— CARRIER Cutrure ano Society: THe Perspectives OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND SocioLocy INTRODUCTION ~ ew Society ano Cutrure: Nice ano Fucrrive Concepts Society and culture are two durable constructs in the vocabulary of _ the social sciences. Although they can be claimed as “niche concepts” __ in sociology and anthropology, these terms are so malleable that other disciplines (such as political science, psychology, history, and economics fo mention a few) have been quite successful in expanding their respective frontiers using them as tools. In this context, culture and society become “fugitive concepts” as their explanatory features move beyond the ambits ofLESSON PRETEST ‘True or False. Assess whether the statements in column A are true or false. Incolumn 8, write Tif the statement is true and Fif the statements false. A B 1.__ Society is a historically formed entity. 2. Conflict over limited resources may spark cooperation more than conflict. 3. Symbols are something that represent something else. ‘4. When parts of a system perform thelr assigned functions, social order is assured. 5. Unwritten and invisible rules are more powerful than waitten ones. 6. Meaning is objectively derived trom symbols, The function of a part in the overall operation of the whole, 8. Society is @ concept that can be used to grasp complex social phenomena. 9. Society is made possible by social interactions. 10. Most of our day-to-day actions and interactions are governed by unwritten and invisible rules. I@! ACQUISITION of Knowledge SOCIETY AS A CONCEPT - Francia Just like other terms in the social sciences, the word society’ was coined by social scientisis to facilitate their exploration of social phenomena. Itis a tool to grasp the complexity of the phenomenon it represents and a means to explore its many other dimensions hidden by its normative use. As a concept, society represents an ideal type, which more or less depicis the form, process, and dynamics of the social reality it embodies. Concepts, of course, may change through their changing meanings and interpretations or disappear from nonuse altogether. But for a master concept like society, the plausiblity of alteration and disappearance is very unlikely to happen. {ts durability as a concept is made possible by its currency not only in 40 | unoersrmons cours, sooer, axa rouessociology and other social sciences, but also in the natural sciences such as agriculture, biology, engineering, environmental science, and computer science, to mention just a few. SOCIETY AS A FACTICITY - ecpesavt Societyis formally defined as constituting a fairly large number of people ‘who are living in the same territory, are relatively independent of people outside their area, and participate ina common culture. This textbook definition of society is limited and limiting for several reasons. It's limited simply because Itbelitties the most important component of this phenomenon—interactions. It is limiting because the interpretive tradition of sociology may provide a more coherent definition of society. in this perspective, society is seen as an ‘outcome of multiple interactions of people upon which succeeding interactions are made meaningful and possible. The definition simply means that society only exists if there are people interacting and their interactions constitute the process that defines society. An informal way to concretize the above definition of sociely is to assess its power in shaping the lives of the people inside it. At this point, bear in mind the twin concepts of social forces and social facts because they are the mechanics of operation of society as a factual entity. We can liken society to a deity. A deity or God is supposed to possess the tripartite (,e., three-fold) powers reserved for Him alone—omnipotence, ‘omniscience, omnipresence (all-powerful, all-knowing, and everywhere). ___ The analogy of society to a God suggests the immense power of society to make or unmake lives of people. Society is all-powerful because it ‘agents’ ‘control and runs the machinery of social control. It is all-knowing because its ‘library’ keeps all possible knowledge and collects the memories of the people who form it.I is everywhere because its ‘spies’ are scattered in the four corners of the land. The tripartite powers of society are even more evident in its effects on ‘our daily and routine actions and behavior. Suffice it to say, everything that ‘we do, think, and are capable of doing and thinking all emanate from society. Every single action of ours is controlled by society. What we eat, how to eat it, how to love, when to die, or how to die are all within the domain of ‘society. Ifin case we decided not to follow its whims and commands, it has the capacity and legitimate authority to punish us, even take away our lives, Society controls the laws made and to be made and even the lawmakers. Society is present even in the most personal fibers of our individual lives, in falling in love for example, and even in the way we choose to die. in other cuaprent | 41words, society robs us of our freedom and free will. Just like when eating in restaurants, we can only order what is on the menu, no more, no less. This pessimistic rendition of society is not at all bad news. Itis rather good news because by knowing how society behaves, we can find ways to atleast lighten the load it puts on us and pursue our individual agenda and purpose in life. Knowing what we cannot expect in life given the limitations imposed by our social locations, we can find alternative routes to pursue our dreams and aspirations. Sociological awareness allows us to see opportunities where there are none and to create one if need be. C.W Mills’ rendition of the sociological perspective enjoins us to.see the coordinates of our social ‘maps—our biography and society's history and their intersections—and from there chart more feasible routes to achieving our dreams. On a more practical note, limitations imposed on us by society are also forms of opportunity. if we know a person's culture, we have all