Social and Cultural Backgrounds

 What is human cultural variations, social differences, social change and political identities?

 CULTURAL VARIATIONS - refers to the rich diversity in social practices that different cultures exhibit
around the world. It can be studied across cultures or across generations.
Significant Reasons for Cultural Variations
a) Environmental Condition - is one of the evident reason as inhabitants must adapt in order to survive.
From this adaptation, people’s way of life can be determined such as the kind of economies which they
practice.
b) Isolation - as one society cut its interaction from other society, this follows a creation of a set of norms
and values distinct from the previous culture. The condition of isolation prevent contact with the other
people, thus the kind of culture will continue to develop free from influence and contamination from other
society.
c) Technology - when tools has become available to one culture, it likely affects not only the norms and
values but also its economic and social interactions and relationships.

 SOCIAL DIFFERENCES - refer to the dissimilarities among the individuals that is based on their social
characteristics and qualities. For large society, these social differences are more complex compared to
small ones as this includes race, class, age, ability, sex, profession, gender, etc. Social differences, thus,
can create societal problems because of discrimination resulted by inequality, inferiority complex and
other related problems.

 SOCIAL CHANGE - the alteration of society over time (Andersen and Taylor, 2007). Social change may
not only be regarded as a process but also as a means, an end or even as a social movement, a condition
involving a program, an ideology and a problem.

 POLITICAL IDENTITIES - is almost always associated with a group affiliation and describes the ways in
which being a member of a particular group might express specific political opinion and attitudes.
Generally, identity is often thought of as a person’s belief system and social affiliations. It can be regarded
as political arguments which focus upon the interest and perspectives of groups which people identify.

 What are the examples of social, political and cultural behavior and phenomena?
Some examples are istambay, lagay, food taboos, same-sex partnership and the use of a Go-between/
Padrino.

 Identify some observations on social, political and cultural change.

Social, Political and Cultural change some observations are the selfieing and political dynasty,
transnational families and youth volunteerism and video gaming.

Sociology, Anthropology, and Political Science

 What is the definition of Anthropology, Political Science and Sociology?

 ANTHROPOLOGY - underlines the role of cultural structures in an organizing human interactions. It

uncover principles of behavior that apply to all human communities.

 POLITICAL SCIENCE - power relations and how these produce layered modalities of opportunities
among social actors. It makes generalizations and analyses about political system and political behavior
and uses these results to predict future behavior.

 SOCIOLOGY - it highlights the external influences that facilitate or constrain human actions. It focuses
on the ubiquity (the everywhere-ness) of social forces.
 What is the relationship of Anthropology, Political Science and Sociology?

SOCIOLOGY

Cultural Practices Social Forces

ANTHROPOLOGY POLITICAL SCIENCE

Power
Relations

 What is the historical background of Anthropology, Political Science and Sociology?

 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Anthropology has been pejoratively called “a child of colonization” because discoverers of new territories
were always accompanied by missionary documenters (ethnographers). The primary function of these
documenters was to record, to the minutest details, all their observations and reflections about the conquered
territories, their people, practices language, rituals and idiosyncrasies. These so-called “scribes of cultures”
became instruments of the colonizers in achieving their ultimate, yet oftentimes undisclosed, goals -- the
subjugation of native cultures. This somewhat informal story of anthropology suggests two essential things
about the discipline and its capacity to represent the social: (1.) its methodology of documenting one’s
engagement with a different culture, and (2.) its fascination with the ways of life in different societies.

 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Political science is the discipline that problematizes the nature of power and studies how possession and
exercise of power can shape individual actions and collective decisions for that matter. The latter are, in
essence, a form of “social agreement” because they have futuristic and lasting effects in people’s collective
lives. In view of this, the discipline was traditionally believed to have emerged from the works of “social
contract” theorists. These social thinkers, in different degrees and sophistication, argued for the existence of
the state in order to create a community of citizens free from the brutalities of the state of the nature, where
every man is enemy to each one. The contract requires the people to surrender, completely or in part, their
rights to whoever (a persona) or whatever (an office) who or which in return exercises the same for the
protection of everybody. The state emerged out of the contract.

