yields ds =34 mm and Re* =6200.

Conclusion: the largest particle size subjected to bed load

motion in the stream is 34 mm. For ds >34 mm the particles
will not move. 25
INCEPTION OF SUSPENDED-LOAD
MOTION

Considering a particle in suspension, the particle

motion in the direction normal to the bed is
related to the balance between the particle fall
velocity and the turbulent velocity fluctuation in
the direction normal to the bed. Turbulence
studies suggested that the turbulent velocity
fluctuation is of the same order of magnitude as
the shear velocity.
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The threshold for suspension
The coarsest grain size in the intermittent
suspension load is the coarsest sand that the
current will suspend.

Sediment is suspended by the

upward component of
turbulence (velocity V).

The largest particle to be

suspended by a current will be
that particle with a settling
velocity () that is equal to V. 27
- Experiments have shown that V U* for a given
current.
-Therefore, Middleton's criterion is:

U*  
A particle will be taken into suspension by a current
when the shear velocity of the current equals or
exceeds the settling velocity of the particle.
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29
This diagram shows the shear velocity required to suspend particles as a
function of their size (the curve labeled U* = ).
For comparison it also shows the critical shear velocity required to move
a particle on the bed based on Shield’s criterion.

The U* = curve can

also be used to estimate
settling velocity for
grains coarser than 0.1
mm (the upper limit for
Stoke’s Law).

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For 0.5 mm diameter quartz spheres:

As flow strength increases at As flow strength increases further

U*=0.021 m/s the grain will at U*=0.05 m/s the moving grain
begin to move on the bed. will be taken into suspension.

Note that for grain sizes finer than approximately 0.015 mm the grains
will go into suspension as soon as the flow strength is great enough to
move them (i.e., they will not move as contact load). 31
What is the critical shear velocity required to suspend
0.41 mm sand?

The critical shear velocity for suspension is 0.042 m/s. 32