the ways and means to know so much about his food preference, language, places the person wants to visit, etc., even if we were only given limited information about him or her. Predictability of actions and behavior is the ultimate practical fruit of our enslavement to society. Social scientists, notably sociologists, have been drawing from this well of opportunities when they want to explore social issues that implicate social actors and the effects of their actions. If we are to translate the tripartite powers of society to the language of the social sciences, then we can look at it this way: Features of Society as God ‘Onmiscience Omnipotence Omnipresent (All-knowing) (Alt-powerful) (Everywhere) Inthe God Its livrary creates, | Its agents ocoupy | Its spies are metaphor collects, stores, | and control all___| present in the “Society as Godt | retrieves, and —_| the influential four comers of its manipulates positions in its _| territory. human memories. | domain. Inthe language | Symbols system, |Machineries and | Socialization ‘of sociology | language rules, | armory of social _| agents are present “Sociaty asa | and use of contro} everywhere, even Fact language for at the very start of communication a person's life. Examples in | Language, Laws, norms, Family, peers, social science | symbols, arts, _| values, belief ‘school, church, concepts science, system, religion, | government education 42 | vnoersrmone cucu, socery. wo poumes sul Th pla the func thec the isn natu TheWHAT MAKES SOCIETY POSSIBLE: dene THREE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES The formation of society and its continuous development has been a Subject of dramatic debates among social scientists, sociologists in particular. tatters version of the origin of society appears to be one-sided as ft only focuses on power relations and governmental issues. The anthropological version was equally limited because it narrowed down the explorations to the cultural dimensions of society The sociological approach appeared more, Plausible as it amalgamates the political and anthropological dimensions of the development of society as a social entity, ‘The problem with the sociological approach is that most of the attempts {explain the origin of society are decidedly theoretical in nature. That is, the explanations are not historically inclined (although some incorporated some Sort of historical analysis such as the historical critical tradition, The caveats are heavy on the types of “processes” suspected to be the primogenitor of Society defined as a matrix of varied interpretive interactions, ‘The three classical theories ofthe origin of society are (1) the structural functional, (2) the contlict theory, and (3) symbolic interactionism, These theories are called by different names, but their basic assumptions about the “possiblity” of society remain the same. The basic question they ask 'S Rot historical in nature (as referred above); rather it inquires about the ature of the processes that created the possibilities of human interaction, ‘The question is: “What makes society possible?” STRUCTURAL FuNCTIONALISM AND SociAL Onoen bene The structural-functional school of thought looks at social “order.” It Srgues that society is made possible by cooperation and interdependence. Given this tine of argumentation, this view sees society as a ‘system with Parts, and these parts have their respective functions to perform. The health and condition of the entire system is dependent on these two Processes of functions and interdependence. As such, this basic allusion to parts, functions, and interdependence reflects the succeeding theoretical, principles in almost all areas of sociological investigations—from social stratification, {0 deviance, to institutions, to socialization. This overemphasis on functions proves to be providential to the structural-functional perspective because with it, proponets of this school of thought are able to uncover interesting crarrenn | 43insights abut the nature of social Inequality and deviance, insights that remain elusive even to the symbolic interactionism approach. Conruict Tueony ano Conruict ~ ¢ax!og ‘The Marxist-inspired perspective on the question of society looks at the other side of the issue. Instead of putting importance to social order, the conflict perspective sees society as an arena. Social actors are gladiators fighting for their very lives. The winner takes the rewards and is assured of freedom. Resources and their scarcity make up the bone of contention in every conflict situation. However, the conflict approach do not take the usual assumptions about the nature and ethos of conflict. Rather than emphasizing competition, which is very clear in the metaphor of “arena” and “gladiators,” this view sees conflict as something positive and advantageous. For the Proponents of this view, conflict makes change and dynamism—features of society that have not been clearly conceived by the structural functional theory—possible. Conflict brings about a new set of relations and interactions, which produces new dynamism in society. So to answer the question “What makes society possible?,” the conflict theory invokes the social processes rather than functions and interdependence. Svwpowic InteRActionism AND MEANING-MAKING ~}0%e Unlike the previous two theories, symbolic interactionism does not deal with either order or confict. instead, it explores the issues of meaning-making and why this is crucial in understanding order or conflict as processes that brought about society. Humans as social beings have the capacity to generate meaning from their surroundings, be it social or otherwise. Meaning is important because it is the basis of actions towards or against specific elements of the environment, Meaning cannot be derived easily as it is lodged on and ascribed to symbols—anything that can stand as a representation of something. Symbols, ike meaning, are interpreted intersubjectively by social actors. The constellations of meaning assigned to an object, event, or person become the basis of social interactions, and