 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology was born in Europe (especially in Germany, England, and France) during the
period of the Industrial Revolution.It was a period that witnessed the rapid development of
industry that occurred in Britain in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , brought about by
the introduction of machinery. It was characterized by the use of steam power, the growth of
factories, and the mass August Comte production of manufactured goods. The first set of
sociologists starting with August Comte (179 8 – 1857) , credited to be the “Father of the
Discipline” for having coined the term sociology, Karl Marx (181 8 – 1883), Emile Durkheim
(1858 – 1977), and Max Weber (1864 – 1920) were the first to raise critical questions about the
deluge of changes brought about by the mushrooming factories and associated technologies
within and outside the major cities of England. The bulk of their critical reflections focused on
the seen and projected impacts of these changes on their traditional way of life, exacerbated by
the dissolution of the family as the basic unit of society , construction of new forms of social
interactions, and emergence of new social identities. Their adherents swelled in number and with
the increasing number of famed members came the need to constitute a new discipline that
would
formally explore the ramifications of these changes for pragmatic purposes. Influential members
were in disagreement as to how to proceed. One group believed in the practical utility of science,
hence they argued that explorations must be guided by the basic principles and methodologies of
science. Another group remained attached to the spirit of tradition, hence they embraced the
more literary approaches in the dissection of the state of affairs. Out of these competing
approaches emerged sociology with its positivistic leanings toward researching the social climate
of the period. Durkheim, a French social thinker, was exceptionally instrumental in the
formalization and later recognition of sociology as the new science of the study of society. His
landmark study of suicide enabled him to concretize the "niche problematique" of sociology, a
part and different from that of anthropology, psychology, philosophy, religion, and literature.
With his monumental work on suicide, he Emile Durkheim introduced the concept of social fact
which later sealed the eventual institution and recognition of sociology (at least initially in
France) as a new social science. Social fact is another name for social phenomenon. It has
distinctive characteristics and determinants which are capable of holding an external constraint
on the individual. Social fact, according to Durkheim, was a characteristic feature of the power
of ideas to create social realities for members of society. He proved the existence of social fact
by demonstrating that the three forms of suicides he observed from different societies were all
triggered by the individuals' assessment of their moral standing in relation to the rules and norms
of their respective cultures. Social fact is a precursor to the concept of social forces.

Culture and Society from the Perspective of Anthropology and Sociology

 What is the definition and relationship of culture and society in the perspective of anthropology and
sociology?
 Society and culture are the two durable concepts in the vocabulary of social sciences. Although they can
be claimed as “niche concept” in sociology and anthropology, these terms are so malleable that other
disciplines have been quite successful in expanding their respective frontiers using them as tools. Culture
and society become “fugitive concepts” as their explanatory features move beyond the ambits of their
original disciplines.

 What is society as a concept?

 SOCIETY AS A CONCEPT
It is a tool to grasp the complexity of the phenomenon it represents and a means to explore its many other
dimensions hidden by its normative use. As a concept, society represents an ideal type, which more or less
depicts the form, process, and the dynamics of the social reality it embodies. The plausibility of alteration and
disappearance is very unlikely to happen,its durability as a concept is made possible by its currency not only in
sociology and other social sciences, but also in the natural sciences such as agriculture , biology and etc.

 What is society as facticity?

 SOCIETY AS FACTICITY
Society is seen as an outcome of multiple interactions of people upon which is succeeding interactions are
made meaningful and possible. Every single action of ours is controlled by our society. If in case we decided
not to follow ots whims and commands, it has the capacity and legitimately authority to punish us, even take
away pour lives. Society controls the laws made and to be made even the lawmakers. Society is present even in
the most personal fibers of our individual lives. Society robs us our freedom and free will. This pessimistic
rendition is not all bad news. Its rather good news because by knowing how society behaves, we can find ways
to at least ligthen the load it puts on us and pursue our individual agenda and purpose in life. We can find
alternative routes in pursuing our dreamsand aspirations.

Features of Society as God

OMNISCIENCE OMNIPOTENCE OMNIPRESENT
(All-knowing) (All-powerful) (Everywhere)
“Society as God Its library creates, Its agents occupy and Its spies are the present in
collects, stores, retrieves, control all the influential the four corners of its
and manipulates human positions in its domain. territory.
memories.
“Society as a Fact” Symbols system, Machineries and armory Socialization agents are
languange rules, and use of social control. present everywhere, even
of languange for at the very start of a
communication. person’s life.
Examples in social Language, symbols, arts, Laws, norms, values Family, peers, school,
sciences concepts science belief, system, religion, church, government
education

 What makes society possible?

 THE THREE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

a) STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM AND SOCIAL ORDER

It argues that society is made possible by cooperation and interdependence. This view sees society as a
system with parts, and these parts have their respective functions to perform. The health and condition of the
entire system is dependent on these two processes of functions and interdependence reflects the succeeding
theoretical principles in almost all areas of sociological investigation - from social stratisfcation, to deviance,
to institutions, to socialization.

b) CONFLICT THEORY AND CONFLICT

The Marxist inspired perspectivce on the question of society looks at the other side of the issue. Instead of
putting the importance to social order, the conflict perspective sees society as an arena, where social actors are
the gladiators fighting for their lives. This vies sees the conflict as something positive and advantageous. For
the proponents of this view, conflict makes change and dynamism - features of society that have not been
ckearly conceived by the structural funtional theory - possible. Conflict brings about a new set of relations and
interactions which produces new dynamism in society. The conflict theory invokes the social processes rather
than functions and interdependence.

c) SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM AND MEANING-MAKING

It explores the issues of meaning-making and why this is crucial in understanding order or conflict as
processes that brought about scociety. Meaning is important because it is the basis of actions towards or
against specific elements on the environment. Symbols, like meaning, are interpreted intersubjectively by
social actors. The interpretation of symbols may have reality-making effect on people implicated in an
interaction situation.

 What is rules?

 RULES : INVISIBLE HAND OF SOCIETY

 Rules are guide in the performance of roles and in everyday actions and interactions. They provide order
in a system characterized by the presence of many actors with different businesses and agenda to pursue. Rules
are essential to everyday conduct of the members of society. If there are conflicts, rules becomes the arbiter of
diasagreements and people’s respect for rules gives them this organizing power over the human actions over
time. Written rules are easily seen and hence are easily observed and obeyed. You may surmise that invisible
rules create more disorder. This assumption proves to be incorrect as our lives are made more meaningful by
unwritten rules. Our mundane and daily actions are guided by these unseen rules.

 What is enculturation and third culture shock?

 ENCULTURATION
Refers to the gradual acquisition of the characteristics and norms of a culture or group by a
person, another culture. It is also the process by which people learn the requirements of their
surrounding culture and acquire the values and the behaviours appropriate or necessary in that
culture. If successful, enculturation results in competence in language, values, and rituals of the
culture.
 THIRD CULTURE SHOCK
Third culture shock is good example of enculturation whose individuals who have stayed for quite a good
portion of thier lives in a foreigm culture may be shocked by their birth culture once exposed to it again. The
shock created by their birth culture is a product of their enculturation in the second culture.

 What are the aspects and characteristics of culture?

 ASPECTS OF CULTURE

a) The Complexity of Culture

The idea of complex whole suggests that culture cannot be simply broken down into a set of
attributes. It means that an understanding of a part can only be achieved (or is only possible) in
relation to the other parts of the system.

b) Socialization
Refers to a lifelong “ womb to tomb “journey of social experience by which people develop
their human potential and learn culture. It is culturally specific: people in different cultures are
socialized differently to hold different beliefs and values and to behave in different ways.

 CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

a) Culture is a social because it is the product of behavior.

b) Culture varies from society to society.
c) Culture is shared.
d) Culture is learned.
e) Culture is transmitted among members of society.
f) Culturs is continuous and cumulative.
g) Culture is gratifying and idealistic.

 What are the functions of culture?

 FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE

a) Culture defines the situation.

b) Culture defines attitudes, values and goals.
c) Culture defines myths, legends and other supernatural.
d) Culture provides behavior patterns.

 What is ethnocentrism and its function?

 ETHNOCENTRISM “William Graham Summer”

Ethno comes from the Greeks and it refers to a people, nation or cultural grouping while .
centric, on the other hand, comes from Latin and refers to the center. Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency of
each society to place its own culture patterns at the center of things. It is the practice of comparing other
cultural practices with thise of one’s own and automatically finding those other cultural practices to be inferior.
It is the act of evaluating other culture according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of
one’s own culture.
 FUNCTIONS OF ETHNOCENTRISM
First, ethnocentrism encourages the solidarity of a group. Positively, it promotes continuance of the status
quo and negatively, it discourages change.
Second, ethnocentrism hinders the understanding or the cooperation between groups. Extreme
ethnocentrism is likely to promote conflict, as the records of past wars and religious and racial conflicts reveal.
Third, conflict often leads to social change. Ethnocentrism becomes a vehicle for the promotional of
social change. It does through encouragement of its peaceful evolution.