they are constitutive of events and social phenomena. The latter statement means that interpretation of symbols may have @ reality-making effect on people implicated in an interaction |. Thomas’ definition of situation is a classic example of itions of situations have real effects on people’s actions and interactions. So to answer the question “What makes society 44 | unoerstanoine cucture, soceery, ano poLmicsPossible” the symbolic interactionist perspective would say symbole and ‘meanings. RULES: INVISIBLE HAND OF SOCIETY ~ cout; organizing power over human actions over time, However, not all rules are visible, thatis, written and understood by all. The Siuationis diferent, however, in cases where rules ae invisible and unwriton. At first, you may surmise that invisible rules create more disorder than order, which they are meant to establish in the first place. This assumption reer e0 Be incorrect as our lives are made more meaningful by unwriten Unwritten rules are exciting to study because they give invaluable insights into the nature of social behavior. Without us realizing it, almost 90% of our day-to-day actions are governed and shaped by these invisible rules. You may not know that rules exist, for example, in certain contexts or Cutruré as A Concept - Supctran Culture according to E.B. Tylor “is that complex whole which includes Knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilties and habits acquired by man as a member of society” The Cambridge English Diotonary states that cute is “the way of ife, especially the general custome and beliefs, of @ particular group of people at a particular time cwrrean | a5g es ‘As a defining aspect of what it means to be human, culture Is a central ‘concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human societies. The word is used in a general sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols and to act imaginatively and creatively. This capacity is offen thought to be unique to humans, although some other species have demonstrated similar, though much less complex, abilities for social learning. tis also used to denote the complex networks of practices and accumulated knowledge and ideas that are transmitted through social interaction and exist in specific human groups or cultures, ‘Some aspects of human behavior sich as language; social practices such as kinship, gender, and marriage; expressive forms such as art, music, dance, ritual, and religion; and technologies such as cooking, shelter, and ‘clothing are said to be cultural universals, found in all human societies. The concept material culture covers the physical expressions of culture, such as technology, architecture, and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of culture such as the principles of social organization (including practices of political organization and social institutions), mythology, philosophy, literature (both written and oral), and science.make up the intangible human heritage of a society. Inthe humanities, one sense of culture, as.an attribute ofthe inaividual, has been the degree to which it has cultivated a particular level of sophistication in the arts, sciences, education, or manners. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Such hierarchical perspectives on culture are also found in class- based distinctions between the high culture of the social elite and the low, popular culture or folk culture of the lower classes. In common pariance, culture is often used to refer specifically to the symbolic markers used by ethnic groups to distinguish themselves visibly from each other, such as body modification, clothing, or jewelry. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass-mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the twentieth century. Some schools of philosophy, such as ‘Marxism and critical theory, have argued that culture is often used politically a8 a tool of the elites to manipulate the lower classes and create a false consciousness. Such perspectives are common in the discipline of cultural siudies. in the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions. 46 | unoessnons cucrure saver, awa poumesWhen used asa count noun, cultures the set of customs, traitions, and values of a society or community, such as an ethnic group or nation, In this Sense, multiculturalism is a concept that values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same territory. Sometimes “culture” is also used to describe specific practices within Subgroup of a society, a subculture e.g, “bro culture") ora counter-culturs. Within cultural anthropology, the ideology and analytical stance of cultural relativism holds that cultures cannot easily be objectively ranked or evaluated Deosuse any evaluation is necessarily situated within the value system of @ given culture. Cutrure ano Society ~ cam Vas The relationship between society, culture, and personality is stressed by Ralph Linton:“A society is an organized group of individuals. A culture an organized group of leared responses. The individual is a living organism Capable of independent thought, feeling, and action, but his independence 's limited and all his resources are profoundly modified by contact with the ‘society and culture in which he develops.” AA soviety cannot exist apart from culture. A society is always made of Persons and their groupings. People carry and transmit culture, but they are not culture. No culture can exist except as it is embodied in a human Society; no society can operate without cultural directives, Like matter and energy, like mind and body, culture and society are interdependent and interactive yet they express different aspects of the human situation, One must always keep in mind the interdependence and the reciprocal Tslalionship between culture and society. Each is a distinguishable concept in which the pattern and organization of the whole is more important than any of the component parts. LESSON POSTTEST 1. Knowledge A. Define the following: Culture Cont ict Theory Rules Society Symbolic interactionism | Structural Functionalism ower | 47ACQUISITION of Knowledge The Compuexiry oF CULTURE Culture is a people's a way of life. This classic definition appears generic, yet‘it prefigures both the processes and structures that account not only for the development of such a way of life, but also for the inherent systems that lend it its self-perpetuating nature. This is perhaps the reason why E.B. Taylor describes culture as “that complex whole, which encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a member of society.” ‘The complex whole” in the above paragraph suggests that culture cannot be simply broken down into a set of attributes. Itmeans that an understanding of a part can only be achieved (or is only possible) in relation to the other parts of the system. This then requires an approach where one cen, all at once, get an appreciation of what culture is all about without being bothered by its complexity or by any definition that attempts to capture such complexity. Tue Waar, How, ano Way oF Currure ‘One way of achieving this is by asking not only about the ‘what" aspects ‘ofculture, but also the ‘how’ and why’ of itThe table on the next page depicts this approach. The ‘what’ column contains the actions, artifacts, language, and behavior that characterize a given culture. The ‘how’ column ident the processes that guarantee the transmission and dissemination of the contents. The ‘why’ column pinpoints the reasons why individuals comply and the mechanisms that facilitate the performance of expected behavior. ‘Although change is not clearly reflected in the table, itis assumed that sources of change, whether internal and external, simulate the generic processes of culture formation. Otherwise, any attempts to change the system will intensify the deployment of the ‘why’ mechanisms, notably the machineries of social control. The discussion of culture cannot be done in isolation. This means that other concepts are directly and indirectly implicated, especially in relation to the ‘why’ component. Notwithstanding, the question to be asked is "What institutions or formal arrangements serve as situations that facilitate the ‘exposure of individuals to and routinization of, the culture contents?” It is in this context that the concept of society becomes a handy counterpart of 52 | uwoessvnoma cucrune, soci, ano POLS : iculture. Sociology, @ social science that deals with human interactions in formal and informal settings, provides the necessary momentum to complete the culture picture (see Table No.4). Table No. 4 ‘The Anatomy of Culture and Society Anthropology Sociology ‘The What ‘The How The Why eters to the Refers to the Refers to the reasons for compliance Contents of culture | processes that | and the mechanisms that facilitate guarantee the —_| performance transmission of the contents Actions Learned —_| Through socialization/encutturation: ‘= Individuals are exposed to and experience lessons in everyday interactions. The lessons are practical and address thelr basic social needs. Language Share ‘Through conformity: == Actions of individuals are routinized and institutionalized in contexts like family, church, Schools, and government. in time, they become part of their habits, inte Through social contro: "= Conformity, or its absence thereof, ismeted out through the system of giving rewards and imposing of ‘Communicated punishments. Encucruration ano Thino Cutrune Suock Accounterpart concept of socialization, enculturation refers to the gradual acquisition of the characteristics and norms of a culture or group by a Person, another culture, etc. Itis not as pervasive as socialization, whichis a lifelong or “womb to tomb” journey. Enculturation siarts with actual exposure to another culture and the duration and extent of exposure account for the Quality of the resulting enculturation, curren | 53: coy, Third, culture shockis a good example of encutturation. individuals who have stayed for quite a good portion of their lives (especially the period after the formative years) in a foreign culture may be shocked by their birth culture once exposed to it again. The shock created by their birth culture is product of their enculturation in the second culture. Aspects oF Cuvrure E.B. Taylor, an English anthropologist, was the first to coin the term ‘culture’ in the eighteenth century. The study of society is incomplete without proper understanding of the culture of-that society because culture and society go together. Culture is a unique possession of man. Man is born and brought up in a cultural environment. Culture is the unique quality of man which separates him from the lower animals. Culture includes all that man acquires in his social life. Derinstions oF Curture ‘There are several definitions of culture in the circulation. B. Malinowski defined it as “the handiwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends.” R. Redfield, on the other hand, defined culture as “an organized body of conventional understandings manifest in art which, persisting through tradition, characterizes a human group” V. de Robert described culture as “the body of thought and knowledge, both theoretical and practical, which only man can possess” But the one that seems to capture the full essence of the concept is that of E.B. Taylor, who said that culture is ‘that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morale, laws, custom, and any other capabilities and habits as acquired by man as ‘a member of society” Culture exists in the minds or habits of the members of society. Culture is a people's shared ways of doing and thinking. There are degrees of visibility of cultural behavior, ranging from the regularized activities of persons to their internal reasons for so doing. In other words, we cannot see culture as such; we can only see human behavior. This behavior occurs in a regular, patterned fashion, and this fashion is called culture. Cuaractenistics oF CutTure ‘These definitions are reflective of the features of culture. Culture means simply the “way of life" of a people or their “design for living” Kiuckhohn and Kelly define it in this sense: “A