 What is cultural relativism?

 CULTURAL RELATIVISM
It is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on their cultural context and
should be treated as such. Cultural relativity is a belief that maintains it does not matter whether
cultures are either equal or different because and similarity do not necessarily translate to real or
imagined inferiority/superiority of cultures out there. Cultural relativism is also a research
method. The goal of this is promote understanding of cultural practices that are not typically part
of one’s own culture. Using the perspective of cultural relativism leads to the view that no one
culture is superior than another culture when compared to systems of morality, law, politics, etc.

 What is xenocentrism and xenophobia?

 XENOCENTRISM
Xenocentrism refers to a preference for the foreign. In this sense, it is the exact opposite of
ethnocentrism. It is characterized by a strong belief that one's own products, styles, or ideas are
inferior to those which originate elsewhere.

 XENOPHOBIA
On the other hand, it is the fear of what is perceived as foreign or strange. Xenophobia can
be seen in the relations and perceptions of an in-group toward an out-group. It may include fear
of losing identity, suspicion of the other group's activities, aggression, and the desire to eliminate
the presence of the other group to secure a presumed purity.

 What is the idea of culture as heritage?

 CULTURE AS A HERITAGE
Cultures have tangible (visible) and intangible (nonmaterial) components. The tangible ones are those that are
produced and created based on specific and practical purposes and aesthetic values. Cultural
artifacts both tangible and intangible may become "heritage objects" by their sheer age and
association with momentous historical events and noteworthy personalities. Hence, as icons of
cultural memory, they may serve as irreplaceable emblems of events and personalities that once
made a culture proud and pleased. The typical heritage artifacts are sites and objects (national
flags), while typical intangible heritage may be associated with events. In the Philippines,
historical sites include, but are not limited to, the abodes of heroes and significant historical
personalities. Intangible heritage may include our national anthem and literary creations such as
music, dances, and other literary genre unique to the Philippines. Preservation of cultural
heritage is tantamount to protecting them from external
threats such as destruction (symbolic and physical), mutilation (in part or in its entirety), and
desecration through frivolous useful representation.

Human Biocultural and Social Evolution

 What is biological and cultural evolution?

 BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
Biological evolution explains the physical transformation of modern humans form hominids into thinking
modern humans or Homo sapiens sapiens. It refers to the chnages, modifications, and variations in the genetics
and inherited traits of biological populations from one generation to another.

 CULTURAL EVOLUTION
Cultural evolution or the sociocultural evolution, on the other hand, refers to the changes or development
in cultures from simple form to a more complex.

 What is the history of human biological and cultural evolution? From Hominids to Homo sapien sapien?

 THE BIOLOGIGAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION OF MODERN HUMANS

Hominids is the general term used by scientist to categorize the group of early humans and other
humanlike creatures that can walk erect during prehistoric times. There four categories of hominids, these are
the Sahelantropus, Ardipithecus, Astralopithecus and Homo. Based on the evidences, first hominid came is the
Sahelantropus tchadensis species (6 - 7 m yrs ago). It had both apelike and humanlike characteristucs: a skull
similar to Australopithecus and modern human; height almost similar to chimpanzee; brain size of about 320 -
380 cubic cm; small teeth; and had the ability to walk upright. Then, came the Orrorin tugenesis (5-7 m yrs
ago) and the Ardipithecus “äpe on the ground” family which had two species, namely the Ardipithecus
kadabba (i5 - 6 m yrs) and the Ardipithecus ramidus (4.4 m yrs).
Ardipithecus Characteristics
 4ft high
 120 lbs
 Skull size similar to an ape
 Small brain
 Biped

The Australopithecus “southern ape”was the next group of hominids (5 - 1 m yrs)

Characteristics
 Brain size 500 cubic cm
 Upright
 Tool users not tool makers
 Food scavengers
 Movement of distance 15 km

The Australopithecus is divided in two major categories: the gracile and the robust
Gracile - had small teeth and jaw
 Australopithecus anamensis
 Australopithecus afarensis - common ancestor (Lucy, discovered in Hadar. Ethiopia in Nov. 1974 by Dr.
Donald Johanson)
 Australopithecus africanus
Robust - had large teeth and jaws and muscular built
 Australopithecus aethiopicus
 Australopithecus robustus
 Australopithecus boisei

Homo (2.4 m yrs ago) are the clssified as humans and not humanlike creatures because they had bigger brains
and were bipedal.
Homo habilis (handy man), Homo erectus (upright man), and Homo habilis (wise man)
Homo habilis Charateristucs
 3-4 ft hugh
 700 cubic cm
 Made tools called Oldoewan
 Used for hunting and food gathering

Homo ergaster (1.8 m yrs) where the home erectus canme from
Characteristics
 1000 cubic
 5 ft
 Walks uprigt
Home erecus used their intelligence to invent and develop different technologies to respond to their needs.
They are know for making complex tools for digging, cutting and scrapping. They are skillful hunters. They
are the first to use a languange and they controlled their environment, exchangedideas with each other, they
was able to develop differnet religious rituals particularly burial practices. They are also the first discovered
fossil in Africa. Scientist also believed that the Homo erectus were the first homo to leave the African
continent. Homo erectus the first found fossil in Asia was in the Longgupo Cave in Chine (1.9 m yrs ago).
Another evidence excavated in Trinil, Java, Indonesia by Eugene Dubois known as Java Man (1.8 m yrs old).
Another skull was excavated in a cave of Zhoukoudian, China known as Peking Man (1.1 - 1 m yrs ago)

Homo sapiens (thinking man), it include the homo sapien of African, the Homo heidelbergensis. Homo
neanderthalensis, and Homo sapiens sapiens.
Homo sapiens Characteristics
 Large brain size 1400 cubic cm
 Lived in shelters
 Food gatherers
 Ate fruits and plants\
 Crafted metals (smoothened tools)
They were the first to develop and use oral languange because they have more developed brains and speech
organs.

Sociocultural and Political Evolution

 What is the development of societies from hunting and gathering to the agricultural, industrial and post-
industrial societies?
 CULTURAL REVOLUTION
This formation consists of major levels of sociocultural and political developments namely, hunting and
gathering, horticultural and pastoral, agricultural, industrial and pot-industrial socities.
1. Hunting and Gathering (3,000,000 m yrs)
Oldest and the most basic way of economic subsistence. In this society, men are tasked to hunt large
animal available in their area while the women are tasked to gather or collect the vegetation, berries, and small
edible crops. This set-up describe the relationship between men and women as being equal. Since in this
socities rely on nature for food, they frequently move and do not have permanent settlements, hence they are
nomadic socities.

2. Horticultural and Pastoral

Horticultural developed around 10,000 yrs ago and they ascribed as semisedentary socities because they
do not frequently move as opposed to hunting and gathering societies. Tthese socities subsist through small
scale farming. Some members engage in making crafts and trading.
Pastoral societies developed around 10,000 yrs ago. The principal means of pastoralists is animal
domestication. They developed in dry regions where raising crops are impossible. They are engaged in small-
scale trading with other groups. They described as semisedentary as well because they have settlements but
they do not stay in one place permanently. These two socities had an unequal social relation because of some
members acts as ruling elite.

3. Agricultural
Began 5,000 yrs ago during neolithic period. During this time, human began to farm and domesticate
animals as their form of subsistence. The Agricultural revolution that started in west Asia (Middle East) where
there are sbundant supply of resources produced through plant cultivation led to the rise of early civilizations.
During the Neolithic revolution, the agricultural societies develop and their population increased into millions.
They also settled permanently and improved the technology for farming. Through agricultural revolution,
members of society produced surplus of food supply that were transported by animal powered wagon, as
society develops its members have developed specialization, money became a form of exchange replacing the
barter system. This also led to social inequality because most people in society acted as serfs and slaves while
few members beca,e as elites and acted as land owners.

4. Industrial
Late Eighteenth Century and the first half of nineteenth. During industrila revolution, new sources of
energy were harnessed, advanced forms of technology were applied and machineries were invented. These
changes led to transformation of agricultural into a production and manufacturing based one.This was made
possible by the use of advanced sources of energy that operated factory machineries. Industrialization
produced a number of changes in society. It created a centralized workplace, economic interdependence,
formal education and complex social systems. This time , people left their farm lands and transferred ro urban
areas to work in factories.