culture is a historically derived system 54 | wwoersmmone curure, soci, ao roumes ° 3 be be ec wt es Pe nat The ait me use fruit init inot cult are | is al that cultu resp are g insti. moreof explicit and implicit designs for living, which tends to be shared by alll or specially designed members of a group.” Explicit culture refers to similarities in words and actions which can be directly observed. For example, the adolescent cultural behavior can be generalized by looking at the way teens dress, their mannerisms, and conversations. Implicit culture, on the other hand, exists in abstract forms which are not quite obvious. The following characterization of culture revolves around the three essences of culture as a system: (1) super-organic, (2) integrated, and (3) pervasive. Being super-organic, culture is seen as something superior to nature because nature serves as the ingredient of any cultural productions. The word super-organic is useful when it implies what may be quite a different phenomenon from a cultural point of view. For example, a tree means different things to the botanist who studies it, the old woman who uses it for shade in the late summer afternoon, the farmer who picks its fruit, the motorist who collides with it, and the young lovers who carve their initials in its trunk. The same physical objects and physical characteristics, in other words, may constitute a variety of quite different cultural objects and cultural characteristics. Secondly, culture possesses an order and system. its various parts are integrated with each other and any new element which is introduced is also integrated.This integrity of the culture system makes it pervasive, that i, it touches every aspect of life and is manifested in two ways. One, culture provides an unquestioned context within which individual action and response take place. Not only emotional action but relational actions as well are governed by cultural norms. Two, culture pervades social activities and institutions. According to Ruth Benedict, “a culture, like an individual, is a more or less consistent patter of thought and action” 1. Culture is social because it is the product of behavior. Culture does not exist in isolation. It is a product of society. It develops through social interaction. No man can acquire culture without association with others. Humans become humans only ‘among themselves. Culture learnings are the products of behavior. ‘As the people behave, there occur changes in them. They acquire the ability to swim, to fee! hatred toward someone, or to sympathize with someone. They grow out of their previous behaviors. In both ways, then, human behavior's the result of behavior. The experiences of other people are impressed on a person as he or she grows up. Also many of people's traits and abilities have grown out of their own past behaviors. ce ee56 iS SPR 2. Culture varies from society to society. Every society has a culture of its own that differs from other societies. The culture of every society is unique to itself. Cultures are not uniform. Cultural elements like customs, traditions, morals, values, and beliefs are not uniform. Culture varies from time to time as well. These variations in cultural manifestations are explained by the fact that culture is a human product. Culture is not a force, ‘operating by itself and independent of human actors. There is an unconscious tendency to defy culture, to endow it with life, and treat it as a thing. Culture is a creation of society in interaction and depends for its existence upon the continuance of society. In a strict sense, therefore, culture does not ‘do’ anything on its own. it does not cause the individual to act in a particular way, nor does it ‘make’ the normal individual into a maladjusted one. Culture, in short, is @ human product; itis not independently endowed with Ife. Humans! behavior results in creating objects. Humans were behaving when they made these things. To make these objects required numerous ‘and verious skills which human beings gradually built up through the ages. Man has invented something else and so on. . Culture is shared. Culture is not something that an individual alone can possess. Culture, in a sociological sense, is shared. For example, customs, traditions, beliefs, ideas, values, morals, etc, are all shared by people of a group or society. The patterns of learned behavior and the results, cof behavior are possessed not by one or a few persons, but usually by a large group. Thus, millions of persons share Catholic behavior patterns, use cellphones, or speak the English language. Persons may share some part of a culture unequally. To some persons, Christianity is the all-important, predominant idea in their life. To others, itis less important. And still to others, itis of marginal significance. Sometimes people share different aspects of a culture. For example, among Christians, there are Catholics and Protestants, liberals and conservatives, and clergymen and laymen. The point of ‘our discussion is not that culture or any part of itis shared identically, but that itis shared by the members of society fo a sufficient extent. ‘The sharing of culture is made possible by attitudes, values, and knowledge. It is wrong to believe tht our ideas, values, and notions are our own. It is easy to overestimate the uniqueness of one’s own attitudes and ideas. When there is agreement with other people, it UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICSis largely unnoticed, but when there is disagreement or difference, ne is usually conscious of it. Your differences, however, may also Pe cultural. For example, may be a Catholic and another person may be a Protestant. Culture is learned. Culture is not inborn. itis learned. Culture is often called “leamed ways of behavior” Unlearned behavior is not culture. But shaking hands, saying thanks, etc. are cultural behavior, 'tmust be noted however that not all behavior is learned, but most of itis learned. Combing one’s hair, standing in line, telling jokes, erttcizing the president, and going to the movie all constitute behavior that had to be learned. Sometimes the terms ‘conscious learning’ and ‘unconscious learning’ are used to distinguish the learning, For Gxample, the ways in which a small child learns to handle a tyrannical father or a rejecting mother often affect the ways in which that chia, 10.07 15 years later, handle hs relationships with other people, Some behavior are obvious. People can be seen going to football games, eating with forks, or driving automobiles. Such behavior are called “overt” behaviors. Other behaviors are less visible, Such ctivilies as planning tomorrow's work o feeling hatred for an enemy are behaviors, too, This sort of behavior, which is not openly visible {o other people, is called “covert” behavior. Both may be, of course, feared. The definition of culture indicates that the learned behavior of People is patterned. Each person's behavior often depends upon Some particular behavior of someone else. The point is that, as a Seneral rule, behavior is somewhat integrated or organized with the related behavior of other persons. Culture is transmitted among members of society. ‘The cultural ways are learned by persons from persons, Many of them are “handed down” by elders, parents, teachers, and othere (0fasomewhat older generation), while other cultural behaviors are “handed up" to elders. Some of the transmission of culture Is among Contemporaries, for example, the styles of dressing, political views, and the use of recent labor-saving devices, One does not acquire a behavior pattern spontaneously. One learns it from someone. Much of the leaming process both for the teacher and the learner is quite unconscious, unintentional, or accidental. omer | 57Culture is transmitted from one generation to another. Transmission of culture is made possible by language. Language is the main vehicle of culture. Language in different forms makes it possible for the present generation to understand the achievement of earlier generations. Transmission of culture may take place by imitation as well as by instruction. Language Is the chief vehicle of culture. People live not ofly in the present but also in the past and future. They are able to do this because they possess language which transmits to them what was learned in the past and enables them to transmit the accumulated wisdom to the next generation. ‘A specialized language pattern serves as @ common bond to the members of a particular group or subculture. Although culture is transmitted in a variety of ways, language is one of the most important vehicles for perpetuating cultural patterns. Culture is everything that is socially learned and shared by the members of a society. Itis culture that, in the wide focus of the world, distinguishes an individual from another individual or a group from another group. Culture is continuous and cumulative. Culture exists as a continuous process. In its historical growth, it tends to become cumulative. Sociologist Linton called culture the social heritage’ of man. It becomes difficult for us to imagine what society would be like without culture. ‘Culture varies from society to society. Hence, we say the culture of india of the culture of England. Furthermore, culture varies from {group to group within the same society. There are subcultures within a culture. Clusters of patterns which are both related to the general culture of the society and yet are distinguishable from it are called subcultures. There is one fundamental and inescapable attribute (special quality) of culture: the fact of unending change. Some societies ‘sometimes change slowly, and herice in comparison to other societies ‘seem not to be changing at all. But they are changing, even though not obviously so. No culture ever remains constant or changeless. It is subject to slow but constant change. Culture is responsive to the changing conditions of the physical world, herice it is dynamic. . Culture is gratifying and idealistic. Culture provides proper opportunities for the satisfaction of our needs and desires. Our needs both biological and social are fulfilled in cultural ways. Culture determines and guides various activities of man. Thus, culture is defined as the process through which human [UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOIETY, AND POLITICS.‘and to which they strive to conform, Functions oF Cutrure ‘Among all groups of people, we find widely shared beliefs, norms, values, and preferences. Since culture seems tobe @ universal human phenomenon, According to social scientists, cutture has certain functions for both the individual and society. i z g 3 : 3 3 3 = ; s : 3 ane society to another will spend many years misreading the cues (for example, laughing at the wrong Places), 2. Culture defines attitudes, values, and goals, Each person learns from his/her culture What is good, true, and Deautiful.Atitudes, values, and goals are defined by the cutture, and the individual normally learns them ag unconsciously as he or she teams the language. Attitudes are tendencies 0 feeland actin certain ways. Values are measures of goodness or, desirability. For example, we value private Property, (representative) government, and many curren | 593. Culture defines myths, legends, and the supernatural. Myths and legends are important parts of every culture. They may inspire or reinforce effort and sacrifice and bring comfort in bereavement. Whether they are true is sociologically unimportant, Ghosts are real to people who believe in them and who act upon this belief. We cannot understand the behavior of any group without knowing something of the myths, legends, and supernatural beliefs they hold. Myths and legends are powerful forces in a group's behavior. Culture also provides the individual with a ready-made view of the universe. The nature of divine power and the important moral issues are defined by the culture. The individual does not have to select as he or she is trained in a Christian, Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim, or some other religious tradition. This tradition gives answers to the major questions of life and prepares the individual to meet life's crises. 