5. Post-industrial
With the development of technology and computers, many societies transfomerd into post-industrial
socities. Post indutrial revolution is an important development form the Indutrial revolution as economic
production focused on the use and application of new information technology rather than factories. It is
characterized:
 Transfer of labor workforce from manufacturing to service
 Significant increase in the number of professional and technical employment and decline in the number of
skilled and semi skilled workers.
 Education as the basis of social mobility.
 Human capital as an essential aspect of understanding the strength of society.
 Application of intellectual technology based on applications of mathematics and linguistics
 Focusing on communication infrastucture.
 Knowledge as source of invention and innovation.

 What is the political evolution and the development of early civilization?

 POLITICAL EVOLUTION
The four major civilizations in the world flourished along the rich river plains or river vallyes these
included the Sumerian civilization that developed along the Tigris and Euphrates River in West Asia; the Indus
Valley civilization that started along the Indus River Valley in India; the Shang civilization of China that
developed near the Huang Ho River; and the Egyptian civilization that started along the Nile river.
Important characteristics of civilizations:
 Developed and highly advanced cities
 Well-defined city-centers
 Complex and systematic institutions
 Organized and centralized system of government
 Formalized and complex form of religion
 Job specialization
 Development of social classes
 Implementation of public works and infrastructure
 Sophisticated and detailed form of arts and architechture
 Advanced technology
 System of writing and recording

 PRINCIPLE OF NATURAL SELECTION

 Variation
 Inheritability
 Different Reproductive Success

 TAKES OF POLITICAL LEADERS IN EARLY CIVILIZATION

 Crafty Laws
 Implement Laws
 Impose justice and punishment
 Collect taxes
 Act as religious leaders

Enculturation and Socialization?

 What is enculturation and socialization and their relationship with each other?

 Enculturation is also the process by which people learn the requirements of their surrounding
culture and acquire the values and the behaviours appropriate or necessary in that culture.
While the socialization means to a lifelong “ womb to tomb “ journey of social experience by
which people develop their human potential and learn culture. It is culturally specific: people
in different cultures are socialized differently to hold different beliefs and values and to
behave in different ways. Their relation to each other in academic fields, socialization refers
to deliberate shaping individuals, in others, the word may caover both deliberate and
informal enculturation.

 What is the three goals of socialization?

 THREE GOALS OF SOCIALIZATION

 First, socialization tecahes the impulse control and helps individuals develop a conscience.
 Second, socialization teaches individuals how to prepare for and perform certain social roles -
occupational roles, gender roles, and the roles of institutions such as marriage and parenthood.
 Third, socialization cultivates shared sources of meaning and value.

 What is identities and identify formation?

 IDENTITIES AND IDENTITY FORMATION

 Identity formation is the development of an individual’s distinct personality, which is regarded as a
persisting entity in a particular stage of life by which a person is recognized or known. The process defines
individuals to others and themselves. Individuals gain social identity and group identity by social affiliations.
Self-concept is the sum of being’s knowledge and understanding of his or herself. It is different from self-
conciousness, which is an awareness of one’s self. Self-concept include physical, psychological, and social
attributes which can be influenced by the individual’s attitudes, habits, beliefs, and ideas.

 What is norms and values?

 NORM
Norm is a rule that guides the behavior of members of a society or a group. Normal refers to that which
conform norms, so while norms are the rules that guides our behavior. Normative refers to what we perceive is
normal or what we think/ we believesd is normal. It also refers to beliefs that are expressed as directives or
value judgments. Rules tells us what we should do or shouldn’t do.

 VALUES
Values are culturally defined standards that people use to decide what is desirable, good, and beautiful,
and that serve as broad guidelines for social living. The four sociological aspect of concept values are:
1. Values exist at different levels of generality or abstraction
2. Values tend to be hierarchically arranged
3. Values are explicit and implicit in varying degrees; and
4. Values often are in conflict with one another.

 What is status and roles?

 STATUS
Status is a part of our social identity and helps define our relationship with others. It refers to a social
position that a person holds. A person’s status can be either be ascribed or achieved, given or accomplished,
respectively.

 ROLES
Refers to the behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status. Therefore, a person holds a
status and performs a role. Role strain - conflict results from competing demands of two or more roles that vie
for our time and energy. The concept of role is crucial. It is not fixed or prescribed or ascribed, but something
that is constantly negotiated between individuals in tentative, creative way.

 What is impression management and identify formation?