4, Culture provides behavior patterns. The individual need not go through painful trial and error to know what food can be eaten or how to live among people without fear. People find a ready-made set of patterns awaiting them which they need only to learn and follow. The culture maps out the path to matrimony. The individual does not have to wonder how one secures amate; he or she knows the procedure defined by his or her culture. If people use culture to advance their purposes, it seems clear also that a culture imposes limits on humans and their activities. ‘The need for order calls forth another function of culture—direct behavior—so that disorderly behavior is restricted and orderly behavior is promoted, A society without rules or norms that define right and wrong behavior would be very much like a busy street without traffic signs or any understood rules. Chaos would be the result in this case.Social order cannot rest on the assumption that people will spontaneously behave in ways conducive to social harmony. ETHNOCENTRISM The world ethno comes from the Greeks and it refers toa people, nation, orcultural grouping. Centric, on the other hand, comes from Latin and refers to the “center” The term ethnocentrism then refers to the tendency of each society to place its own culture patterns at the center of things. Ethnocentrism is the practice of comparing other cultural practices with those of one’s own and automatically finding those other cultural practices to be inferior. In other GO | wnoerstanoins cucture, sociery, ano pouiTics:@ Words, itis the act of evaluating other cultures according to preconceptions Originating in the standards and customs of one’s own culture, Ethnocantrism a term coined by William Graham Sumner. Itis the beliet {Pel your native culture isthe most natural or superior way of understanding the World. This leads to making incorrect assumptions about others’ behavior based on your own norms, values, and beliefs. For instance, any time you think of another culture's traditional food as welrd or gross, that's a product of ethnocentrism. ‘This description of ethnocentrism suggests that the very process of what makes culture enduring and durabie also explains an equally recalcitrant attitude in the (non)appreciation of the cultures of other people. individuals may be unable to and have difficulty in, showing appreciation of other cultures, ‘This is a typical situation due to lack of information about other cultures, This lack of information, in return, produces less understanding, which may citer resultto quick and culture shock or o outright, and sometimes, lasting dismissal of the value of others’ way of ie. I's an assessment of ones' culture 88 superior and appropriate compared to that ofthe others. Intriguingly, most o's are ethnocentric in ways we rarely notice and realize, Hence, being ethnocentric means, using our culture into a yardstick with which to measure ail other cultures as good or bad, high or low, right or queer in proportion as they resemble ours. Fthnocentriem isa universal human reaction found in allknown societies, inal groups, and in practically all individuals. Everyone learns ethnocentrism while growing up. The possessiveness of the small child quickly translates into "my toys are better than your toys.” Parents, unless they are quite crude, outwardly discourage thelr children from verbalizing such beliefs, But in Private, they may reassure their offsprings that their possessions are indeed very nice. Much of the learning of ethnocentrism is indirect and unintended, but some of itis deliberate. History, for example, is often taught to glorify {he achievements of one’s own nation, and religious, civic, and other groups disparage their competitors openly. Among adults, ethnocentrism is simply a fact of life. Once one becomes conscious of ethnocentrism, the temptation is Strong to evaluate it in moral terms; to label it with epithets such as bigoted, chauvinistic, and so on; and to imply that one who has not discovered and compensated for his/her ethnocentric biases is not worthy. This incidentally, is another form of ethnocentrism. The important point, however, is that ethnocentrism Is one of the features of culture, and like the rest of culture, 'tneeds to be evaluated in terms of its contribution to the maintenance of Social order and the promotion of social change. ower | 61Functions oF EranocentRisM The functions of ethnocentrism in maintaining order are more apparent than those which promote social change. First, ethnocentrism encourages the solidarity of a group. Believing that one's own ways are the best encourages ‘a ‘we" feeling with associates and strengthens the idea that loyalty to comrades and the preservation of the basis for superiority are important values. Positively, ethnocentrism promotes continuance of the status quo. Negatively, it discourages change. ‘Second, ethnocentrism hinders the understanding or the cooperation between groups. If the ways of one’s own group are best, there is litle incentive to interact with “inferior” groups. In fact, attitudes of suspicion, disdain, and hostility are tikely to be engendered. Extreme ethnocentrism is likely to promote conflict, as the records of past wars and religious and racial conflicts reveal. Third, conflict of course often leads to social change. in that sense, ‘ethnocentrism becomes a vehicle for the promotion of social change, Itdoes ‘80, however, through encouragement of its peaceful evolution. ‘When do we become ethnocentric and what is our way out? Take note of the following: : 1. When you judge the behavior and beliefs of people who are different from you Way out: To stop ethnocentric behavior, you must stop judging others who are different from you, 2. When you believe that there are primitive cultures, especially if their way of life is different from yours Way out: Ethnocentrism is taught. You have to unlearn that your culture is superior and all other cultures are inferior. 3, When you believe that some cultures are backward ff they lack the technology and consumerism of your own culture Way out: Remember that there are no primitive or backward cultures. All cultures provide their members with the means for meeting all human needs. Cuvrurat Retarivisa Cultural relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on their cuttural context and should be treated as such. A key component of cultural relativism is the concept that nobody, not even researchers, comes from a neutral position. The way to deal with our own assumptions is not to pretend that they don't exist, but rather to acknowledge 62 | unoesstavone cuLTure, sociery, AND PoLiTICSthem and then use the awareness that we are not neutral to inform our conclusions. In a way, cultural relativity is a belief that maintains it does not matter whether cultures are either equal or different because equality and similarity do not necessarily translate to real or imagined inferiority/superiority of cultures out there. As an attitude, cultural relativism promotes greater appreciation of the cultures one encountered along the way. As a behavior, cultural relativism is a good way to rehearse the norms and values of Society—a requirement that one must subscribe to regardless of his or her cultural origin, Cultural relativism is also a research method. Social scientists strive to treat cultural differences as neither inferior nor superior. That way, they can understand their research topics within the appropriate cultural context and examine their own biases and assumptions at the same time. This is & method whereby different societies or cultures are analyzed objectively without using the values of one culture to judge the worth of another. We cannot possibly understand the actions of other: ‘groups if we analyze them in terms of our motives and values. We must interpret their behavior in the light of their motives, habits, and values if we are to understand them. Cultural relativism means that the function and meaning of a trait are relative to its cultural setting. A trait is neither good nor bad in itself. itis good or bad only with reference to the culture in which itis to function. For instance, fur clothing is good in the Arctic but not in the tropics. In some hunting societies which occasionally face long periods of hunger, to be fat is good; it has real survival value and fat people are admired. In our society, tobe fat is not only unnecessary but is known to be unhealthy and fat people are not admired. The concept of cultural relativism does not mean that all customs are ‘equally valuable, nor does itimply that no customs are harmful. Some patterns of behavior may be injurious everywhere, but even such patterns serve ‘some purpose in the culture and the society will suffer unless a substitute is provided. The central point in cultural relativism is that in a particular Cultural setting certain traits are right because they work well in that setting while other traits are wrong because they would clash painfully with paris of that culture, Appreciation of other cultures may come about for two complementary reasons: (1) acquisition of sufficient knowledge about the culture in question, and (2) direct exposure to other cultures. The first may happen in indirect. ways such as reading about the practices and rituals of other cultures, while the second may take place because of travel or immigration. In both cases, individuals personally come in contact with the people representing another culture and they see the performance of a different set of practices. ; oworenn | 63eee enocenrrism AND XENOPHOBIA Since we are dealing with behaviors that result in evaluation of cultures, we need to include two related concepts—xenocentrism and xenophobia. Xenocenirism refers to a preference for the foreign. In this sense, it is the exact Opposite of ethnocentrism. It is characterized by a strong belief that ‘one’s own products, styles, or ideas are inferior to those which originate elsewhere. For xenocenttric individuals, the exotic has a special charm which the familiar can never achieve. It is based on the glamour of the strange and faraway and the prestige of distant centers. One clear indication of the existence of xenocentrism is our preference for imported goods. Filipinos ‘seem happy to pay more for imported goods on the assumption that anything from abroad is better. Xenophobia, on the other hand, is the fear of what is perceived as foreign or strange. Xénophobia can be seen in the relations and perceptions of an in-group toward an out-group. It may include fear of losing identity, suspicion of the other group's activities, aggression, and the desire to eliminate the presence of the other group to secure a presumed purity. Xenophobia can also be exhibited in the form of an “uncritical exaltation of another culture” in which a culture is ascribed “an unreal, stereotyped, and exotic quality” Cuvrure as Henirace Cultures have tangible (visible) and intangible (nonmaterial) components. The tangible ones are those that are produced and created based on specific and practical purposes and aesthetic values. Cultural artifacts both tangible and intangible may become “heritage objects" by their sheer age and association with momentous historical events and noteworthy personalities. Hens, as icons of cultural memory, they may serve as irreplaceable emblems of events and personalities that once made a culture proud and pleased. The typical heritage artifacts are sites and objects (national flags), while typical intangible heritage may be associated with events. In the Philippines, historical sites include, but are not limited to, the abodes of heroes and significant historical personalities. Intangible heritage may include ournational ‘anthem and literary creations such as music, dances, and other literary genre unique to the Philippines. Preservation of cultural heritage is tantamount to protecting them from external threats such as destruction (symbolic and physical), mutilation (In part or in its entirety), and desecration through frivolous use/ representation. 64 | vvoenstanos currune sociery, avo pouimios